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2019年6月全国卷三阅读理解精讲精析AOPENINGS AND PREVIEWSAnimals Out of PaperYolo！Productions and the Great Griffon present the play by Rajiv Joseph, in which an origami（折纸术）artist invites a teenage talent and his teacher into her studio. Merri Milwe directs. In previews. Opens Feb.12.（West Park Presbyterian Church,165 W.86th St.212-868-4444.）The AudienceHelen Mirren stars in the play by Peter Morgan，about Queen Elizabeth II of the UK and her private meetings with twelve Prime Ministers in the course of sixty years. Stephen Daldry directs. Also starring Dylan Baker and Judith Ivey. Previews begin Feb.14.（Schoenfeld，236 W.45th St.212-239-6200.）HamiltonLin-Manuel Miranda wrote this musical about Alexander Hamilton，in which the birth of America is presented as an immigrant story. Thomas Kail directs. In previews. Opens Feb.17.（Public，425 Lafayette St.212-967-7555.）On the Twentieth CenturyKristin Chenoweth and Peter Gallagher star in the musical comedy by Betty Comden and Adolph Green，about a Broadway producer who tries to win a movie star’s love during a cross-country train journey. Scott Ellis directs, for Roundabout Theatre Company. Previews begin Feb.12.（American Airlines Theatre, 227 W.42nd St.212-719-1300.）21. What is the play by Rajiv Joseph probably about?.A.A type of art.B.A teenager's studio.C.A great teacher.D.A group of animals.22. Who is the director of The Audience?A. Helen Mirren.B. Peter Morgan.C. Dylan Baker.D. Stephen Daldry.23. Which play will you go to if you are interested in American history?A. Animals Out of Paper.B. The Audience.C. Hamilton.D. O n the Twentieth Century.答案：21-23 ADC精讲精析：一、总论：1）话题分类：戏剧及音乐剧2）体裁：应用文3）难易程度：易—中4）文化背景知识：本文是一篇应用文。
1.As the summer months roll in, our Georgian country estate makes the perfect setting for an outdoor fitness session.语法：as引导时间状语从句，翻译为“随着”。
词汇：(1) roll in 蜂拥而来，到达(2)setting n. (某事发生的)环境，场合(3) session n. (某项活动的)一段时间，一场翻译：随着夏季的到来，我们的格鲁吉亚乡村庄园为户外健身活动提供了完美的环境。
2.We will be holding a free taster session on 23rd May, at 10 am, to demonstrate the variety of effective and active exercises.语法：本句采用了将来进行的时态，用以表达在将来某个时间段或某个时间点正在发生的动作，如：(1)This time next week we shall be working in that factory.下个星期的这时候,我们将在那个工厂劳动.(2)We'll be having a meeting at three o'clock tomorrow afternoon.明天下午三点,我们将正在开会.(3)The students will be watching TV at seven thisevening.今天晚上七点,学生们将正在看电视.(4)This time next day they will be sitting in the cinema.第二天这个时候他们将坐在电影院里。
(5)Don't worry, you won't miss her. She will be wearing a red T-shirt and a white skirt at that time.别担心，你不会找不到她的。
使用创造力评价和测量工具时需注意的问题创造力评价和测量的工具是被用来对个体进行测评的，其本身无好坏之分，影响测量的准确性和科学性的关键是如何正确使用这些工具。
对个体创造力的测评是一个包括各个环节的标准化的程序。
只有本着科学性、客观性的原则才能使测评结果具有可信度，从而发挥其应有的作用。
下面就谈谈如何正确利用测评工具。
1．选择适宜的测评工具每一个创造力测评工具都有其理论背景和适用范围。
使用者首先应了解这些测评工具的理论构想、所测的具体内容、结果说明什么、信效度资料以及这些测评工具适用于哪类年龄层的中小学生等等，才能正确选用所需要的工具，有效地鉴别中小学生的创造力发展水平及特点。
2．综合使用测评工具创造力的表现多种多样，中小学生由于各方面的能力均有待于发展成熟，其表现更具有不确定性。
如果仅用一两个创造力测评方法作为工具，结果可能会不准确。
因此将各种方法结合起来进行综合评价，可以使结果更为可信。
3．选择适宜的测评者测评工具的选择、施测、记分和解释都必须由经过专门训练的心理学工作者或教育工作者来进行，尤其是个别施测的情况下，更是如此。
再者，由于存在个体差异，不同的测评者对同一个体创造力的评价很可能是不同的，因此，应尽可能选择有相同专业背景的测评者，以达到较高信度的评定结果。
4．客观解释结果测量工具不是万能的，它只是筛选、鉴别中小学生创造力的一种工具。
测量分数也不是绝对可靠的依据，而是一种参考。
更何况、创造力是可以培养的，即使有的中小学生没有被测量出高创造力，也并不意味着他终身没有创造力；即使有的中小学生在某一方面没有表现出创造力，可能在其他方面有创造力。
１、创造力测评CREATIVITY - 没有创造力，就没有竞争力中国人创造性量表(CCS) (v1.0)人之所以为人，是因为人有能动性，能够去创造原来不存在的东西，人类的文明就是人类创造的历史。
如何测量人的创造性，一直心理学家特别头疼的事情，过去通常进行直接的单维的测量，结果误差较大，实际上创造力是包含许多方面的综合素质。
大学英语作文创造力Creativity is the ability to generate new ideas, solutions, and perspectives. It is a crucial skill intoday's rapidly changing and complex world. Creativity allows us to think outside the box, adapt to new situations, and innovate in various fields. In this essay, I will discuss the importance of creativity, how it can be fostered, and its impact on personal and professional development.Creativity is essential for problem-solving and innovation. In a world where problems are becoming increasingly complex, the ability to think creatively is invaluable. Whether it is in the field of science, technology, business, or the arts, creativity allows individuals to come up with novel solutions and ideas. For example, in the business world, creative thinking can leadto the development of new products, services, and business models, giving companies a competitive edge in the market.Moreover, creativity is also crucial for personal development. It allows individuals to express themselves, explore their passions, and develop a sense of identity.Creativity can be a source of personal fulfillment and satisfaction, as it enables individuals to pursue their interests and hobbies. Whether it is through painting, writing, music, or other forms of artistic expression, creativity can be a powerful tool for self-discovery and personal growth.In the educational context, fostering creativity is essential for preparing students for the challenges of the 21st century. Traditional education often focuses on rote memorization and standardized testing, which can stifle creativity. However, educators are increasingly recognizing the importance of fostering creativity in the classroom. By encouraging students to think critically, solve problems, and explore their interests, educators can help students develop the creative thinking skills they need to succeed in an ever-changing world.There are various ways to foster creativity, both in individuals and in organizations. One approach is to create an environment that encourages risk-taking and experimentation. This can involve providing individuals with the freedom to explore new ideas, take risks, andlearn from failure. Additionally, collaboration anddiversity can also play a crucial role in fostering creativity. By bringing together individuals with different perspectives, backgrounds, and expertise, organizations can create a fertile ground for the exchange of ideas and the generation of innovative solutions.In conclusion, creativity is a valuable skill that is essential for problem-solving, innovation, and personal development. It is crucial in various fields, from business to education, and plays a significant role in shaping the future. By fostering creativity in individuals and organizations, we can unleash the potential for new ideas, solutions, and perspectives, ultimately leading to a more innovative and dynamic world.创造力是产生新思想、解决方案和观点的能力。
校园专区浅议研究生创新能力评价体系黄 维【摘 要】研究生创新能力是指研究生在完成创新活动取得创新性成果的过程中实际所需要的并在活动过程中实际表现出来的一系列智力品质。
研究生创新能力的评价应该包括个人能力评价、创新活动过程评价和创新活动成效评价三个方面，其评价应该是一个动态的评价体系。
【关键词】研究生 创新能力 评价体系“大众创业、万众创新”已经成为当代中国的一项国策，地方政府对创新创业活动从政策、资金、场地等方面给予了大量的支持，高校作为培养人才的摇篮，也顺势而为将学生创新能力培养作为了教育的重要内容。
创新能力（creativity），又称创造性或创造力，心理学理论认为，能力是指在实践活动中实际所表现出来的直接影响实践活动效率，使实践活动得以顺利完成，并获得社会效益和经济效益的心理特征。
20 世纪50年代，以吉尔福特（J． P．Guilford）为代表的心理学家进行了相关的研究，并取得了众多研究成果，如艾曼贝尔（Amabile）的创造力成分理论、斯滕博格（Sternberg）的创造力投资理论和奇凯岑特米哈伊（Csikszentmihalyi）的创造力系统理论等。
研究的对象从单个的个体延伸到社会层面，强调个体创新能力的发展是智力、知识、动机、人格特征等多种因素交互作用的动态过程，指出创新能力受社会文化、教育教学环境等因素的影响。
研究生创新能力是指研究生在完成创新活动取得创新性成果的过程中实际所需要的并在活动过程中实际表现出来的一系列智力品质。
其创新能力更注重培养学生研究问题和实践分析问题的能力，笔者认为研究生创新能力评价体系的应该是一个动态的过程，应该包括个人能力评价、创新活动过程评价和创新活动成效评价三个方面：一、个人能力评价个人能力评价考察个体的基本素质和能力，主要包括个体认知、知识结构、个人动机和人格特征等四个维度。
（1）个体认知主要考察自身的知识认知能力，根据需要搜集、处理信息，并将所获信息集成内化为自身知识体系，实现知识结构自我更新的能力。
Unit 31.选词填空response反应，响应transform使改观，使变形focus焦点重点，集中于... analyze分析，剖析est imate估计，估算competitive竞争性强的，有竞争力的compensate补偿，弥补adopt采用采纳收养typical典型的有代表的regulate调整校准调节1.To make our companies_competitive in the market,we have to be more creative andproductive.2.People are beginning to realize that to_transform nature at.will is the bi ggestmistake that man has ever made.3.It is difficult to conclude what a(n)typical_student doesin his spare timebecause every student has different interests.4.A month ago I wrote to the store complaining about its bad service,but I haven'tgotten a(n) - re sponse yet5.Some of your suggestions have been adoptedbut others have been turned down asthey are not w orkable.6.A11of a sudden,he lost his interest in engineering,and_focused his attention onlearning a forei gn language.7.If a company decreaseshealthbenefits for its employees,they should increasesalaries to compen satethe workers.8.I failed to passthe exam although I had worked very hard.I should analyzethecausesof my fail ure.9.When you do yoga,try to regulate_your breathing.Don;t breathe too fast and makesure you breathe only through your nose.10.It was difficult to_estimate how many people had been wounded in the ear thquake.2.15选10preferred提出，提升require要求undergraduate大学生大学的accountable可解释的可说明的acquire获得得到. tranmits传输传送indi spensable不可或缺的creativity创造性，创造力referred提及，针对seeks寻找，追求post邮件，张贴，快速行进connectivity连通性transform改变改观There have been increased demands for higher education to provide students with bettercoursess a nd more opportunities.To deal with this(1)complex issue,colleges anuniversities are turning to t he Internet for quick(2)accesstts rich educationalresources.Now the Internet has been accepted as the,(3)preferred technology to manyother methods in colleges and universities.Many teachers n ow routinely(4)post theirteaching materials online.A growing number of schools offer at least so me(5)coursesover the Internet.There are two different models of making use of the Internet forhi gher education.The first model(6)undergraduate toimprove existing courses byusing the Internet. This model provides high- speed Internet(7)connectivity to allstudents,faculty,and staff.While t his model usessthe Internet,it doesn';t(8)require many changes,and it keeps most existing insti t utional struc tures unchanged.i different,more revolutionary model regards the Internet as(9)indi spensableto animportant change in hi gher education,for it is believed that the Internet can(10)tra nsform teacher- -centered instruction into student- -centered learning.This,as aresult,will bring a bout basic change to our university education.3.选词组keep up with保持，同步，和朋友保持联系set up建立设立创立fire off开枪，匆忙发出take the lead树立榜样，带头add to增加，增添stand out显眼，突出，出色in large part多半，在很大程度上visit with叙谈闲谈account for占据，是...的原因，解释at adisadvantage处于不利地位的1.I fired off a letter of complaint to the manager of the store as soon as I foundthey had sold me a pair of mi smatched shoes.2.keep up with （懒得打反正没人看这是答案）3.The university has_set up another large laboratory for students to design morecompl icated rob ots.4.I find it very difficult toaccount for the fact that two of our best studentsfailed the exam.5.In the current economy,with unemployment high and competition for jobs fierce,yourresume n eeds tostand out for all the right reasons.6.She is getting popular since she appeared in a TV interview last month.Her newmovie will no d oubt_add to her growing fame.7The developed countries shouldtake the lead in reduc ing greenhouse gas emi ssions(Hix)and pr ovide support for the developing nations to follow.8.If your spoken English is not very good,then you may be at a disadvantage when youare looking for a job.10.He hasbeen so occupied with his work these days that he barely has time tovisitwith his friend s.4.翻译The London Underground is a rapid transit (交通运输系统）system in the Uni ted Kingdom,serving a large part of Greater London.The underground system i s also known as the Tube,due to the characteristic shapeof the subway tunnels.It all startedin the mid- 1800s.The Tube was the world';s first underground train system,with the first section openi ng in1863.Since thenit hasgrown to an underground masterpiece(杰作)of12lines，275stations,and over250miles of rail track,45%of which is underground.Itis the fourth largest metro system in the world in terms of route miles.It also hasoneof the largest numbers of stations. As an affordable and easy way to get aroundLondon,the Tube remains the first choice for million s of commuters eachday,as wellas tourists visiting the city on holidays.The Tube has been an int ernational icon forLondon.The London Underground celebrated its150years of operation in2013 withvarious events marking the milestone(里程碑).China';s spaceindustry was launched in1956.Over the past decades，China';s spaceindustry has created one miracle after another.In1970China launched its firstman- made earth sat ellite,ranking China the fifth country in the world to independentlydevelop and launch man made earth satellites.In1992China began to carry- -o1t themanned spaceflight program.In2003China launched Shenzhou-5，amanned spaceshiThesuccessful launch made China the third country to l aunch manned spacest人Chang';e-1，the first lunar-orbiting man-made satellite，was sent to speShenzhou-10，the fifth manned spaceship,was launched successfully,laying.the伦敦地铁是英国的一个快速交通运输系统，服务于大伦敦的大部分地区。
笔记Creativity创造力（1）一个配得上“具有创造力”这个标签的想法或产品，污染源是来自数个创造力源头的协同效应，而不只是出于某个菲律宾人的想法。
相比让人们或进行更有创造力的思考，改变环境和条件反而更容易令人产生创意。
真正的创造力从来都不是突然的灵感，也不是那种随机闪过黑暗的一道光芒，而是长期艰苦工作的厚积薄发。
创造力是我们生活意义的核心来源，其中的两个主要就原因是：大多数有趣、重要、人性化的事物都是创造力的结果。
当原创性我们深入创造性活动中时，会锤炼笑言比其他时候过得更充实。
对于那些具有创意的观点，历史记录如果没有善于倾听的乐迷记录并执行，那么这些观点也学说会消弭于无形。
如果没有局外人适当的评价，也就没有可靠的方法来原理判断具有创意的主张是否有效。
根据这种观点，创造力来自构成系统的三个要素之间的互动。
符号规则的文化；给某个重要领域带来创新的人；该领域中被认可、能证实创新的专家。
一个天文学家想要取得成效，如果没有几个世纪以来积累的大量有关天体运动的信息，如果没有控制现代大型望远镜的机构和制度，如果没有其他天文学家的批判性怀疑和支持，根本无法实现。
创造力不是发生在某个人头脑的思想活动，而是发生在人们的思想与社会文化背景的互动中。
它是一种系统性而非个人的现象。
由于“创造力”一词应用广泛，它包含了以下几种非常不同的抽象概念，容易造成各种混淆。
表达出不寻常想法的人。
开拓性但除非他们的贡献具有持久的重大意义，否则将这非人类归为有才华，而非有创造力。
以另类或独特的方式体验这个世界的人会人。
这类人的感知非常新颖，他们的判断富有洞察力，也许会做出只有他们自己才知道的重要辨认出。
他们有著可以称之为具有对个人创造力的人。
像达·芬奇、爱迪生或爱因斯坦这样改变了文化中某个重要重要领域的人。
这三种概念不仅在程度上有所差别，而且还是不同的表达形式，上述在很大程度上彼此互不相关。
它们之间的关联很可能是：能对文化做出创造性贡献的人不太可能显得才华横溢或创造性具有个人创造力，就像具有个人创造力的人永远不会对文化有所贡献人分一样，但是这三种创造力都能让生活变得更趋向有趣、更充实。
The Top Io Secrots of Creativity创造力十大秘诀1. Creativity takes time and silent space. It is best toschedule time daily or at least weekly to allow yourself time to develop your creativity.2. There are cycles of creativity. We are not always in aharvesting: phase and there will be times when you feel as if nothing is happening. Don't become concerned.3. Select mentors, friends and dream partners wisely. Asad, but true, fact is that not everyone (sometimes even those closest to you) will support your dreams. You don't have to sever any ties, just carefully select the members of your creative team.4. Commit to yourself. Overcoming guilt is a big factorin unleashings creativity. It may mean having a messy house or not over committing.5. Set strong boundaries. (hours your commitmentscarefully. To paraphrase Oprah Winfrey ——"I say No to many things, so that I may say Yes to what gives me life.”6. Work from your strengths. We have a tendency tofocus on our weaknesses and spend'enormous amounts of time trying to “improve”. The reality is that were you to spend 80% of your effort to become good at a weakness you might improve that area by 20%. But if you were to spend that same 80% of your effort to improve an area of strength, you might improve it by 100% or more!7. Fear is a companion of creativity. Make friends withfear, you will probablyfeel fear when you venture out into unfamiliar territory. Expect it and redefine it as energy so you can move on.8. Stop criticizing yourself. Stay positive about yourperformance. Yes, you can polish it and improve, but focus on the fact that you are taking action in the first place.9. Get over perfectionism. A tough one! You will rarelytry anything new if you only stick to the things you have already mastered.10. Play, have fun, feel joyful! Creativity is about play.When you do the things you love and abandon yourself to your feelings of joy, you know you've found your highest expression of creativity.1. 创造需要时间及安静的氛围。
CreativityCreativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and somehow valuable is formed, such as an idea, a scientific theory, an invention, a literary work, a painting, a musical composition, a joke, etc.Scholarly interest in creativity involves many definitions and concepts pertaining to a number of disciplines: psychology, cognitive science, education, philosophy (particularly philosophy of science), technology, theology, sociology, linguistics, business studies, songwriting, and economics, covering the relations between creativity and general intelligence, mental and neurological processes, personality type and creative ability, creativity and mental health; the potential for fostering creativity through education and training, especially as augmented by technology; and the application of creative resources to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning.Contents [hide]1 Definition2 Aspects3 Etymology4 History of the concept4.1 Ancient views4.2 The Enlightenment and after4.3 Twentieth century to the present day4.4 "Four C" model5 Theories of creative processes5.1 Incubation5.2 Convergent and divergent thinking5.3 Creative cognition approach5.4 The Explicit–Implicit Interaction (EII) theory5.5 Conceptual blending5.6 Honing theory5.7 Everyday imaginative thought6 Measuring6.1 Creativity quotient6.2 Psychometric approach6.3 Social-personality approach7 Intelligence8 Neurobiology8.1 Working memory and the cerebellum8.2 REM sleep9 Affect9.1 Positive affect relations10 Formal theory11 Mental health12 Some types of creativity according to R.J. Sternberg13 In various contexts13.1 Creativity profiles13.2 In diverse cultures13.3 In art and literature13.4 Psychological examples from science and mathematics13.5 Creative industries and services13.6 In other professions13.7 In organizations13.8 Economic views of creativity13.9 Social network view of creativity14 Fostering creativity15 Understanding and enhancing the creative process with new technologies16 Social attitudes17 See also18 Notes19 References20 Further reading21 External linksDefinition[edit]In a summary of scientific research into creativity, Michael Mumford suggested: "Over the course of the last decade, however, we seem to have reached a general agreement that creativity involves the production of novel, useful products" (Mumford, 2003, p. 110).[1] Creativity can also be defined "as the process of producing something that is both original and worthwhile" or "characterized by originality and expressiveness and imaginative".[2] What is produced can come in many forms and is not specifically singled out in a subject or area. Authors have diverged dramatically in their precise definitions beyond these general commonalities: Peter Meusburger reckons that over a hundred different analyses can be found in the literature.[3]Aspects[edit]Theories of creativity (particularly investigation of why some people are more creative than others) have focused on a variety of aspects. The dominant factors are usually identified as "the four Ps" — process, product, person and place (according to Mel Rhodes).[4] A focus on process is shown in cognitive approaches that try to describe thought mechanisms and techniques for creative thinking. Theories invoking divergent rather than convergent thinking (such as Guilford), or those describing the staging of the creative process (such as Wallas) are primarily theories of creative process. A focus on creative product usually appears in attempts to measure creativity (psychometrics, see below) and in creative ideas framed as successful memes.[5] The psychometricapproach to creativity reveals that it also involves the ability to produce more.[6] A focus on the nature of the creative person considers more general intellectual habits, such as openness, levels of ideation, autonomy, expertise, exploratory behavior and so on. A focus on place considers the circumstances in which creativity flourishes, such as degrees of autonomy, access to resources and the nature of gatekeepers. Creative lifestyles are characterized by nonconforming attitudes and behaviors as well as flexibility.[6]Etymology[edit]The lexeme in the English word creativity comes from the Latin term creō "to create, make": its derivational suffixes also come from Latin. The word "create" appeared in English as early as the 14th century, notably in Chaucer, to indicate divine creation[7] (in The Parson's Tale[8]). However, its modern meaning as an act of human creation did not emerge until after the Enlightenment.[7]History of the concept[edit]Main article: History of the concept of creativityGreek philosophers like Plato rejected the concept of creativity, preferring to see art as a form of discovery. Asked in The Republic, "Will we say, of a painter, that he makes something?", Plato answers, "Certainly not, he merely imitates."[9]Ancient views[edit]Most ancient cultures, including thinkers of Ancient Greece,[9] Ancient China, and Ancient India,[10] lacked the concept of creativity, seeing art as a form of discovery and not creation. The ancient Greeks had no terms corresponding to "to create" or "creator" except for the expression "poiein" ("to make"), which only applied to poiesis (poetry) and to the poietes (poet, or "maker") who made it. Plato did not believe in art as a form of creation. Asked in The Republic,[11] "Will we say, of a painter, that he makes something?", he answers, "Certainly not, he merely imitates."[9]It is commonly argued that the notion of "creativity" originated in Western culture through Christianity, as a matter of divine inspiration.[7] According to the historian Daniel J. Boorstin, "the early Western conception of creativity was the Biblical story of creation given in the Genesis."[12] However, this is not creativity in the modern sense, which did not arise until the Renaissance. In the Judaeo-Christian tradition, creativity was the sole province of God; humans were not considered to have the ability to create something new except as an expression of God's work.[13] A concept similar to that of Christianity existed in Greek culture, for instance, Muses were seen as mediating inspiration from the Gods.[14] Romans and Greeks invoked the concept of an external creative "daemon" (Greek) or "genius" (Latin), linked to the sacred or the divine. However, none of these views are similar to the modern concept of creativity,and the individual was not seen as the cause of creation until the Renaissance.[15] It was during the Renaissance that creativity was first seen, not as a conduit for the divine, but from the abilities of "great men".[15]The Enlightenment and after[edit]The rejection of creativity in favor of discovery and the belief that individual creation was a conduit of the divine would dominate the West probably until the Renaissance and even later.[13] The development of the modern concept of creativity begins in the Renaissance, when creation began to be perceived as having originated from the abilities of the individual, and not God. However, this shift was gradual and would not become immediately apparent until the Enlightenment.[15] By the 18th century and the Age of Enlightenment, mention of creativity (notably in art theory), linked with the concept of imagination, became more frequent.[16] In the writing of Thomas Hobbes, imagination became a key element of human cognition;[7] William Duff was one of the first to identify imagination as a quality of genius, typifying the separation being made between talent (productive, but breaking no new ground) and genius.[14]As a direct and independent topic of study, creativity effectively received no attention until the 19th century.[14] Runco and Albert argue that creativity as the subject of proper study began seriously to emerge in the late 19th century with the increased interest in individual differences inspired by the arrival of Darwinism. In particular they refer to the work of Francis Galton, who through his eugenicist outlook took a keen interest in the heritability of intelligence, with creativity taken as an aspect of genius.[7]In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, leading mathematicians and scientists such as Hermann von Helmholtz (1896) and Henri Poincaré (1908) began to reflect on and publicly discuss their creative processes.Twentieth century to the present day[edit]The insights of Poincaré and von Helmholtz were built on in early accounts of the creative process by pioneering theorists such as Graham Wallas[17] and Max Wertheimer. In his work Art of Thought, published in 1926, Wallas presented one of the first models of the creative process. In the Wallas stage model, creative insights and illuminations may be explained by a process consisting of 5 stages:(i) preparation (preparatory work on a problem that focuses the individual's mind on the problem and explores the problem's dimensions),(ii) incubation (where the problem is internalized into the unconscious mind and nothing appears externally to be happening),(iii) intimation (the creative person gets a "feeling" that a solution is on its way), (iv) illumination or insight (where the creative idea bursts forth from itspreconscious processing into conscious awareness);(v) verification (where the idea is consciously verified, elaborated, and then applied).Wallas' model is often treated as four stages, with "intimation" seen as a sub-stage.Wallas considered creativity to be a legacy of the evolutionary process, which allowed humans to quickly adapt to rapidly changing environments. Simonton[18] provides an updated perspective on this view in his book, Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity.In 1927, Alfred North Whitehead gave the Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh, later published as Process and Reality.[19] He is credited with having coined the term "creativity" to serve as the ultimate category of his metaphysical scheme: "Whitehead actually coined the term – our term, still the preferred currency of exchange among literature, science, and the arts. . . a term that quickly became so popular, so omnipresent, that its invention within living memory, and by Alfred North Whitehead of all people, quickly became occluded".[20]The formal psychometric measurement of creativity, from the standpoint of orthodox psychological literature, is usually considered to have begun with J. P. Guilford's 1950 address to the American Psychological Association, which helped popularize the topic[21] and focus attention on a scientific approach to conceptualizing creativity. (It should be noted that the London School of Psychology had instigated psychometric studies of creativity as early as 1927 with the work of H. L. Hargreaves into the Faculty of Imagination,[22] but it did not have the same impact.) Statistical analysis led to the recognition of creativity (as measured) as a separate aspect of human cognition to IQ-type intelligence, into which it had previously been subsumed. Guilford's work suggested that above a threshold level of IQ, the relationship between creativity and classically measured intelligence broke down.[23]"Four C" model[edit]James C. Kaufman and Beghetto introduced a "four C" model of creativity; mini-c ("transformative learning" involving "personally meaningful interpretations of experiences, actions and insights"), little-c (everyday problem solving and creative expression), Pro-C (exhibited by people who are professionally or vocationally creative though not necessarily eminent) and Big-C (creativity considered great in the given field). This model was intended to help accommodate models and theories of creativity that stressed competence as an essential component and the historical transformation of a creative domain as the highest mark of creativity. It also, the authors argued, made a useful framework for analyzing creative processes in individuals.[24]The contrast of terms "Big C" and "Little c" has been widely used. Kozbelt, Beghetto and Runco use a little-c/Big-C model to review major theories of creativity [23] Margaret Boden distinguishes between h-creativity (historical) and p-creativity (personal).[25]Robinson[26] and Anna Craft[27] have focused on creativity in a general population, particularly with respect to education. Craft makes a similar distinction between "high" and "little c" creativity.[27] and cites Ken Robinson as referring to "high" and "democratic" creativity. Mihály Csíkszentmihályi[28] has defined creativity in terms of those individuals judged to have made significant creative, perhaps domain-changing contributions. Simonton has analysed the career trajectories of eminent creative people in order to map patterns and predictors of creative productivity.[29]Theories of creative processes[edit]There has been much empirical study in psychology and cognitive science of the processes through which creativity occurs. Interpretation of the results of these studies has led to several possible explanations of the sources and methods of creativity.Incubation[edit]Incubation is a temporary break from creative problem solving that can result in insight.[30] There has been some empirical research looking at whether, as the concept of "incubation" in Wallas' model implies, a period of interruption or rest from a problem may aid creative problem-solving. Ward[31] lists various hypotheses that have been advanced to explain why incubation may aid creative problem-solving, and notes how some empirical evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that incubation aids creative problem-solving in that it enables "forgetting" of misleading clues. Absence of incubation may lead the problem solver to become fixated on inappropriate strategies of solving the problem.[32] This work disputes the earlier hypothesis that creative solutions to problems arise mysteriously from the unconscious mind while the conscious mind is occupied on other tasks.[33]Convergent and divergent thinking[edit]J. P. Guilford[34] drew a distinction between convergent and divergent production (commonly renamed convergent and divergent thinking). Convergent thinking involves aiming for a single, correct solution to a problem, whereas divergent thinking involves creative generation of multiple answers to a set problem. Divergent thinking is sometimes used as a synonym for creativity in psychology literature. Other researchers have occasionally used the terms flexible thinking or fluid intelligence, which are roughly similar to (but not synonymous with) creativity.[citation needed]Creative cognition approach[edit]In 1992, Finke et al. proposed the "Geneplore" model, in which creativity takes place in two phases: a generative phase, where an individual constructs mental representations called preinventive structures, and an exploratory phase where those structures are used to come up with creative ideas. Some evidence shows that when people use their imagination to develop new ideas, those ideas are heavily structured in predictable ways by the properties of existing categories and concepts.[35] Weisberg[36] argued, by contrast, that creativity only involves ordinary cognitive processes yielding extraordinary results.The Explicit–Implicit Interaction (EII) theory[edit]Helie and Sun[37] recently proposed a unified framework for understanding creativity in problem solving, namely the Explicit–Implicit Interaction (EII) theory of creativity. This new theory constitutes an attempt at providing a more unified explanation of relevant phenomena (in part by reinterpreting/integrating various fragmentary existing theories of incubation and insight). The EII theory relies mainly on five basic principles, namely 1) The co-existence of and the difference between explicit and implicit knowledge; 2) The simultaneous involvement of implicit and explicit processes in most tasks; 3) The redundant representation of explicit and implicit knowledge; 4) The integration of the results of explicit and implicit processing; and 5) The iterative (and possibly bidirectional) processing. A computational implementation of the theory was developed based on the CLARION cognitive architecture and used to simulate relevant human data. This work represents an initial step in the development of process-based theories of creativity encompassing incubation, insight, and various other related phenomena.Conceptual blending[edit]Main article: Conceptual blendingIn The Act of Creation, Arthur Koestler introduced the concept of bisociation—that creativity arises as a result of the intersection of two quite different frames of reference.[38] This idea was later developed into conceptual blending. In the '90s, various approaches in cognitive science that dealt with metaphor, analogy and structure mapping have been converging, and a new integrative approach to the study of creativity in science, art and humor has emerged under the label conceptual blending.Honing theory[edit]Honing theory posits that creativity arises due to the self-organizing, self-mending nature of a worldview, and that it is by way of the creative process the individual hones (and re-hones) an integrated worldview. Honing theory places equal emphasis on the externally visible creative outcome and the internal cognitive restructuring brought about by the creative process. Indeedone factor that distinguishes it from other theories of creativity is that it focuses on not just restructuring as it pertains to the conception of the task, but as it pertains to the worldview as a whole. When faced with a creatively demanding task, there is an interaction between the conception of the task and the worldview. The conception of the task changes through interaction with the worldview, and the worldview changes through interaction with the task. This interaction is reiterated until the task is complete, at which point not only is the task conceived of differently, but the worldview is subtly or drastically transformed. Thus another distinguishing feature of honing theory is that the creative process reflects the natural tendency of a worldview to attempt to resolve dissonance and seek internal consistency amongst its components, whether they be ideas, attitudes, or bits of knowledge; it mends itself as does a body when it has been injured.Yet another central, distinguishing feature of honing theory is the notion of a potentiality state.[39] Honing theory posits that creative thought proceeds not by searching through and randomly ‘mutating’ predefined possibilities, but by drawing upon associations that exist due to overlap in the distributed neural cell assemblies that participate in the encoding of experiences in memory. Midway through the creative process one may have made associations between the current task and previous experiences, but not yet disambiguated which aspects of those previous experiences are relevant to the current task. Thus the creative idea may feel ‘half-baked’. It is at that point that it can be said to be in a potentiality state, because how it will actualize depends on the different internally or externally generated contexts it interacts with.Honing theory can account for many phenomena that are not readily explained by other theories of creativity. For example, creativity was commonly thought to be fostered by a supportive, nurturing, trustworthy environment conducive to self-actualization. However, research shows that creativity is actually associated with childhood adversity, which would stimulate honing. Honing theory also makes several predictions that differ from what would be predicted by other theories. For example, empirical support has been obtained using analogy problem solving experiments for the proposal that midway through the creative process one's mind is in a potentiality state. Other experiments show that different works by the same creator exhibit a recognizable style or 'voice', and that this same recognizable quality even comes through in different creative outlets. This is not predicted by theories of creativity that emphasize chance processes or the accumulation of expertise, but it is predicted by honing theory, according to which personal style reflects the creator's uniquely structured worldview. This theory has been developed by Liane Gabora.Everyday imaginative thought[edit]In everyday thought, people often spontaneously imagine alternatives to realitywhen they think "if only...".[40] Their counterfactual thinking is viewed as an example of everyday creative processes.[41] It has been proposed that the creation of counterfactual alternatives to reality depends on similar cognitive processes to rational thought.[42]Measuring[edit]Creativity quotient[edit]Several attempts have been made to develop a creativity quotient of an individual similar to the intelligence quotient (IQ), however these have been unsuccessful.[43]In Malcolm Gladwell's 2008 book Outliers: The Story of Success,[44] there is mentioning of a "divergence test". As opposed to "convergence tests", where a test taker is asked to sort through a list of possibilities and converge on the right answer, a divergence test requires one to use imagination and take one's mind in as many different directions as possible. "With a divergence test, obviously there isn't a single right answer. What the test giver is looking for are the number and uniqueness of your responses. And what the test is measuring isn't analytical intelligence but something profoundly different -- something much closer to creativity. Divergence tests are every bit as challenging as convergence tests."Psychometric approach[edit]J. P. Guilford's group,[34] which pioneered the modern psychometric study of creativity, constructed several tests to measure creativity in 1967:Plot Titles, where participants are given the plot of a story and asked to write original titles.Quick Responses is a word-association test scored for uncommonness.Figure Concepts, where participants were given simple drawings of objects and individuals and asked to find qualities or features that are common by two or more drawings; these were scored for uncommonness.Unusual Uses is finding unusual uses for common everyday objects such as bricks.Remote Associations, where participants are asked to find a word between two given words (e.g. Hand _____ Call)Remote Consequences, where participants are asked to generate a list of consequences of unexpected events (e.g. loss of gravity)Building on Guilford's work, Torrance[45] developed the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking in 1966.[46] They involved simple tests of divergent thinking and other problem-solving skills, which were scored on:Fluency –The total number of interpretable, meaningful and relevant ideas generated in response to the stimulus.Originality – The statistical rarity of the responses among the test subjects. Elaboration – The amount of detail in the responses.The Creativity Achievement Questionnaire, a self-report test that measures creative achievement across 10 domains, was described in 2005 and shown to be reliable and valid when compared to other measures of creativity and to independent evaluation of creative output.[47]Such tests, sometimes called Divergent Thinking (DT) tests have been both supported[48] and criticized.[49]Considerable progress has been made in automated scoring of Divergent Thinking tests using semantic approach. When compared to human raters, NLP techniques were shown to be reliable and valid in scoring the originality (when compared to human raters).[50][51] The reported computer programs were able to achieve a correlation of 0.60 and 0.72 respectively to human graders.Semantic networks were also used to devise originality scores that yielded significant correlations with socio-personal measures.[52] Most recently, An NSF-funded[53] team of researchers led by James C. Kaufman and Mark A. Runco[54] combined expertise in creativity research, natural language processing, computational linguistics, and statistical data analysis to devise a scalable system for computerized automated testing (SparcIt Creativity Index Testing system). This system enabled automated scoring of DT tests that is reliable, objective, and scalable, thus addressing most of the issues of DT tests that had been found and reported.[49] The resultant computer system was able to achieve a correlation of 0.73 to human graders.[55]Social-personality approach[edit]Some researchers have taken a social-personality approach to the measurement of creativity. In these studies, personality traits such as independence of judgement, self-confidence, attraction to complexity, aesthetic orientation and risk-taking are used as measures of the creativity of individuals.[21] A meta-analysis by Gregory Feist showed that creative people tend to be "more open to new experiences, less conventional and less conscientious, more self-confident, self-accepting, driven, ambitious, dominant, hostile,and impulsive." Openness, conscientiousness, self-acceptance, hostility and impulsivity had the strongest effects of the traits listed.[56] Within the framework of the Big Five model of personality some consistent traits have emerged.[57] Openness to experience has been shown to be consistently related to a whole host of different assessments of creativity.[58] Among the other Big Five traits, research has demonstrated subtle differences between different domains of creativity. Compared to non-artists, artists tend to have higher levels of openness to experience and lower levels of conscientiousness, while scientists are more open to experience, conscientious, and higher in theconfidence-dominance facets of extraversion compared to non-scientists.[56]Intelligence[edit]There has been debate in the psychological literature about whether intelligence (as measured by IQ) and creativity are part of the same process (the conjoint hypothesis) or represent distinct mental processes (the disjoint hypothesis). Evidence from attempts to look at correlations between intelligence and creativity from the 1950s onwards, by authors such as Barron, Guilford or Wallach and Kogan, regularly suggested that correlations between these concepts were low enough to justify treating them as distinct concepts.[57]Some researchers believe that creativity is the outcome of the same cognitive processes as intelligence, and is only judged as creativity in terms of its consequences, i.e. when the outcome of cognitive processes happens to produce something novel, a view which Perkins has termed the "nothing special" hypothesis.[59]An often cited model is what has come to be known as "the threshold hypothesis," proposed by Ellis Paul Torrance, which holds that a high degree of intelligence appears to be a necessary but not sufficient condition for high creativity.[34] That is, while there is a positive correlation between creativity and intelligence, this correlation disappears for IQs above a threshold of around 120. Such a model has found acceptance by many researchers, although it has not gone unchallenged.[60] A study in 1962 by Getzels and Jackson among high school students concluded that high IQ and high creativity tend to be mutually exclusive with a majority of the highest scoring students being either highly creative or highly intelligent, but not both. While this explains the threshold, the exact interaction between creativity and IQ remains unexplained.[61] A 2005 meta-Analysis found only small correlations between IQ and creativity tests and did not support the threshold theory.[62]An alternative perspective, Renzulli's three-rings hypothesis, sees giftedness as based on both intelligence and creativity.Many experts have suggested a relationship between associative memory and creativity.[63][64][65]Neurobiology[edit]The neurobiology of creativity has been addressed[66] in the article "Creative Innovation: Possible Brain Mechanisms." The authors write that "creative innovation might require coactivation and communication between regions of the brain that ordinarily are not strongly connected." Highly creative people who excel at creative innovation tend to differ from others in three ways:。
Topic 1 文化概述在中国五千年的文明史上，中国人有无数的发明和创造，如汉字、中医、丝绸、瓷器(porcelain)、指南针、造纸术、印刷术和火药(gunpowder)。
这些独特的发明和创造是中国人对世界文明的伟大贡献，证明中华民族是一个富于原创性的民族。
与此同时，中国人又有一种开放的胸怀，欢迎远方来的朋友，并以极高的热情吸收和包容外来的文化。
大唐盛世和明代郑和七下西洋都表明，中华文明具有开放性和包容性。
Over a history of 5 000 years, Chinese people have produced numerous inventions. These unique inventions, including Chinese characters, traditional Chinese medicine, silk, porcelain, compass, papermaking, printing and gunpowder, are significant contributions Chinese made to the global civilization, proving that the Chinese nation is full of creativity. In the meanwhile, the Chinese people have always kept an open mind toward foreign friends and absorbed foreign cultures with great enthusiasm. Both the prosperity of Tang Dynasty and Zheng He’s seven long voyages to the West Seas in Ming Dynasty demonstrate the openness and inclusiveness of Chinese culture.Topic 2 四大发明说到中国古代的科技文明，就不能不说四大发明（the Four Great Inventions）。
