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新编MPA英语阅读教程Unit 1Defining Public AdministrationText APublic Administration1. The occupational sector, enterprises, and activities having to do with the formulation and implementation of policy of governmental and other public programs and the management of organizations and activities involved.2. The academic field concerned with the study of, improvement of, and training for the activities mentioned in 1.Public administration refers to two distinguishable but closely related activities: (1) a professional practice (vocation, occupation, field of activity), and (2) an academic field as well as to train individuals for that practice. The simple meaning of the term is quite direct: it refers on the one hand to the administration or management of matters which have principally to do with thesociety, polity, and its subparts which are not essentially private, familial, commercial, or individualistic, and on the other hand to the disciplined study of such matters. In this simplest meaning, public administration has to do with managing the realm of governmental and other public activities. This simple definition conveys the essence of public administration and probably covers the vast majority of activities and concerns of contemporary public administration.Such a simple view, though, needs modification to account for at least two important considerations: First, it must be recognized that professional management of the public’s affairs involves not only management in the narrowest sense (keeping the books, handling personnel decisions, implementing decisions which have been made elsewhere in the politico-socio-economic systems, etc.), but also significantly involves the planning, formulating, modifying, and urging of goals and purposes of much of public affairs. Second, it must be recognized that some matters of public administration are handled in ways which are not purely private but also are not precisely government.The first consideration—that public administration is involved in the substance of policy as well as the implementation of policy decisions—is frequently alluded to with terms such as the demise ofthe politics-administration dichotomy, the impossibility of value-free public administration, and the need for proactivity by public administrators. These terms reflect the widespread, though not universal, belief or allegation that it is no longer, if ever it was, defensible to interpret public administration as solely involved in technically objective solutions or in the neutral implementation of decisions made by nonadministrative parts of the political system (e.g., partisan leadership; electoral processes; party processes; partisan bargaining; and parliamentary, legislative, and judicial institutions). This belief and related understandings have led to significant public administration attention to policy and policy process. Some have felt a need for a rubric which emphasizes such a policy focus and which might also encompass or indicate receptivity to areas of studies which are closely related (e.g., planning, urban affairs, economic analysis, public policy analysis), and terms such as public affairs are sometimes used for this purpose. In general, though, public administration still functions as the umbrella term throughout the world, though it must be realized that the term implies a broader range of concerns and activities than the narrow meaning of management or administration may convey.The second consideration—that not all public administrationoccurs in and through governmental organizations—also has led to a broadening of the meaning of public administration. At various times in the past of public administration it has seemed that its essence and activities could be identified by referring to nonmarket approaches to social purposes, but this perspective has been mitigated by the recognition that public programs and benefits could be developed through and provided with some market characteristics. Thus there have been developments such as governmental or quasi-governmental activities which compete with private sector activities or provide benefits through use of a price mechanism; sometimes water, utilities, sewers, health care, education, and other benefits are provided in this way. There are also devices such as public corporations, quasi-public corporations, public-private cooperative enterprises, and government contractual arrangements with nongovernmental organizations to provide certain benefits or perform certain functions. Indeed, even for large parts of the world where the private-public distinction has not been as prevalent or obvious as other places (for example, where the economy is essentially directed or nonmarket), the movement toward market or marketlike mechanisms for the provision of public goods is increasingly a matter of rhetoric, planning, or action.When these considerations are taken into account, publicadministration is probably best defined as the practice and study of the professional formulation and influence of public policy and the implementation of such policy on a regular and organized basis on behalf of the public interest of a society its civic subparts, and its citizenry.Development of the FieldIt is usual to date the contemporary social scientific awareness of bureaucracy (a term which can include both pri vate, or “business” administration and public administration) with the work of the German social scientist Max Weber (1864-1920). Such dating, though, is more a matter of convenience or recognition of important scholarly influence than of historical accuracy.In the United States, it is usual to credit the reformism of the Populist and Progressive era of politics (about 1880-1920) and especially Woodrow Wilson’s academic article “The Study of Administration” (in the Political Science Quarterly in 1887) for the systematic and self-conscious development of the field of public administration. It is usual also to identify the early years of U.S. public administration with scientific management, a school of thought largely attributed to Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) which emphasized a task analysis and efficiency approach to management; and with the subsequent human relations movement,which emphasized the human and social aspects of work environments and motivations somewhat in contradistinction to the scientific management movement. Both of these latter movements had their origins in industrial and business management, but were very influential on public administration in the United States and around the world. The period of U.S. history between the Great Depression and the World War II (about 1929-1945) is commonly held to represent U.S. public administration in a self-confident —though some also say naive—phase; this period is frequently referred to in the United States and elsewhere as the period of classical public administration or orthodox public administration. The dynamics of the Cold War competition between the United States and Western allies and the USSR and its allies, and the manifestation of this competition in various forms of technical assistance, aid in economic development, and administrative assistance had an impact upon public administration. In the 1960s and 1970s, much of the world of science and technology came under attack. In the United States, these decades and their challenges have come to be interpreted against the backdrop of the civil rights movement (and related movements such as feminism), Vietnam War activism, the “new left,”anti-institutionalism, and particular manifestations of youth rebellion. Other parts of the worldalso experienced similar movements, frequently exacerbated by issues of neocolonialism, nationalism, anti-institutionalism, environmentalism, anti-technologism, and general critiques of scientific and technological perspectives and, indeed, the entirety of “modernity.” All of these matters had effects upon politics, the social sciences, and public administration. In United States and elsewhere, many of these developments were accompanied by significant critiques of public administration. One manifestation of this was a dialogue about the need for fundamental rethinking in public administration (and for some, the need for a “new public administration”). In the last couple of decades, this had been augmented by tremendous technological developments (e.g., in computer applications and in communications developments) on the one hand, and ever more sophisticated philosophical and methodological interpretations asserting that we are transcending “modernity” in ways which call much of our question on the other hand. At the present time, public administration worldwide is in creative tension and undergoing rapid change and attempts at reconceptualization. What the effects of all this will be over time, or what the next developmental stage will be, is unclear but generally appears to have an energizing effect upon the field.Configuration of the FieldPublic administration is sometimes treated as though it is one of the social sciences, a discipline in some sense. As the number of programs offering doctoral degrees in the field has increased, this interpretation has gained strength.In the United States, it is relatively unusual for public administration to be a free-standing degree program at the baccalaureate level (though there are some well-established and prestigious programs of this sort—especially in schools of public affairs, schools of management, or schools of public administration —and this approach may be on the increase). The more traditional and still usual pattern is for baccalaureate education in public administration to be a major or minor specialization within a political science degree program. Master-level degrees are increasingly emphasized as desirable or expected credentials for full commitment to professional careers in many fields (e.g., not only in business administration and public administration, but also in fields such as social work, nursing, and education where the appropriate degree for professional entry was once the baccalaureate), and the master’s degree—usually, but not always, the master of public administration (MPA)—is becoming the recognized degree for those who aspire to careers in public administration. It should be remembered, though, that public organizations and activities covervirtually the whole spectrum of contemporary specialities and that the educational background and specialties of public administrators therefore reflect this diversity.As modern and contemporary public administration evolved, it tended to develop a more or less regular set of subfields, approaches, and topical interests. These generally have to do either with the functional and technical specializations of public administration, with specific methods and approaches, or with the phenomena of specific locales and issue areas of public administration.Thus, public administration has some subfields which deal with concerns which, in one form or another have been part of the field since is earliest days. Budget and finance (how to provide, handle, and account for material resources), personnel (the policies and management of human resources), planning, operations management, organizational design and management, communications and communication systems, record-keeping, accounting of various kinds, reporting of various kinds and for a variety of purposes and clientele, internal and external public relations, and a host of similar concerns constitute some of the technical and functional foci of the field. In additional, there are various concerns dealing with the environment and context ofadministration: the constitutional and legal context; the context of the political, economic, and societal structure, requirements, and processes; the values, history, traditions, and habits of the society and its components; the values, history, requirements, and processes of the organizations, programs, and components of specific relevance at any given time; and many other such factors (as well as their interrelationships).There are also specializations and foci having to do with the specific form and level at which administration occurs: international administration; national administration; federal/confederal administration; state/province administration; district/department /sector administration; city, county, and local administration; inter-governmental and inter-organizational administration; ”not for profit” administration; and so forth. Issue areas present other topics and specializations: police, fire, schools, military, medical, environmental, technology and technology transfer, science and scientific applications, government-business-industry cooperation, and a host of other specific concerns spawn specializations of knowledge, application, training, an experience.When one realizes that all these (and many more) can be viewed as components of a huge matrix where any one (or more) can be related to any other one (one more), the complexity andvariety of the field of public administration is suggested.Unit 2The Practice of PublicAdministrationText AThe Rise of the American Administrative StateToday, there are perhaps 15 million civilian public employees in the United States. The growth of this number in the twentieth century and the development of large administrative components in governments at all levels are generally referred to as the “rise of the administrative state”. The term administrative state is intended to convey several realities of contemporary government: that a great deal of the society’s resources are spent on the salaries and functions of public administrators; that public administrators are crucial to the operation of contemporary government; that, as a whole, they are politically powerful; and that the nation has decided upon a course of attempting to solve its problems and achieve its aims through the use of administrative action. The growth of administrative power is a worldwide phenomenon that affects the nature of governments in virtually all nations.The Political Roots of the American administrative State The constitutional government of the United States came intoexistence in 1789 with some clearly stated formal goals. These are found in the Preamble to the Constitution, which reads: WE THE PEOPLE of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America.In this passage it can be found some of the classic purposes of almost all contemporary nations: the desire to provide for the defense of the political community, for law and order, and for the general welfare. The latter may seem too vague to convey anything of a specific nature, but generally it includes a commitment to economic development and to the provision of services by the government for the purpose of advancing the common good. The idea that the state should provide such services did not develop in Western Europe until the 1660s, but now it is perhaps the most prominent feature of the administrative state.The decisions to pursue these purposes in the first place are political. So is the choice of a means for achieving them. Several alternatives to government sponsorship of such services do exist. Government could rely heavily upon private resources and incentives to serve their purpose. For example, private armies ofmercenaries were once a common means of waging war or promoting national defense. Education was once a private or church-related endeavor. Taking care of individuals’health and welfare needs was once left up to families and churches. Private action has frequently been augmented by the provision of governmental financial assistance to those individuals whose actions promote general national goals. For instance, at one time mentally retarded persons were “sold”to private individuals who would care for them at the least cost to the government, which was willing to pay for this service as part of its commitment to the common interest. Farm subsidies pay private farmers to use the nation’s agricultural resources in the national interest. Today, some economists, such as Milton Friedman, argue that education should be supplied by private organizations through a scheme in which the parents of school children would receive tuition vouchers from the government. These could be used at any school the parents felt best suited their children’s educational needs. Such an approach, it is argued, would create a greater incentive and would also maximize the freedom of parents to choose among competing educational services. Similarly, various incentives can be built into the government’s system of taxation to promote individual behavior deemed in the common interest.It is often feasible for the government to promote its objectives through reliance on private action and the manipulation of subsides and incentives. But this is not always government’s preferred choice of means. Sometimes—indeed, with increasing frequency in the twentieth century—governments seek to achieve their goals through direct public action. For instance, in the housing example, governments seek to assure that everyone is adequately housed by building and running public housing projects. Instead of paying private individuals to take care of the mentally retarded, governments build and operate mental health facilities for this purpose. Similarly, education, defense, and a host of other operations are undertaken by government.The essence of the administrative state and the need for large- scale public administration lie in the policy of governments to undertake organizational action themselves to achieve their ultimate political goals. It is commonly believed that American founding fathers never anticipated that governments in the United States would become engaged in a great deal of administrative action. However, it is also clear that the Constitution itself indicates the preference for public action in some areas. For instance, it authorizes the federal government to establish post offices and post roads and to raise and direct and army and navy. Even a briefreview of the development of large-scale public administration in the United States during the past two centuries indicates the extent to which such direct administrative action has become increasingly commonplace.In a thoughtful and succinct analysis, James Q. Wilson has identified several primary roots of the development of the contemporary American administrative state. One was to provide a reliable postal service. The U.S. Post Office was not viewed as an end itself, but rather as a means of promoting economic development and national cohesion.A second source of administrative growth has been the desire to promote economic development and social well-being through governmental action recognizing the needs of various sectors of the economy. For example, the Department of Agriculture was created in 1862 and the Departments of Commerce and Labor came into existence in 1913. More recently, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (now Health and Human Services) and the Department of Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, and Education have been created to provide governmental goals in these economic and social areas of American life. Departments such as Agriculture, Labor, and Commerce are often called clientele departments because they deal largely with arelatively well-defined category of people who are generally assumed to have common economic interest.Another source of administrative growth has been defense. The Department of War and Navy were created in the eighteenth century, but the military establishment did not emerge as the federal government’s largest administrative operation until after World War II. Since that time, the Department of Defense has employed as many as third of all civilian federal workers. Interestingly, this means that about half of all federal employees are employed in two agencies—Defense and Post Office.In sum, the political roots of development of contemporary public administration in the United States lie primarily in two political choices made by the government and society. One was that government would exist to promote such objectives as the common defense, economic development, and the general welfare. This was a choice first made back in the late 1780s and reinforced subsequently on many occasions. Second has been the more recent choice of placing heavy reliance upon direct provision of services and functions by the government as opposed to reliance solely upon the manipulation of subsidies for private action. In addition to these factors, the Constitution expresses a desire to promote domestic tranquility, which brings us to what can be considered the legalroots of the contemporary administrative state.Unit 3Decision Making in PublicAdministrationText AIn Praise of TheoryNothing is quite so practical as a good theory. Theory in the social sciences, especially economic theory, is frequently attacked by practitioners because its function is so often misunderstood. Others, especially those outside of the discipline of economics, wrongly believe that there is an oversupply of competing theories and paradigms in economics. Economists suffer the butt of jokes such as, “if you lay all of the economists in the world end to end you will never reach a conclusion.”the amount of disagreement amongst research economists, as compared to political economy commentators and scribblers, is much less than it is often supposed. Indeed, that economists do not agree on policy prescriptions is a reflection of the complexity and uncertainty of the world in which we live and for which policy has to be designed. Policy rules are contingent upon a reality which unfolds with uncertainty. Other disciplines, even the hard sciences, have their controversies: what is the origin of the universe; what is the cause of cancer? Recently,forensic evidence provided to a court of law has been found wanting.Do public policies promote the general welfare of citizens? Will policy x have an impact upon the welfare of a specific group of citizens? To answer these questions, and more, practitioners frequently adopt a set of policy indicators (for example, educational attainment; morality; economic indicators). But how robust are these indicators; what are the causal relations between these statistics and individual well-being (welfare)? What implicit social values do these indicators reflect? What is the set of causal links between public policies and individuals’welfare? These questions are often regarded as troublesome by politicians and some career policy advisers whose interests lie in providing a quick fix to social problems. It is the role of theory to challenge and to question the adequacy of existing practice and to improve the quality of the arguments in the policy debate. Far form being impractical, theory is extremely practical and an appreciation of how to use theory in formulating policy argument will lead to improved practice.Economic theory’s contribution to policy analysis and design is to promote an understanding of events and phenomena within the domain of public policy. Understanding and explanation of events is not, however, synonymous with prediction. Even when phenomena(consider, for example, earthquakes) are understood it is not always possible to predict when the phenomenon will next occur. Recently, chaos theory has taught that in complex systems small perturbations can build up to large events. Whilst an understanding of the processes and dynamics of a system is of importance for purpose of control and manipulation, it does not follow that the precise timing of events can be predicted. Instead, statements of future events must be made in probabilistic terms, i.e. if conditions X and Y prevail then there is a probability that Z will occur. An assessment of the probabilities informs managers and decision- makers. Thus, forecasts of economic and social events must not be regarded as having probabilities of unity assigned to them (i.e. complete certainty), instead the forecaster needs to inform the decision-makers of the probability (confidence) of the forecast being correct. The further a socioeconomic events lies into the future, the lower is the probability that its forecast be accurate.A useful theory must encompass the event which is to be explained: the event(s) should not contradict the theory. Furthermore, useful theories are those which are communicable to others. If an event can be incorporated into a theory then it means that the event (phenomenon) is understood. If it cannot be so incorporated then the event is not understood and the theory is notas general as might have been supposed. Policy interventions require an understanding of the events which lie in the policy domain: they require an understanding of the causal processes which gave rise to the event. Such understanding can only be the result of systematic research within a wider conceptual framework. This reduces the chances of futile and misdirected interventions which often result in catastrophic outcomes. There is nothing quite so practical as a good theory. Sound theory is a line of first defence against madmen and cranks. Policy managers need policy analysts and policy analysts need sound theory.Theories start from axioms, i.e. generally agreed upon basic statements of the real world. A theorist seeks to find out of those propositions which are presented as policy statements are deducible from a set of these elementary axioms. Put another way—what does the world actually have to look like for the propositions to be true? It is at this point that the assumptions upon which a theory is predicted to come in. Different assumptions in conjunction with the basic axioms produce different propositions.The basic axioms used by the economists are that decision-makers are rational and that individuals are the best judge of their own welfare. This means nothing other than that either preference orderings are well defined, or that individuals havereasons for the choices that they make. Rationality also means that the choices which are made by individuals are logically consistent. Typical assumptions relate to whether or not the decision-makers is fully informed when making choices; whether decisions are made in a total system or a partial system at a single moment in time or inter-temporally; whether or not the future is know with certainty; and the extent to which market structures are perfectly competitive or monopolistic. To assume, as the public theorists do, that politicians and bureaucrats have preferences is an axiom. Making statements about the objective function of politicians and bureaucrats, i.e. that they are vote maximizers or budget maximizers, is to make assumptions. Different assumptions will generate different propositions (hypotheses) which might, if they are in a suitable form and if data are available, be tested (with a view to refutation) empirically. A theory provides a coherent framework within which the implications of different assumptions can be analyzed.The aim of theory is not to describe reality. It is to understand that reality. Be necessity, abstraction from reality is required for understanding. Thus, the charge, often made by practitioners, that a theory is unreal is a weak criticism. Simon, Lindblom and Wildavsky have frequently taken economists to task for the strong。
新编英语教程(第三版)拓展阅读. 第3册New Expanded English Course (Third Edition) Supplementary Reading, Volume 3The world of language learning is constantly evolving, and the latest edition of the New Expanded English Course (Third Edition) has proven to be a game-changer in the field of English education. This comprehensive textbook series, designed for learners of all levels, offers a fresh and innovative approach to mastering the English language.One of the standout features of this third volume is its focus on supplementary reading materials. Recognizing the importance of extensive reading in language acquisition, the authors have carefully curated a diverse collection of texts that not only enhance vocabulary and grammar skills but also provide insights into the rich cultural tapestry of the English-speaking world.The first section of the book delves into the realm of literature, presenting a selection of short stories that showcase the versatility and creativity of English writers. From the whimsical tales of O. Henry to the poignant narratives of Maya Angelou, these stories captivatethe reader with their vivid characters, compelling plots, and thought-provoking themes. By engaging with these literary masterpieces, students not only improve their reading comprehension but also develop a deeper appreciation for the nuances of the English language.Complementing the literary section, the textbook also features a series of informative and engaging non-fiction articles. These pieces cover a wide range of topics, from the cutting-edge advancements in science and technology to the intriguing histories and traditions of different cultures. Whether exploring the marvels of the human genome or delving into the origins of ancient civilizations, these articles challenge students to expand their knowledge and broaden their perspectives.One of the standout aspects of the non-fiction section is its focus on contemporary issues. Addressing topics such as climate change, global health, and social justice, these articles encourage students to think critically about the pressing concerns of our time and to develop their own informed opinions on these matters. By grappling with these complex and often controversial subjects, learners not only enhance their English proficiency but also cultivate a greater sense of global citizenship.Interspersed throughout the textbook are a variety of language-learning activities and exercises designed to reinforce the concepts introduced in the reading materials. These activities range from vocabulary-building exercises to grammar-focused tasks, ensuring that students have ample opportunities to apply their newfound knowledge and skills.Moreover, the textbook incorporates a strong emphasis on developing academic writing skills. Through a series of guided writing prompts and feedback mechanisms, students are encouraged to hone their ability to craft well-structured and coherent essays, research papers, and other forms of academic discourse. This focus on academic writing not only prepares learners for success in their educational pursuits but also equips them with the necessary skills for professional communication in the global marketplace.Beyond the printed pages, the New Expanded English Course (Third Edition) also offers a wealth of digital resources to support and enhance the learning experience. Interactive multimedia components, such as audio recordings, video clips, and online quizzes, provide students with additional opportunities to engage with the material and practice their language skills in a dynamic and engaging manner.In conclusion, the New Expanded English Course (Third Edition) is a comprehensive and innovative textbook series that sets a new standard in English language education. By seamlessly blendingliterary and non-fiction texts with targeted language-learning activities, the authors have created a resource that not only strengthens students' linguistic abilities but also cultivates their critical thinking, cultural awareness, and global perspectives. As learners embark on this enriching journey through the pages of this textbook, they will undoubtedly emerge as more confident and well-rounded users of the English language.。
新编英语教程第三版第3章简介新编英语教程是一套广泛应用于大学英语教育的教材，旨在提供全面的英语学习和教学资源。
本文档是新编英语教程第三版的第三章内容的概述和总结。
第三章：语法基础第三章是新编英语教程第三版中的语法基础部分。
在这一章中，学生将学习一些基本的语法概念和结构，以及如何正确使用它们来构建和理解英语句子。
1. 词类分类首先，本章会介绍英语中常见的词类分类，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等。
学生将学习如何辨别不同词类，并理解它们在句子中的作用。
2. 句子成分接下来，本章将讨论句子的基本成分。
学生将学习主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等不同的成分，以及它们在句子中的位置和功能。
3. 句子结构本章还将介绍英语句子的结构和语序。
学生将学习有关主谓结构、主谓宾结构和复合句结构的知识，以及如何正确构造和分析这些句子。
4. 动词时态和语态在本章的最后部分，学生将学习动词的时态和语态。
学生将了解英语中一系列不同的时态和语态，以及如何根据上下文的需要正确使用它们。
学习目标通过学习新编英语教程第三版第三章，学生将能够： - 辨别并理解不同的词类，并能正确使用它们。
- 理解句子的基本成分和结构，并能够正确构造和分析句子。
- 掌握动词时态和语态的基本知识，并能够在适当的情况下正确使用它们。
学习资源为了帮助学生更好地理解和掌握本章内容，新编英语教程第三版提供了以下学习资源： - 课本中的课文和练习题，用于巩固和应用所学知识。
- 附带的语法参考书，提供更详细的语法解释和例句。
- 在线学习平台，提供额外的练习题和学习资源。
总结第三章是新编英语教程第三版的语法基础部分，涵盖了词类分类、句子成分、句子结构以及动词时态和语态等内容。
通过学习本章，学生将提高他们的语法意识和语法运用能力，为后续学习做好准备。
请注意：本文档仅作为对新编英语教程第三版第三章内容的概述，具体的课程安排和学习要求应以教材和教师的要求为准。
Unit 4Language StructureMain Teaching Points:1.Modal auxiliaries may/might used to express “possibility”eg. It may/might be fine tomorrow.2.Modal auxiliaries should/ ought to expressing “obligation”eg. He should/ought to get up early and take some exercise every day. 3.Modal auxiliaries would rather expressing “preference”eg. I would rather do some reading.4.Modal auxiliaries must and can’t used to express “strong probability”and “impossibility” respectivelyeg. He must be in the gym. // He can’t be there.Useful Expressionsgo-mountain climbing be in good healthtake notice of be weak in / be poor insuffer from sth. live transmission of sports eventsDialogue A Trip to ChinaA. Listening to the recordingB. Questions on specific detailsC. Broad questions:1. Describe the changes in China’s rural areas, particularly in the coastal areas.2. What are the ways in which Chinese farmers get up-to-dateinformation?3. Why college education important for modern farmers?4. Do you believe in “You get what you put in”?D. Language Points1. Fancy meeting you here.=It’s a surprise to meet you here.2. world-renowned/ world-famous世界闻名的eg. 1) Shanghai is a world-renowned cosmopolitan metropolis.上海是国际知名的大都会。
