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Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学一、定义1. semantics语义学:Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning意义研究的不同观点5.2.1 The naming theory命名论(by希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论:Words are just names or labels for things.词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory局限性:1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only.这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object:eg. jump, quickly, pretty, and, in,hearted, think, hard, slowly…)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world:ghost, gragon, unicorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse.有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse刺激，这样的抽象概念。
英语语⾔学概论Chapter7Semantics（语义学）7.1 Introduction7.1.1 What is semantics?Semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.7.1.2 Sub-branches of semantics. John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics, Wen Qiufang makes a distinction between l exical semantics and sentence semantics the latter of which is also termed sentential semantics by some people.7.2 meaning7.2.1 Uncertainty of meaningThe words mean and meaning can be used in many different contexts and for different purposes in daily communication.Even as a technical term, meaning is defined and used differently according to different theoretical approaches.7.2.2 theories of meaningJohn Lyons1.The referential (or denotational theory) 指称说2.the ideational, or mentalistic theory 意念说.3.the behaviourist theory ⾏为反应说4.the meaning-is-use theory ⽤法说5.the verificationist theory验证说6.the truth-conditional theory.真值说Li Fuyuan Semantic triangular 语义三⾓理论7.2.3 Basic concept related to meaningReference所指is the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers. Denotation指称is a term which is intrinsically connected with referenceReferent is the object or state of affairs in extra-linguistic reality or a linguistic element to which the speaker or writer is referring by using a linguistic sign. LimitationsSense意义the characteristic or quality of the object denoted by the linguistic expression. Denotes the relationship inside language. Extension and intensionExtension is the class of entities to which a linguistic expression is correctly applied Intension is the set of defining properties which determines the applicability of a linguistic expression.Concept is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in human mind.7.2.4 Types of meaningDenotation and connotation 外延意义和内涵意义The denotative meaning of a linguistic form is the person,object, abstract notion, event, or Mate which the word or sentence denotes. We can say that the denotation of a linguistic expression is its dictionary meaning.The main application of the term connotation is with reference to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of a linguistic unit, especially a lexical item.Positive neutral negative (Wen Qiufang)7.3Lexical semantics is concerned with the meaning of lexical items.7.3.1 componential analysis成分分析The way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components is known as componential analysis. We can analyze a word as a set of semantic features or semantic components with the values: plus ( + ) or minus ( -)7.3.27.3.2 Semantic field 语义场Words do not exist in isolation. They are always related to each other in one another and form different semantic fields. Semantic field theory is a theory of the German structuralist school：the vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. (Crystal. 1985, 274).7.3.3 Lexical relationsSaeed 8 lexical relations⼀Form relation 形式关系Homonymy同⾳（同形）异义关系two or more lexical items are synonyms when they have the same meaningsAbsolute homoyms 同⾳同形异义词Homopones 同⾳异义词Homographs 同形异义词⼆Sense relations 语义关系1.Polysemy⼀词多义关系 a lexical item has a range of different meanings2.Synonymy同义关系two or more lexical items have the same meanings3.Antonymy反义关系two words are opposite in meaningcomplementary antonymy 互补反义关系Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系Relational opposite 关系对⽴反义词4.Hyponymy下义关系Hyponym 下义词Hyperonym 上义词三object relations 实体关系1.Meronymy 组成部分与整体关系2.Member-collection 成员与集体关系3.Portion-mass 部分与整体关系Lexical ambiguity is caused by ambiguous words rather than by ambiguous structures and is usually created by polysemy or homonymy.7.4 sentential semanticsSix essential factors for determining sentence meaningi) the meanings of individual words which make up a sentence;ii) grammaticality of a sentence;iii) the linear ordering of the linguistic forms in a sentence;iv) the phonological features like stress and intonation;v) the hierarchical order of a sentence;vi) the semantic roles of the nouns in relation to the verb in a sentence.Nine semantic rolesAgent （施事格）Patient （⽬标格）Experiencer （经验者）Instrument （⼯具格）Cause （动因格）Attribute （属性）Recipient （接受者）Locative （⽅位格）Temporal （时间格）SynonymousEntailContradictPresuppose presupposition trigger TautologyContradictionSemantically anomalous 异常的反常的Predicate谓语argument论元proposition命题。
chapter5semantics语言学语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子意义的研究。
1.“意义”的意义G.Leech提出7种意义：概念意义，内涵意义，社会意义，感情意义，反射意义，搭配意义，主题意义。
G.Leech的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和指称。
涵义和指称的区别类似内涵与外延：前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者指拥有这些属性的具体实体。
每个单词都有涵义，即概念意义，否则他们无法使用或理解，但并非每个单词都有指称。
2.指称论（命名论）：该理论把词语意义与词所指或词所代表的事物联系起来。
该理论对于解释专有名词或在现实中有所指的名词时很有效。
但其无法指称抽象概念。
有时同一东西会有不同词语的表达。
3.概念论。
代表是语义三角说。
该理论认为，词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，而是以抽象的概念为中介。
4，语境论认为应该在具体语境中研究词的意义. 语境包括情景语境和上下文两种。
5.行为主义理论认为词的意义是说话者说话得情景及听话人的反应6.意义关系词语词之间的主要意义关系：相同关系，相反关系，包含关系a.同义关系。
完全同义关系很少，所谓的同一都依赖语境，并总在某方面不同。
（方言，内涵，文体等）b.反义关系主要包括：等级反义关系，互补反义关系，关系反义关系。
1）等级反义的特点：第一，否定一方并不必然是肯定另一方，还有中间状态；第二，没有绝对评判标准，标准随对象而改变。
第三，通常用其中表示较高程度的词来覆盖整个量级。
覆盖性词被称为“无标记的”，即一般性的；被覆盖词被称为“有标记的”，即特殊的。
一般使用覆盖性词语。
一旦使用被覆盖词语，表示有某种特殊的、不一般的情况。
第四，可用very修饰，可有比较级最高级2）互补反义关系，第一，肯定一方意味着否定另一方。
反之亦然。
第二，不用very修饰，没有比较级最高级。
第三，评判标准绝对。
没有覆盖性词语3）关系（反向）反义关系，表现两个实体间的一种反向关系，不构成肯否定对立。
一个预设着另一个的存在。
Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics: it is generally defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic meaning, the meaning in isolation from the context.The naming theory:命名论it is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning proposed by Plato, which holds the view that the relationship between linguistic forms and what they stand for is one of naming. Its defaults: firstly, the theory seems applicable to nouns only. Secondly, even within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all or things that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions. Finally, some words may have different meanings in different contexts while the same reference may have different names such as “the morning star” and “the evening star”The conceptualist theory: 意念论C. K .Ogden Richard created the semantic triangle to show the indirect relationship between symbols and their supposed referents.Symbol: it refers to the linguistic elements such as word or sentence.Referent: it refers to the object in the world of experience.Context: it refers to what comes before and after a word, phrase, statement, etc. helping to fix the meaning; or refers to circumstances in which an event occurs. Contextualism :情境论、语境论John FirthSituational context: it refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events exists in the situation.The linguistic context: sometimes known as context, it includes a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of a word, and, also the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance. For example, the meaning of the word “paper” differs in the two collocations of “a piece of paper” and“a white paper”。
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学、定义1. semantics 语义学：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning 意义研究的不同观点521 The naming theory命名论(by 希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论：Words are just names or labels for thin gs词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory 局限性：1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object：eg. jump, quickly, pretty, an d, i n,hearted, thi nk, hard, slowly …)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world： ghost,grago n, un icorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse 刺激，这样的抽象概念。
