欧洲文化概括

一、The main features of the ancient Greek culture:In religion, they did not have mind-controlling institutions, and this clearly encouraged open speculation and the communication of ideas free from censorship. Open discussion was encouraged. Self-regulation, harmony and balance were ideals that the Athenians particularly strove for. Self-regulation was shown in their democracy; balance is seen in their education, in their drama and in their art.The Greeks were always conscious of the gods.And the Greeks felt that perfection should have balance;excellence within normality was what was prized. Extremism was stunned. Normality included all the unconscious Dionysian and sexual forces and ambitious drives of humankind. And the same time, their rationalism was one of their great gift to posterity. And the Greeks certainly pioneered freedom.二、Differences between Sparta and Athens:Sparta put the military state first and required military training for all males,while Athens emphasized on freedom and equality.Sparta is totalitarian and communistic constitution. Athens passed through aristocracy,oilgarchy, and tyranny to democracy.No Spartan engaged in trade, and all arts forbidden.Athenian were free to do what they wanted provided they did not harm the polis.The economy of the Sparta relied primarily on agriculture，while Athens relied primarily on trade.三、The brife introduction of the Two Greco-Persian Wars: {There were two Persian invasions:(that of King Darius in 490BC and his son Xerxes ten years later)}In the first Greco-Persian War, Greek army defeated the Persian forces and won a smashing victory in the battle of Marathon.In the second Greco-Persian War the Persian arny was led by Xerxes I,whowas Darius son.Although the Greek army was greatly outnumbered by the Persian army, the Greek army won a decisive victory in the straits between Athens and Salamis.四、The main features of the 亚历山大帝国:五、The main features of the Ancient Rome:六、How did Octavian(Augustus) restore the Rome(当时repubic):New morality.Augustus’main aims were to re-establish harmony, reasonable government and to end corruption.1) He introduced new men to the Senate,controlled the tax gatherers and set the standards of good government.2) He reduced the army and set up colonies of retired soldiers, whose purpose was to Romanise the empire.3) He tried to improve morals by stressing marriage, duty, religion and good product,and even poetry.4)More shipping and trade.Roads were better and the quality of public building has perhaps never been better.The main achivements: 1) Augustus won and ended the Civil war.2) He found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble. 3) The Pax Romana, a long period of peace.(about 60years)七、The Constantine’s religious\political revolution:The adaption of Christianity. In many ways the empire was losing cohesion and this may have pushed the Emperor Constantine to adopt Christianity as a unifying force.When he defeated the larger army of his enemy with a symbol of Christainity, he made the revolutionary decision to protest Christianity and to promote it everwhere.( Finally Christainity became the state religion under the Emperor Theodosius, officially replacing all pagan religions, which were outlawed.)Collapse in the west:The Empire was divided into two parts under Constantine. He abolished the four divisions of the empire (that Diocletian had created), and moved the capital to Byzantium in the east,renaming it Constiantinople.There were now two great centres to the empire, with very different backgrounds and cultures, as become clear over the years--the new capital in the east and the old capital,Rome, in the west. 八、Roman law 特点内容对后世影响:Early development of categories of law1)Roman law has deeply influenced Western culture.Twelve Tables of law were drawn up in early Republic,covering all areas of the law of the time,and were then cast in bronze and displayed for all to see.2)Judges in Rome were ordinary citizens.There are science of law,Customary law.3)There are three catagories of law.First there was the “citizen law”.(This was further divided into private law to do with individuals, and public law to do with the state. )Secondly there was the “law of nations”(,applying toforeigners and their dealings with Roman citizens).In fact,it was the beginning of international law.A third catagory of law came from the Greeks and was called “natural law”,idea of equality before law(It assumed that there were universal rules\laws,that is unchanging and eternal.Its validity is universal.)The codification and spread of Roman law1)Justinian Code is the body of Roman law codified under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian and the basis for many modern systems of civil law.2)the Digest of fifty books became the fundamental guide to law.3)One rule of law, which had been brought in under the emperors, was that “the ruler is not bound by the laws”,the emperor is above the ter Western medieval rulers tried to benefit from this.By the 16th century 4)Roman law was used in most European countries,apart from England.。