二年级英语朗文必备内容(pdf)

Unit 9 Which Way Will It Go?IntroductionTEACHER: The topic for today’s class is land as a resource. Land, water, trees, oil . . . these are all resources, and as future environmental scientists, you need to understand how to manage these resources. As the world population increases, managing land resources will become a greater priority. Land is a limited resource. Today I’m going to divide the lecture into two parts. First we’ll look at some of the factors contributing to pressures on the land we have, and then I want to turn to some of the ways people worldwide are trying to address land problems and meet the needs of future generations. Think of it as first the bad news, then the good news.Body: Part 1Let me start by saying there is less good productive land now than there was even ten years ago. By productive land I mean land that is fertile, that we can use to grow food and raise animals. Each year more and more land becomes degraded. We are losing productive land. Worldwide, new dry areas are developing and expanding. This is happening on every continent except Antarctica. I don’t mean existing deserts like the Sahara are getting bigger. I’m talking about new dry areas, areas where land has been declining in quality. You can see these areas in the map in your book. Why are these areas forming and expanding? What do you think? Theresa?STUDENT l: It’s the climate, isn’t it? The earth is getting, you know, hotter because of global warming. So water gets evaporated and the land dries out.TEACHER: OK. Marcel, do you agree?STUDENT 2: Well, yeah. It has to be the weather. What else could it be?Body: Part 2TEACHER: Well, different reasons have been given. Some people contribute it to global warming or to climate changes. They say nature simply produces dry regions, like the Sahara Desert, as well as wet regions, like the Amazon Rain Forest . . . . Well, let’s think about this. Is it only the weather? Let’s see if there are other factors contributing to this trend. Is nature, or the weather, really the problem? According to a large group of scientists, the weather isn’t the main factor. Instead, they say, people are the main factor. When they say people are the main problem, they mean people’s actions－how people use and manage land. Poor land management, overpopulation, poor farming techniques, too many animals, and so on, can all affect the land. Look at the chart in your book. As you can see, researchers have identified several ways human activities contribute to the problem. The first is overgrazing by farm animals. They say about 35 percent of the loss of productive land is due to overgrazing by farm animals. The second is overcutting of trees, which leads to about 30 percent of the loss. And lastly, 28 percent of the loss of good land is from methods of farming. Overgrazing, overcutting, and farming methods. Let’s look at these one at a time.The first is overgrazing. Good topsoil is lost or damaged because of overgrazing by farm animals. Overgrazing means the animals eat too many of the plants. There are several bad results of overgrazing. First, there aren’t enough plants left to hold the soil in place. Then, the topsoil is eroded by wind and rain; they carry it away. Second, as the animals walk around, the soil is compacted, and gets very hard. If the soil is too hard, rainwater isn’t absorbed into the soil, and this causes the soil to stay dry and warm. As the soil gets drier, even fewer plants can grow. This, in turn, causes the animals to walk around more and more, in order to find enough food to eat. And, this causes the ground to get packed down even more, and get even drier, and so on. So, you can see that overgrazing can create this cycle.Body: Part 4Second, overcutting of trees also contributes to the loss of good land. The main problem is too many trees are cut and not replanted. For years we’ve heard about how this is happening on a large scale in the Amazon Rain Forest in Brazil. Trees, like land, are a resource we depend on. They’re vital to the whole environmental balance on earth. If trees are cut down and not replanted, there is nothing to hold the good soil. Wind and water carry the good soil away and it erodes quickly, leaving land that is dry and less productive. So, overcutting is another reason why land quality is declining.Body: Part 5Third, farming methods are another big factor. In some places, traditional methods that have been used for hundreds of years no longer work well. Why do they no longer work well? Partly because the population is increasing, and farmers aren’t equipped to meet these new demands, and partly because the soil is getting worn out. More people need to be fed from less land. As a result, some farmers may use too much fertilizer on the limited land they have, or not let the land rest from year to year, causing it to become less fertile. Irrigation is a huge factor many of us don’t think about. Irrigation water often has salt in it, and when the salt builds up in the soil, the soil can no longer be used for farming. Currently, about one third of the irrigated land in the world has too much salt in it. Irrigation has taken a heavy toll on good land.Body: Part 6So, basically, how people use the land seems to be a bigger factor in the decrease of productive land than weather. Of course, weather extremes, like no rain or too much rain, can add to the problem. However, the weather is not the main reason for the problem. Some of the extremes in the weather caused by global warming can make the situation worse for people who live in these dry areas. But the weather alone is not the main issue. The decline of productive land is a worldwide problem. Currently, about one third of the world’s land area is considered unproductive because it is too dry and damaged.OK, so that’s the bad news. Now let’s turn to the good news. What are countries doing to help preserve land as a resource? As experts learn more about this worldwide problem, they have tried to find ways to address it. Right now there are several organizations, the United Nations for one, that are working to help people. They try to help countries or communities look at their specific problems and figure out what possible changes they can make to protect their land. They talk to people about their farming methods, their animals, and how they use trees and their resources. Then they suggest changes that might alleviate some of their problems. Farmers might try to grow genetically engineered crops that don’t hurt the soil as much, or plant new trees, or raise fewer animals, or build new irrigation systems that leave less salt in the soil. They look for local solutions that will work best for that country. This includes looking at what has been done traditionally and implementing modern farming methods in ways that respect the local culture.ConclusionSo, let’s review what we covered today. I mentioned that about one third of the available land worldwide has become dry and less productive. The main reason for land degradation is people’s actions, including overgrazing by animals, overcutting of trees, and farming methods. As scientists learn more, we need to work to help countries make specific changes and for farmers to become better equipped so that they can preserve the good land that is left.Let me just add that if we look at the estimates of what the world population will be fifty years from now－about 9 billion people－it helps us see that protecting the good land that’s left needs to be a high priority.I’ll stop there. We’ll continue with this next class. That’s all for this afternoon.。

小学朗文英语词汇表1A词汇表Chapter三会单词句型语法1six, seven,, eight,Mike, Kelly, Tinky 1.How are you ? – I am fine, thank you.2.What is your name? – My name is_____.3.How old are you? –I am ____ years old.4.Nice to meet you. --- Nice to meet you, too2 a classmate,an English teacher;a class teacher 1.This is.......2.He is...3.She is ...4.We are....5.I am...3 a chair, a desk, a computer, a door,a window, a blackboard, awhiteboard e in, please.2.Sit down, please.3.Stand up, please.4.Open your books, please.5.Close your books, please.6.Look at the blackboard, please.7.Point to the blackboard, please.8.Don’t talk in class.4 a school bag a book a pencilcase a pen a pencil an erasera ruler I have a/one pen. He has two pens. She has two pens.5 a cat a dog a hamstera rabbita turtle a cow a horse a pig 1.I like this rabbit.2.I like that rabbit.3.I like these hamsters.4.I like those hamsters.5.It is big.6.It is small.7.They are fat.8.They are thin.6a hand(hands) an arm(arms)a mouth a leg (legs) hairan ear(ears) an eye(eyes) a nosea foot(feet)1.This is my cat.2.It has a long tail.3.These are my dogs.4.They have short tails.1B词汇表1B chapter 1三会单词： a ball, a doll, a robot, a teddy bear , a gun , a car , a train, a planeRed, orange, yellow , green, blue, purple , pink, white, black语法句子：What colour is it? It is green.What colour are they? They are blue and orange.1B chapter 2三会单词： a T-shirt, a shirt , a blouse, a dress, a skirt, a jacket, a hat, trousers, shorts, sock(S),shoe(S)语法句子：This is Jenny. Her skirt is red.This is Bobby. His shorts are blue.We are Sandy and Amy. Our dresses are orangeThey are Tom and Betty. Their T-shirts are green.1B chapter 3三会单词： a tree, a bird , the sky, a slide, a see-saw, a swing, a bench, a pond, the grass, a bee, an ant, a flower语法句子：What can you see? I can see a bird and an ant.1B Chapter 4三会单词：elephant, giraffe, hippo, lion, zebra, tiger, panda, monkey语法句子：How many elephants are there?There is one elephant./ There are eleven elephants.1B Chapter 5三会单词：read, sing, draw, play, talk, laugh, eat, drink, sleep.语法句子：What are you doing?I am reading. / We are reading.1B Chapter 6三会单词：swim, run, skip, ride a bicycle, dance, ice-skate, hike, make a model语法句子：What is he/she/it doing? He/She/It is swimming.What are they doing? They are swimming.2A词汇表2A Chapter 1单: classroom, library，art room, computer room , toilets, music room, lift, playground, garden, ground floor, first floor, second floor, third floor, fourth floor, fifth floor, sixth floor.语法句子：Is there a computer room? Yes, there is.It’s on the first floor.Is there an art room? No, there isn’t.2A Chapter 2三会单词: keep quiet , sit still, line up, keep off the grass, wait foryour turn, climb, spit, litter, pick the flowers.语法句子：You must keep quiet.You mustn’t spit.Sit still in the hall.Wait for your turn in the computer room.2A chapter 3三会单词：tired，bored, thirsty, hungry,Take a rest, watch DVDs, read comics, drink some juice/water, eat some biscuits/ cakes.语法句子：Are you hungry?Yes, I am./No, I’m not, I’m fine.I’m hungry. I’m hungry too.Let’s eat some biscuits.2A chapter 4三会单词：banana----bananas, pear---pears,mango----mangoes, potato---potatoespeach---peaches, sandwich---sandwichescherry---cherries, strawberry---strawberries语法句子：Do you want some bananas/ sandwiches/ cherries?Yes, please. I’m hungry.No,thank you. I’m fine.2A Chapter5词汇：on foot by bus by minibus by school bus by taxi by MTR/train by Light Rail by tram by ferry语法句子：Where do you live? I live in Sha Tin.How do you come to school?I come to school by bus/train.I come to school on foot.2A Chapter6词汇：school hospital fire station police station post office restaurant homea teacher a doctor a nurse a firemana policeman/policewoman a postmana waiter/ waitress a bus/taxi driver a housewife语法句子：What’s your father’s/mother’s job?He’s a fireman. He puts out fires.She’s a teacher. She teaches English.Do you have any brothers or sisters?Yes, I have one brother.Yes, I have two brothers and one sister.No, I have no brothers or sisters.2B单词和语法知识汇总Chapter1四会单词make the bed sweep the floor water the plantshang up the washing/fold the clothes set/clear the tablewalk/feed the dog语法：Do you help at home? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.Does he/she help at home? Yes, he/she does. No, he/she doesn’t.I make the bed.He/She folds the clothes.Chapter2四会单词tidy untidy hard-working lazy polite rude honest helpful语法：He/She washes the dishes every day/every week.He/She does not wash the dishes.Chapter3四会单词have piano/drawing lessons go to Brownies/Cub Scoutsgo to church study with my tutorvisit my grandma/grandpa/grandparents语法：What do you do on Mondays?What does he/she do on Sundays?I study with my tutor.He/She goes to church.Chapter4四会单词get up brush my teeth wash my face go to schoolhave breakfast/lunch/dinner do my homework go to bedhave a bath/shower语法：What time do you/they have a shower?What time does he/she have a shower?I/We/They have a shower at ten o’clock in the morning.I/We/They have a shower at two thirty in the afternoon.He/She has a shower at nine fifteen in the evening/at night.In+时间段，at+具体时间点（特殊的at night）Chapter5四会单词1. Season ( spring summer autumn winter) ，in+季节2.Activitygo to the park go to the beach go hiking eat hotpot 3. hot cold warm coolsunny foggy wet dry4. a coat a scarf gloves a T-shirt a sweatera cap a hat an umbrella boots a raincoat 语法：1. Which season do you like best?I like winter best.2. It is cold and dry.3. I usually eat hotpot in winter.I usually wear a coat and a scarf in winter.Chapter6四会单词1. Easter eat chocolate eggs2. Dragon Boat Festival watch dragon boat races3. Mid-Autumn Festival eat moon cakes4. Christmas get presents look at the Christmas lights5. Chinese New Yearget red packets go to the flower marketvisit relatives watch fireworks1. What is your favourite festival?My favourite is Easter.Why? Because I like eating chocolate eggs.like doing sth 喜欢做什么事情2.What do you like doing at Christmas?I like looking at the Christmas at Christmas.3A单词和语法知识汇总Chapter1四会单词1. food bread ham cheese butter jam milk2. sugar salt an egg(eggs) a mushroom (mushrooms)3. an onion (onions) a tomato (tomatoes)语法：1. First wash the apple.Then cut the apple into small pieces.2.Wash the apple. Cut it into small pieces.Wash the grapes. Put them into a bowl.Chapter2四会单词Countable nouns: vegetables noodlesa sandwich (sandwiches) a sausage (sausages) Uncountable nouns: rice congee soup juice语法：1.Is there any ham? Yes, there’s some ham.No, there isn’t any ham.2. Are there any eggs? Yes, there are a lot of eggs.No, there aren’t any eggs.Chapter3四会单词1. a slice of pizza a box of chicken wings2. a packet of potato chips a bottle of water3. a cup of lemon tea a can of cola4. a hamburger a hot dog an apple pie语法：1. How much is a hamburger/a slice of pizza?It’s twenty-three dollar.2. May I have three slices of pizza, a can of cola and two cups of lemon tea please? ---- Here you are.Chapter4四会单词1. cafe have afternoon tea hotel have a buffet lunch2. cinema watch a film restaurant eat dim sum3. clothes shop buy jeans gift shop buy a card4. Sportswear shop buy trainers sweet shopbuy sweets and chocolate语法：1. Where do you want to go?I want to go to the cafe/book shop.2. What do you want to do?I want to have afternoon tea/buy a comic.Chapter5四会单词1. Sports Day Open Day Parents’ Day Test Week2. Exam Week the school picnic English Camp语法：1.What’s the date? --It’s the third of December.2.When’s Parents’ Day? --It’s on the eleventh of November.3.When’s English Camp?It’s from the seventeenth of October to the twenty-first of October.Chapter6四会单词1. play badminton play table tennis play football2. play basketball play Chinese checkers play Chinese chess3. Play the piano play the violin play the guitar语法：1. Can you play badminton / play table tennis?Yes, I can. No, I can’t.2. I can play badminton and table tennis.I can play badminton but I can’t play football.I can’t play basketball or football.3. I’m good at sports.I’m not good at music.3B词汇表3BCH1四会单词English Chinese Maths Music Visual Arts PEright left behind between in front of next to good atCH1三会单词student doing sums speak in English write a poem get first prize timetableCH1 语法句型Barry sits between Dick and Fiona.Barry sits in fronts/behind/next to Ron.Barry sits on my left/right.He/She is good at doing sums.Ch2 四会单词listen to talk to look after play tricks on laugh at shout at fight with play with me you her him us themCH2 三会单词mouse angry afraid hide funny net get out free sometimes naughtyCh2 语法句型He listens to/plays with me/you/her.She doesn’t laugh at/fight with us/them.Ch3 四会单词good naughty weak strong careful careless shy friendly this/last year now was wereCh3 三会单词old a few years ago really sure fall down change popular nowadays electronic toyCh3 语法句子Four years ago, I/he/she was short. Now I am/he is/she is tall.Last year you/we/they were short. This year you/we/they are tall.Last year I was 126 cm/25 kg.Ch4四会单词listen to CDs/music watch TV/cartoons play computer games paint pictures chat with friends exam test yesterday last night at the weekendCh4三会单词so until get up nobody favourite without weekend after that listened looked painted playedchatted clapped dried tidied studiedCH4语法句型What did you do yesterday/last night/at the weekend?I played games with my parents.I was tired so I didn’t study for the English Test.Ch5 四会单词belt tie watch key ring towel purse wallet handbag card bought drank ate gave had rode saw sang tookCh5 三会单词special money gold watch broken new lovely never mind cookies happiness buffetCh5 语法句型What did you do on your birthday? I had a birthday party. My parents took me to a restaurant and we had a buffet dinner.What did you give your dad or mum on his/her birthday?I gave him/her a wallet.CH6四会单词build a sandcastle have a picnic fly a kite take photosgo hiking go shopping read magazines do puzzles make models enjoy where whatCh6三会单词boring before wood factory fishing time machine choose outdoor indoor during in the endCh6语法句型Did you enjoy the holiday/weekend? Yes, I did. No, I didn’t. Where did you go? I went to Lamma Island.What did you do there? I swam in the sea.4A 词汇表Chapter 1四会单词Hobbiescollect cards collect stickerscollect stamps read the newspaperread magazines read comicsgo swimming go cyclingplay computer games play the pianoplay the violin play footballplay basketball三会单词spare time always often sometimes seldom never surf the Net at weekend go joggingchat with friends listen to musicPlay Chinese chess play table tennis句型1. -What do you like doing in your spare time?-I like watching TV.2. I always / often / sometimes/ seldom /never play football on Mondays.Chapter 2四会单词small-smaller- smallest tall-taller-tallestshort-shorter-shortest light-lighter-lightestlong-longer-longest short-shorter-shortest young-younger-youngest old -older- oldestthin-thinner -thinnestfat-fatter-fattest big-bigger-biggestheavy-heavier- heaviest funny- funnier-funniesthair eyes nose ears mouth legs taillarge-larger-largest句型Peter is taller than me.Rocky is the heaviest.Kate’s eyes are bigger than Carol’s.Dan’s legs are the longest.Chapter 3四会单词a bunch of a packet ofa carton of soya milka tin of nuts a jar ofa bar of chocolate a loaf of bread expensive popular delicious cheap句型-How much is a bar of chocolate?-It’s $ 16.90.Cola is more expensive/ popular/ delicious than soya milk. Orange juice is the most expensive /popular/ delicious drink.Chapter 4四会单词salad meat mushrooms soup noodles dumplings pork chop chicken currybeef currygood better the bestbad worse the worst三会单词Chinese / Japanese/ Indian / Italian food句型1.--What would you like? --I’d like some salad.2.--Which would you like, chicken curry or beef curry?--I’d like beef curry.3. King Restaurant is better/ worse than Queen Restaurant.Rainbow Restaurant is the best.Chapter 5四会单词a supermarket a shopping center an airporta theme parkelectronic games a mobile phone a DVD playeran MP3 player a digital cameraeverybody nobody句型1. --Was there an airport 20 years ago?--Yes , there was.--No, there wasn’t.2. ---Were there any buses 60 years ago?--- Yes, there were.----No, there weren’t.3. There was/ wasn’t a theme park 20 years ago.4. There were buses 20 years ago.There weren’t any supermarkets 60 years ago.5. Everybody had a radio when Grandma was young.Nobody played electronic games when Grandma was young.Chapter 6四会单词Comb my hair get dressed do up my buttons tie my shoelaces pack carry school bag climb the stairs 句型I could comb my hair when I was six.I couldn’t tie my shoelaces when I was six.I/he/she/you/we/they could climb the stairs bymyself/himself/herself/yourself/ourselves/themselves.Chapter 7四会单词News weather report a drama a cartoon a documentary a pop music show a sports programme a cookery grogramme a game show informative exciting interesting touching boring silly句型I like documentaries. I like the news and the weather reports too.I don’t like dramas. I don’t like cookery programmes either.I don’t want to watch HK Basketball or World Football.I want to watch both Music Today and Cantopop.4B词汇表4B Chapter 1四会词：visit Hong Kong wetland park , watch the birds , eat seafood , do water sports , go hiking , take phones on the Avenue of Stars , visit Disneyland, ride on the cable car, visit the Big Buddha, look at the view of Hong Kong,visit Golden Bauhinia Square ,句型：- Where will you go on the first day?-We’ll go to the Peak.-What will you do there?-I’ll\We’ll look at the view of Hong Kong.-Will you visit the Avenue of Stars?-Yes, I /we will. No, I/ we won’t.4B Chapter 2四会词：a post office, a news-stand, an MTR station/a train station, a bakery, a clinic, a sports centre, a department store, a health and beauty store, a convenience store.句型：1.Where can I find a bank ?2.How do I get to the MTR station ?3.Go out of the MTR station.Go/Walk straight ahead.Walk across the road.The post office is next to the fire station.The post office is opposite the fire station.Turn left/right into Causeway Road.The post office is on your left/right.4B Chapter 3四会词：types of food, macaroni, spaghetti, food groups, meat, steak, beef, chicken, pork, vegetables, lettuce, broccoli, carrots, peas, potatoes, tomatoes, noodles, pasta, cherries, grapes, lychees, longans,句型：1. You need to eat fewer /more sweets.2. You need to eat less/more meat.3. He ate a lot of broccoli/ cherries.4. He ate a few cherries.5. He ate a little fish.4B Chapter 4四会词：junk food, sugary food, salty food, fried food, soft drinks, dairy products, grain products句子：1.. Grain products are good for us.2. Sugary food is bad for us.3. Too much salty food is bad for us.4. Too many potato chips are bad for us.4B Chapter 5四会单词：do Maths/Enlish/Chinese exercises, do revision, go to bed early, do more sports, keep a diary, tidy my bookshelf/bookshelves/room, watch less TV, read more books句型1.I’m going tokeep a diary in English. I’ll begood in English.2.I’m going to do revision everyday. I won’tfail my test.语法点：be going to do sth 打算去做某事will+ 动词原形将要做什么4B Chapter 6词组：change my facecloth, change my socks, change my uniform,wash my sports shoes, cut my fingernails, wash my hair, go to the dentist, help with the housework句型：1.How often do you go swimming?I go swimming once /twice/three times a day/week/month/year.2.How often do you go to the dentist ?I go to the dentist three times a year.3.He ought to help with the housework once a week.4.He ought to wash his sports shoes twice a month.。

朗⽂英语听说教程2朗⽂英语听说教程（⼆）QuizUnit 1 What’s in a Name?1. a. They name them after grandparents.b. They choose names they like.c. They choose names of family friends.2. a. Boys’ namesb. Girls’ namesc. Boys’ and girls’ names3. a. Place namesb. Occupational namesc. Added names4. a. Place namesb. Added namesc. Occupational names5. Describe three ways parents choose first names for their children.6. What is the origin of the name Smith? Why does the name Smith exist in so many languages?Answer Key1. b2. a3. a4. b5. Some parents name their children after friends or family members who have died recently. Other parents pass down names from generation to generation. Others choose names because they like how they sound.6. The name Smith comes from the English word “smite,” to strike. A smith made metal tools and other things people needed for daily life. Many languages have names that mean smith because every town had a smith.Unit 2 English: A Global Language?1. a. English is not a global language.b. English is a global language.c. English is the official language.2. a. Many taxi drivers prefer English to Italian.b. Many people speak English fluently.c. Many people use English for their jobs.3. a. New Yorke rs don’t always speak English.b. New Yorkers need English for everyday purposes.c. New Yorkers need English to be successful.4. a. People need a common language for specialsituations.b. People are becoming more fluent in English.c. Pilots should be fluent in several languages.5. Give three examples to support the view that English is a global language.6. Give three examples to support the view that English is not a global language.Answer Key1. b2. c3. a4. a5. First, English is the main language of science and business. Second, many people study English because they need it for their daily lives. Third, English is used as a common language for international sporting events and meetings.6. First, many people do not use English for daily communications. Second, many people use English only for specialized job situations but don’t speak it fluently. Third, many people don’t speak English even in countries where English is the official language.Unit 3 High Anxiety: Phobias1. a. Mildb. Extremec. Normal2. a. Phobias are uncomfortable.b. Phobias are common.c. Phobias are learned.3. a. By what people fearb. By how people reactc. By the problem they cause4. a. Phobias are the problems themselves.b. Phobias are signs for deeper problems.c. Phobias are quite easy to control.5. Explain the two theories of what causes phobias. Give examples.6. How would followers of each theory differ in their treatment of patients?Answer Key1. b2. c3. a4. d5. The first theory is that a phobia is learned. For example, a woman who was bitten by a dog feels afraid whenever she seesa dog. The second theory is that a phobia is a sign of a deeper problem. For example, a man is afraid of the dark because he’s really afraid of his father, who used to make him sit in a dark room.6. Followers of both theories try to help patients change their behavior. Followers of the second theory also try to identify the patients’ deeper problems.Unit 4 TV: What We Watch1. a. It influences our work.b. It influences our clothes.c. It influences our literature.2. a. People like the universal themes.b. People are interested in culture.c. People everywhere have TVs.3. a. They identify with the characters.b. They have a lot of free time.c. They like the advertising.4. a. Create a continuing storyb. Create funny charactersc. Create character loyalty5. What does character loyalty mean? Give an example.6. If you were writing a soap opera, what themes would you include? Why?Answer Key1. b2. a3. a4. c5. Character loyalty means that viewers become very attached to the characters. They think of them as friends. For example, in the TV show “Seinfeld,” viewers get to know the main characters (Jerry, Elaine, George, and Kramer) and look forward to spending time with them.6. I would include themes such as family, love, personal struggles, money problems, marriage problems, job problems, and health problems. These are universal themes that appeal to everybody.Unit 5 Learning Differently1. a. Dyslexic students need special schools.b. Dyslexic students need teachers who can beflexible.c. Dyslexic students shouldn’t attend school.2. a. Dyslexia may cause problems at school.b. Dyslexia may be hard to treat.c. Dyslexia may be an inherited condition.3. a. They generally score well on intelligence test.b. They generally appear intelligent to their teachers.c. They generally follow directions well.4. a. To help students do better at schoolb. To build special schools for dyslexic studentsc. To use computer chips to help dyslexic children5. Summarize Dr. Levinson’s ideas on how the brain is like a TV set.6. What kind of teacher should be helpful for students with dyslexia?Answer Key1. b2. c3. a4. a5. Dr. Levinson thinks the brain is like a TV set because they both have many channels. People receive signals about what they see and hear. If the signal drift, people can’t tune in to the cor rect channels and don’t process information correctly.6. A teacher that would be helpful for students with dyslexia would be flexible about how to teach different subjects. The teacher would also understand the problems dyslexic children face. In addition, the teacher would try to help the students feel better about themselves.Unit 6 Immigration: Bound for the United States1. a. A permanent move to another countryb. A temporary move to another countryc. A forced move to another country2. a. Most immigrants were from Spain or France.b. Everyone was allowed to immigrate to the UnitedStates.c. Most immigrants was not voluntary.3. a. The industrial revolution in Europeb. Families and friends in the United Statesc. Jobs on farms in California4. a. Why the immigrants came to the United Statesb. What work the immigrants didc. Where the immigrants came from5. Why was the Naturalization Act of 1798 important?6. Why was the United States called a melting pot? What has replaced the idea of a melting pot?Answer Key1. a2. b3. a4. c5. The Naturalization Act of 1798 allowed government to control immigration. The act required immigrants to live in the United States for a certain number of years before they became citizens.6. The United States was called a “melting pot” because people thought immigrants should give up their traditions to create a uniform society. This was replaced with the idea of a “mixed salad.” The idea is that immigrants keep their traditions and mix together to create a strong society.Unit 7 Who’s Calling the Shots?1. a. A good manager always works very hard.b. A good manager rewards employees for theirwork.c. A good manager tells employees what to do.2. a. To give the employees a break from the officeb. To make the employees like the new managerc. To help the employees work better together3. a. So the employees understand that management isin control.b. So the employees know that management valuestheir ideas.c. So the employees understand why changes areoccurring4. a. Employee relations is important.b. Managers can make mistakes.c. Management styles often vary.5. Why has team-building become important for managers?6. Describe the three parts of Mrs. Gomez’steam-building plan.Answer Key1. b2. c3. b4. a5. Managers now realize that employees like to feel like they are part of a team. If employees think their ideas are valued and their skills are important to the company, they will do their best work.6. First, Mrs. Gomez met with the employees to discuss the new office organization. Then, she had the employees write answers to questions about the new office organization. Finally, she planned a fun activity so they could get to know each other.Unit 8 Right and Wrong on the Net1. a. To provide guidelines for ethical computer useb. To increase the use of computers in schoolsc. To solve computer problems caused by hacking2. a. Reading a friend’s e-mailb. Using a friend’s screen namec. Downloading free software3. a. Students should use the Internet ethically.b. Students should stop using the Internet.c. Students should enforce computer ethics rules.4. a. Government laws about computer useb. School rules about computer usec. Student-made guidelines about computer use5. What is the purpose of the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics? What are the main principles behind them?6. Explain one of the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics. Give an example.Answer Key1. a2. c3. a4. b5. The purpose of the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics is to provide guidelines for ethical use of computers. The main principles behind them are that people should respect other people’s property and use resources fairly.6. According to one commandment, you should not appropriate other people’s ideas. This means you shouldn’t pretend someone else’s ideas are yours. For example, it is not ethical to download a term paper from the Internet and pretend you have written it.Unit 9 Which Way Will It Go?1. a. Global weather changesb. The loss of productive landc. Overgrazing of farm animals2. a. To emphasize that land is very expensiveb. To emphasize that people live on every continentc. To emphasize that the problem will get worse3. a. A quarterb. A thirdc. Half4. a. Fewer plants grow.b. Less rain falls.c. Fewer animals graze.5. What are the main causes of productive land loss?6. How are organizations helping countries deal with productive land loss? Give an example.Answer Key1. b2. c3. b4. a5. The main causes of productive land loss are people’s actions. These actions include overgrazing of animals, overcutting of trees, and traditional farming methods that no longer work well.6. Organizations are trying to help countries find solutions to productive land loss. They look at both traditional methods and modern methods that respect the local culture. For example, they may suggest new irrigation systems that leave less salt in the soil.Unit 10 It’s in the DNA1. a. The existence of genesb. The complete set of human genesc. The structure of DNA2. a. Because everyone has a unique DNA sampleb. Because everyone has different health problemsc. Because everyone reacts to medicine differently3. a. Defects in these genes cause the diseases.b. Defects in these genes may cause the diseases.c. Defects in these genes prevent the diseases.4. a. It increases drug sales.b. It saves lives and money.c. It prevents genetic defects.5. How is a DNA fingerprint made? Explain the steps.6. How could employers or insurance companies use DNA testing against people?Answer Key1. c2. a3. b4. b5. DNA testing can be used to help someone in prison in the following way. A DNA sample can be taken from the prisoner. Testing is then done. If the DNA does not match the DNA from the evidence at the crime scene, this can be used to prove that the person in prison did not commit the crime.6. Employers could use the information from DNA testing to deny people jobs or fire them if they’re at higher risk for serious diseases. Insurance companies could use the information to deny people insurance or charge them higher rates.Unit 11 Staying Healthy1. a. People have weaker immune systems.b. People are traveling more internationally.c. Environmental problems are increasing.2. a. We need to be careful in international airports.b. Travel to Europe can cause problems.c. We need to be aware of risks and take precautions.3. a. Fight diseases where we liveb. Travel to other countriesc. Develop treatments4. a. It helps to increase immunity.b. It makes the immune system work overtime.c. It helps treat some diseases.5. What is adaptive immunity? Give an example.6. How are allergies and diseases related?Answer Key1. b2. c3. a4. a5. “Adaptive immunity” means people build up resistance to the germs where they live. As a result, they are not affected by them. For example, someone living in Tokyo has adaptive immunity to the germs in Tokyo, but not to the germs in Paris.6. Allergies and diseases are both based on our immune responses. With allergies, the immune system is working too hard. With diseases, w e aren’t able to resist the cause of the disease.Unit 12 Prepare, Prepare1. a. Property damageb. Disruption of normal lifec. Loss of ocean life2. a. To prevent natural disastersb. To prepare for natural disastersc. To predict natural disasters3. a. Researching and planningb. Recovering and rebuildingc. Organizing emergency supplies4. a. Researching and planningb. Recovering and rebuildingc. Organizing emergency supplies5. What is the difference between a natural hazard anda natural disaster?6. Why is it difficult for some countries to initiate an emergency response plan?Answer Key1. c2. b3. a4. c5. A natural hazard is a force in nature that can be dangerous. Examples include hurricanes, typhoons, and earthquakes. A natural disease is a force in nature that has caused a lot of damage. An example is a serious earthquake that causes death and property loss.6. To initiate an emergency response plan, a country needs scientific information, money, and cooperation between scientists and the government. Many countries don’t have scientific information or the money to use it. Also, governments may not warn people about a disaster because they’re not sure it will occur.朗⽂英语听说教程（⼀）QuizUnit 2 New Kinds of Food (1’:50”)1. a. Fresh foodb. Dangerous foodc. Altered food2. a. Strawberriesb. Applesc. Bananas3. a. It needs fewer pesticides.b. It grows in less space.c. It dominates the environment.4. a. It may stay fresh longer.b. It may be more expensive.c. It may be harmful to people.5. What are three benefits of genetically modified food?6. What are three risks of genetically modified food?Answer Key1. c2. a3. a4. c5. Genetically modified food needs fewer pesticides. Genetically modified food/plants grow better than normal. In addition,they stay fresh longer after they are harvested.6. Genetically modified food/plants may dominate other plants in the environment. Also, they might hurt wild animals and insects. They might even hurt the people who eat them.Unit 3 Public Art (2’:02”)1. a. Art in museumsb. Art in people’s housesc. Art in public places2. a. Spoonbridge and Cherry (spoon and cherry)b. Non-Violence (gun in knot)c. Peace (woman on horse)3. a. Public artb. Surrealismc. Peace4. a. To make people go to museumsb. To make artists more popularc. To make public places more beautiful5. What is pop art? Give an example.6. What is surrealistic art? Give an example.Answer Key1. c2. c3. c4. c5. Pop art shows things people see in their everyday lives. Spoonbridge and Cherry, the sculpture of a large spoon with a cherry, is an example of pop art.6. Surrealistic art shows things that are strange or impossible. Non-Violence, the sculpture of a gun tied in a knot, is an example of surrealistic art.Unit 5 Violence on Television (2’:11”)1. a. Three to four hours a dayb. Three to four hours a weekc. Thirty to forty hours a week2. a. Moviesb. Cartoonsc. The news3. a. About 1,000b. About 10,000c. About 100,0004. a. TV violence is linked to real violence.b. TV violence is not harmful for children.c. TV violence is increasing in the United States.5. How did researchers study the immediate effects of TV violence on children?6. How did researchers study the long-term of TV violence on children?Answer Key1. a2. b3. c4. a5. The researchers showed children a TV show of a child hitting and kicking a doll. Then they left the children alone with a doll. The children hit and kicked the doll. This study showed that children do what they see on TV.6. The researchers studied how much violent television some children watched at age eight. Then they studied the same children at age eighteen. The children who watched a lot of violence TV were more violent at age eighteen.Unit 6 Too Old to Learn? (2’:06”)1. a. Before the critical periodb. During the critical periodc. After the critical period2. a. Seeb. Eatc. Meow3. a. Seeb. Eatc. Sing4. a. The ability to hear soundsb. The ability to pronounce soundsc. The size of the brain5. Define critical period. Give an example.6. What is difficult for adult language learners? Why?Answer Key1. b2. a3. c4. b5. The critical period is when an animal or human can learn a new skill. For example, in humans there is a critical period for language learning.6. Adults find it difficult to pronounce sounds correctly. Therefore, they may never learn to speak a new language with anative accent.Unit 7 Are We Alone? (2’:15”)1. a. Intelligent beingsb. Other galaxiesc. Rocket ships2. a. They have received signals from other planets.b. They have seen rockets from other planets.c. They believe other planets could support life.3. a. By sending out radio signalsb. By listening for radio signalsc. By sending out rockets4. a. Radio signals travel quickly and have a short range.b. Radio signals travel quickly and have a long range.c. Radio signals travel slowly and have a long range.5. How fast do radio signals travel? How long is needed for a radio signal to travel from the nearest galaxy to earth?6. Why doesn’t the SE TI project use rockets to look for intelligent life?Answer Key1. a2. c3. b4. b5. Radio signals travel at the speed of light. A radio signal travels about four years from the nearest galaxy to earth.6. Rocket ships are restricted to traveling in one direction. And they are much slower than radio signals.Unit 8 Do the Right Thing (1’:55”)1. a. Do what is best for most people.b. Do what is best for everybody.c. Do what is best for yourself.2. a. Take care of other people.b. Do what is best for yourself.c. Make your own decisions.3. a. Aristotleb. Kantc. Bentham4. a. The principle of individual rightsb. The principle of individual goodc. The principle of common good5. Explain why the friend in the lecture wanted to lie to the dying woman.6. Use an ethical principle to explain how the friend can justify lying to the dying woman.Answer Key1. a2. c3. b4. c5. The friend thought spending a lot of money on an expensive funeral was a waste of money. He wanted to give the money to a school for homeless children.6. Following the principle of common good, the friend will help more people if he gives the money to the school for homeless children. The only person he might hurt is the dying woman.。

二年级英语朗文必备内容（pdf）Unit1 coming to school一要求会默写的词汇bus 公共汽?车 school bus 校?车 minibus 迷你巴?士 ferry 渡船MTR 地铁LRT 激光环形?车 tram 电?车 pupil 学?生 children 孩?子taxi 出租?车get into groups分组walk ?走路路ask 问join加?入minute分钟girl?女女孩。

boy男孩二要背默的句句?子：1 How do you come to school？你怎么来学校？2 I come to school on foot.我?走路路来学校的。

3 I come to school by MTR.4 I walk to school .5 How many pupils come by bus.6 One pupils comes by car.7 Seven pupils come by school bus.8 Then get into groups.9 come on ,wendy.10 Ask your friends.Unit 2 About me一要求会默写的词汇什什么 what 阳光sun 住 live 家 home 哪?里里 where 多?大how old…?班 grade 的?士 Taxi二要求会背默的句句?子1 What's your name?2 My name’s kitty /I’m kitty.3 How old are you？I’m seven.4 where do you live? I live in wan chai.5 what’s your telephone number?6 It’s 23234546.7 welcome to our class.Unit 3一要求会默写的词汇老老师 teacher 英语 English 中?文 Chinese 先?生 sir ／Mr ?女女?士 lady/madam/Mrs 她的宾格 her 数学Math ?工作 work 认为／想法 think 尝试／尽?力力 try谁是who’s ?音乐 music 他的宾格 his 科学 science 艺术art 二要求会背默的句句?子1 who’s your PE teacher?2 My PE teacher is Mrs Lee.3 She’s kind .I like her .4 who’s your Math teacher?5 My Math teacher is Mr wong.6 He’s helpful .I like him.7 Do you like him?8 Yes,I do.He is friendly9 Do you like her?10 Yes,I do.She’s helpful11 who’s that?That’s Mrs tamUnit 4 People at work一要求会默写的词汇医?生 doctor 男服务?生 waiter 分钟 minute 护?士 nurse牙医dentist 厨师cook ?小丑clown 司机driver 家庭主妇housewife 消防员?reman ?女女警察policewoman ?火 ?re 二要求会背默的句句?子1 What’s your mother’s job?2 She’s a housewife.3 What’s your father’s job?4 He’s a waiter.5 What’s your job?6 I’m a ?reman .9 Where do you work?10 I work in a ?re station.Unit 5 Signs we see一要求会默写的词汇爬 climb 花 ?ower 画画 draw ?走 walk鸭duck 喝? drink 喂feed 树tree读read 制造 make 草grass 唱歌 sing摘pick 垃圾rubbish 滑冰skating 仍still噪声 noise二要求会背默的句句?子1 Walk on the path please.2 Don’t walk on the grass.sorry3 Can we climb the trees?4 No, we can’t.5 Can I feed the monkeys?6 No, you can’t.Unit 6 Places in the park一要求默写的词汇操场 playground 池塘 pond 出?口 exit 在....的前?面 in front of 游泳池 swimming pool 在.....的后?面 behind 厕所 toliet 在...和....的中间between 花园 garden 在...的旁边 beside 在....下?面 below 二会背的句句?子1 Where’s the playground?2 It’s between the pond and the garden3 Where’s the snack bar?4 It’s in front of the exit.5 Where are the toilet ?6 They are behind the garden.7 I want to wash my hands.8 Don[t wash your hands here.9 You can go to the toilets.。

Unit 10 It's in the DNATEACHER: Good morning. Today we'll talk about an important topic in biology-DNA and DNA testing. Can anybody tell us what DNA stands for?STUDENT 1: de-oxyribonucleic acid....TEACHER: Right. It's the molecule that carries genetic information in all living cells. Now first, we'll look at what DNA is and when it was discovered. Then, we’ll look at DNA testing and several applications, or uses of testing. This is an exciting topic for biologists because the more we learn about DNA, the more we see how science may change our lives-from healthcare to our relationships. OK, what does DNA look like?STUDENT 1: It looks like two strings, kind of wrapping around each other.TEACHER: Yes, exactly. There's a simple drawing of one in your book. As you can see, a molecule of DNA consists of two strands of chemical compounds arranged in a twisted pattern. Inside the human cell are chromosomes. The DNA is organized in twenty-three pairs of chromosomes in the ceil Genes are arranged on the chromosomes and these carry jUnd4menutl genetic information like hair color, eye color, or characteristics that aren't ad visable, such as intelligence. and a lot more. Scientists have been studying DNA for a long time. First, in 1860, Gregor Mendel made two important discoveries: tiny particles he called genes, and, that genes carry information from cell 10 cell. Now this was really the beginning. Then, in 1953, J. D. Watson and Francis Crick discovered and described the DNA structure. Their work was so important that they received the Nobel Prize in 1962. For the first time, scientists could understand exactly how DNA tells the cells what 10 do. This generated more DNA research, and by the end of the twentieth century, scientists made other important discoveries. Probably the most important work was the Human Genome Project. The goal of the Human Genome Project was to complete the first reading of the human genome, the complete set of human DNA. Uh, this was a huge job, but after ten long years in June,2000, the head of the Project announced that they had identified the complete set of human genes. Uh, this was a huge deal. Most people saw this as the beginning of a whole new era in DNA research. Scientists could read all of the genetic messages in the human body! This is, of course, a very brief history of the study of DNA. All right, let's consider DNA testing. One important use of DNA testing is testing identity, which is also called DNA t1ngerprinting. Here's how a DNA fingerprint is done. Scientists take a small sample of someone's hair or skin, which contain DNA. Next, they treat the sample with chemicals and make a film, like a small photograph. On this film there is a visible pattern of black bars. This pattern of black bars is unique for each person. So, a DNA sample from your hair identifies you, it's, it's like your fingerprint; it identifies you and you only. I see a question. Miguel?STUDENT 2: Does the DNA from hair or skin or blood all look the same?TEACHER: No, not exactly. The DNA from your hair will look like hair DNA but it will be uniquely your DNA pattern. It's sort of like all noses look like noses, right? Bur your nose looks like your nose only. Now I want to look at two applictltjDns, or uses, of DNA testing. First, how it can be used by doctors, and second, how it can be used by the police. Within health care, one important use is to identify potential for health problems. Researchers have found some genes linked to specific diseases. For example. Huntington’s disease is linked to a defect in chromosome 4, and Alzheimer's diseases linked to a defect in chromosome 19. A genetic link means that doctors know that if someone has defects in these genes. they’re more likely to get these health problems;their potential is increased. Notice, I didn’t say "Researchers have found that some gene defects cause specific diseases." There is simply a link. After doctors perform DNA testing, they can then decide the best way 10 use the information. For example, they may give medication to a patient to prevent a disease from ever starting. Genetic testing can also be used to decide which medicine to give someone. This is called targeted medicine. To me, this is very exciting and promising. There are tiny differences in DNA from person to person. These differences can affect which patients will be helped by a drug, and who may be harmed by it. This is, uh, a tremendous advantage. [t saves lives and money. NOW, let's look at how DNA testing is used by police. The police can use DNA fingerprints to identify and frau criminals. All they need is a small amount, or trace, of blood or hair from the crime scene. if the DNA samples from the crime scene and the suspect match, the results, at least in the United States, can be used as evidence in court. So, DNA testing can be used 10 help put someone in prison. In much the same way, DNA testing can be used 10 help innocent people in prison. People in prison can now try to use DNA testing for crimes that happened, say, ten years ago. If their DNA fingerprint doesn’t match the DNA fingerprint from the crime scene, this can help them get a new trial and perhaps get them out of prison. As you can see, there are benefits to DNA testing. However, there are also some concerns that this type of information might be used against us in the future. Now let's consider how DNA testing could be used against you. What if a company you wanted to work for asked you to take a DNA test? And what if your DNA test showed that you had a gene defect linked to a certain type of cancer? Would the company decide not to hire you? People also worry about health insurance. They’re afraid they might not be able to get health insurance if their DNA test shows they're at a higher risk for certain diseases. As a result, in the United States, some laws have been passed to protect the privacy of medical records. Now DNA testing has other possibilities that we won’t discuss today. But in any case, many people think about the negative uses of testing-the fear that it will be used against people or to create "perfect" babies. Others think about police being able to trace criminals and possible advances in healthcare. But, another way 10 think about it is that it tells us more about who we are, and that's the goal of biology-to understand nature.[ guess ['II stop there for Toady. [n the next class, I want to talk in more depth about uses of DNA testing by doctors. OK, we'll start there next time. That's, uh, that's all for today.。

Unit 1 What’s in a Name?TEACHER: Good morning, everybody. Good morning, Felipe, Monica, Theo, . . . and I can’t remember your name.STUDENT 1: Patricia.TEACHER: Right, Patricia. Those are all beautiful names, and that’s our topic today—names. Names are a cultural universal. This means everyone uses names. A person’s name can tell us a bit about a person’s family. Today, we’ll begin by looking at first names and how people choose names for their children. And then we’ll talk about family names, and look at the different categories of family names. Although the scope of the lecture today is English-language names, we can use the same approach, you know, to look at names from any culture.Let’s take a brief look at first, or given, names. There are several ways parents choose the first name for their child.The first way is by family history. Parents may choose a name because it is passed from generation to generation; for example, the firstborn son might be named after his father or grandfather. Although family names are also passed to daughters, it is usually as a middle name. Adding “junior” or “the second”—for example, William Parker the second—is only done with boys’, not with girls’ names.The second way parents choose a name is after a family member or friend who has died recently, or after someone they admire, like a well-known leader or a famous musician. Although most English first names mean something, for example, “Richard” means powerful and “Ann” means grace, nowadays meaning is not the main reason people select their baby’s name.The third way is to provide a “push”for the child. Parents want to choose a name that sounds very “successful.” A strong name might help them in the business world, for example. Or they might choose a name that works for either gender, like Taylor or Terry. So, given these three methods, what is the most common way parents choose a name? Many parents choose a name simply because they like it, or because it’s fashionable or classic. Fashions in names change just as they do in clothes. One hundred years ago, many names came from the Bible—names such as Daniel, and Anna, and Hannah and Matthew. Then, fifty years ago, Biblical names went out of fashion. Nowadays, names from the Bible are becoming popular again. Similarly, parents often choose classic names, names that were popular in 1900, 1950, and are still popular now. Classic names for boys include Thomas, David, Robert, and Michael. And for girls: Anna, Elizabeth, Emily, and Katherine, just to name a few. They’re classic. They never go out of style.Let’s look at the origin of last names, also called family names or surnames. Researchers have studied thousands of last names, and they’ve divided them into four categories. The categories are: place names, patronymics, added names, and occupational names. A recent survey showed that of the 7,000 most popular names in the United States today, 43 percent were place names, 32 percent were patronymics, 15percent were occupational names, and 9 percent were added names.The first category is place names. Place names usually identified where a person lived or worked. Someone named John Hill lived near a hill, for example, and the Rivers family lived near a river. If you hear the name Emma Bridges, . . . what image do you see? Do you see a family that lives near a bridge? If you do, you get the idea.The second category is patronymics. That’s P-A-T-R-O-N-Y-M-I-C-S. A patronymic is the father’s name, plus an ending like S-E-N or S-O-N. The ending means that a child, a boy, is the son of his father. The names Robertson, Petersen, and Wilson are patronymics. Robertson is son of Robert, Petersen is son of Peter, and so on.The third category is added names. Linguists sometimes call this category “nicknames,” but when most of us hear the word “nickname,”we think of a special name a friend or a parent might use. The word “nickname” is actually an old English word that means an additional name, an added name. So I’ll use the term “added name.”This category of last names is fun because the names usually described a person. Reed, Baldwin, and Biggs are examples. Reed was from “red” for red hair. Baldwin was someone who was bald, someone who had little or no hair. And Biggs?STUDENT 2: Someone big?TEACHER: Yeah, someone big, right. Now, if we look around the room, we could probably come up with some new last names, like, uh, Curly or Strong.Now, the fourth category is occupational names. The origin of the family name was the person’s occupation. The most common examples of occupational names still used today are Baker (someone who bakes bread), Tailor (someone who sews clothes), Miller (someone who makes flour for bread), and Smith. . . . Now, Smith is actually the most common name in the western English-speaking world. The name comes from an Old English word, smite, that’s S-M-I-T-E, which means to hit or strike. In the old days, a smith made metal things for daily life, like tools. Every town needed smiths. What’s interesting is that many languages have a family name that means Smith. In Arabic it’s Haddad, H-A-D-D-A-D. In Spanish it’s Herrera, H-E-R-R-E-R-A. In Italian it’s Ferraro, F-E-R-R-A-R-O. And in German it’s Schmidt, spelled S-C-H-M-I-D-T. All these names mean smith.Though names may tell us something about someone’s family history, you need to keep in mind that they may not tell us much at all about the present. For example, there’s usually not much connection between the origin of the name and the person who has it now. Take the name Cook, for instance. A person named Cook today probably doesn’t cook for a living. Also, many people change their names for various reasons. Lots of people who have moved to the United States have changed their names to sound more American. This happens less now than in the past, but people still do it. People also use pen names or stage names to give themselves a professional advantage. For example, the writer Samuel Clemens used the pen name Mark Twain, and Thomas Mapother IV uses the stage name Tom Cruise.So, let’s recap now. In today’s lesson, we looked at how parents choose English first names. We also looked at some common origins of family names. In the next class, we’ll look at how names are given in Korea and in Japan. This is covered in the next section of the book. That’s all for today.。

朗⽂英语听说教程⼆听⼒原⽂_Unit_03Unit 3 High Anxiety: PhobiasTEACHER: Good afternoon. Today we’re going to turn to a new topic in psychology and start looking at some specific psychological problems. There are a variety of mental problems that can affect us in our daily lives some are not so serious, like a fear of cats or of insects, and others are more serious. Now as psychologists, we try to study these different problems and find ways to help people.I want to start the discussion by talking about a fairly common kind of psychological problem a phobia, that’s P-H-O-B-I-A. First, I’ll explain what a phobia is, and then I’ll talk about some theories on why people have phobias. As you probably know, a phobia is a fear. So do any of you have phobias? Oh, come on, you can tell me; I’m a psychologist. Yes, Monica?STUDENT l: I have a fear of swimming. I don’t like to go near the ocean.TEACHER: OK, that’s not an unusual phobia. Anyone else? Ali?STUDENT 2: I hate dogs. I mean, I just don’t like them. When I see a big dog, actually any dog, I just get nervous, so I avoid them.TEACHER: OK, that’s another common phobia. Thanks for sharing those examples of phobias. A phobia is not a normal fear; it is an extreme fear a very strong fear. For example, my brother, who’s a successful artist, had computer phobia. He didn’t simply dislike using computers. He used to have a very strong fear of using them.Psychologists have come up with three characteristics of a phobia. People display these three characteristics if they have a phobia, not just a normal fear. Now first, a phobia is not a rational response. It’s a very strong reaction, too strong for the situation. For my brother, this meant he had a very strong physical reaction if someone asked him to use a computer. He started shaking violently and had trouble breathing. Once, he even started choking. Physical reactions like this are common. Second, a phobia often lasts for a long time, for months or even years. In my brother’s case, it lasted several years. Third, the reaction is too strong for a person to control. For example, even if my brother told himself not to be afraid at the computer, it didn’t help. He still felt very afraid. Usually, people avoid whatever it is they are so afraid of. So, in my brother’s case, he avoided using a computer.OK, so those are the three characteristics of phobias. It’s an extreme, irrational response, it’s long-lasting, and it’s uncontrollable.STUDENT 3: So uncontrollable means even if you try to control it, you can’t?TEACHER: Yes, it means you can’t control it by trying to deny you feel the phobia. There are ways to treat phobias, and we’ll talk about those in a minute. Yes?STUDENT 4: What happened to your brother? Did he get over it?TEACHER: Yes, he did. The main thing was that he decided that he wanted to get over it, and he was treated by a psychologist. Now he uses computers all the time.OK, so let’s spend a minute going over some classifications of phobias. Phobias are classified by the thing or situation that the person fears. Greek or Latin names are usually used to describe the fear. Here’s an example: hypno, H-Y-P-N-O, means sleep, so fear of sleep is hypnophobia. Cyno, C-Y-N-O, means dog. So a fear of dog is . . . cynophobia, right? Here’s another example. Aerophobia. Listen to the first part, Aero. What’s the fear? Aero as in airplane aerophobia is fear of flying.Let’s turn now to the causes of phobias. One theory is that a phobia is learned. This means something happens that causes someone, or in a sense “teaches someone” to feel afraid. For example, Ali could have learned to be afraid of dogs if he was attacked and injured by one as a child.People can also learn to have phobias by watching how other people react. In fact, doctors find that phobias tend to run in families. For example, let’s imagine that Ali’s mother has always been afraid of dogs. Whenever Ali and his mother were together and saw a dog, his mother would get very scared, very nervous. When Ali saw how his mother reacted, he would then gradually become very scared, too. He would then have developed cynophobia from watching his mother. So, you can see that there are two ways learning can be involved in phobias. So, the first theory is that a phobia is learned. Learned either by direct experience or by watching the reactions of others.The second theory says that a phobia is only a sign of a deeper problem. This means that the phobia isn’t the whole problem. Let’s take another example. I once treated a teenager who was very afraid of the dark. He couldn’t be in a dark room by himself. He was terrified to go outside at night, and so on. According to this theory, when he acted afraid of the dark, he wasreally showing his fear of something else. In therapy, it was revealed that he was afraid of his father. His father was very strict when he was young, and once his father made him sit in a dark room when he did something bad. According to this theory, his fear of the dark was a sign of his deeper, real fear of his father. Yes, question.STUDENT 4: So what did you do? Did he have to talk with his father?TEACHER: Well, no, we couldn’t do that. But recognizing that he was really afraid of his father, and not the dark, was the key step in the treatment. Now he’s cured. No more fear of the dark.OK, so let’s think about these two theories, and about the main difference between them. The first theory says that the phobia is the problem itself. Right? And, the second theory says that the phobia is a sign of a deeper problem the person has. Why is this difference important? It’s mostly important in deciding how to treat the person. According to the first theory, if a phobia is learned, perhaps it can be un learned. A psychologist who follows this theory will try to teach someone to react differently, to behave differently when he or she feels afraid. Changing the person’s behavior is the goal. On the other hand, a psychologist who believes the second theory may start by trying to teach the person to react differently, but the doctor is interested in more than that. The doctor’s objective, or goal, is to help the patient reveal the deeper psychological problem, because it will be easier to treat the phobia if the deeper problem is identified and worked on as well.I want you to think for a minute about the significance of having these two theories, or any competing theories. What does it mean? It tells us that psychologists, like any scientists, have to continue to do research, to learn, and to test treatments we believe will be effective based on research. Treatments improve the more we learn.I’m going to stop there for today. In the next class, I want to talk about other psychological problems. Read the next unit in your book before the next class. That’s all for today.。

Unit 2 English: A Global Language?TEACHER: Today’s topic is English as a global language. I know many of you speak English as a second language, right? How about you, Hiroshi? Is English your first language?STUDENT l: No, my first language is Japanese. English is my second language.TEACHER: And how about you, Patricia?STUDENT 2: English is my second language, too. My first language is Spanish.TEACHER: See, many of you use English as a second language, even as a global language to communicate with other people who speak English as a second language. Today, I want to give you two contrasting points of view on whether or not English is a global language. The first is that English is obviously a global language. People who support this point of view believe English is the language people all over the world use to communicate, and that it is gradually replacing other languages. The second point of view is that English is not truly a global language, because it is not the main language spoken by most people worldwide. Supporters of this view say that even though many people speak some English worldwide, English has not replaced other languages. They acknowledge that people use English every day, for many reasons, but this doesn’t mean English is replacing other languages, nor does it make English the main language spoken in the world.First, let’s examine the first view. First of all, English is the dominant language of business, travel, and science. When people need a common language, they often use English. Think about it. English is often used at tourist information centers, in international hotels, at airports. If you use a taxi in Rome, and you can’t speak Italian, the taxi driver is more likely to use English than any other languages. It is used at business meetings and international sports events. The European Union uses English, along with French, at its meetings. . . . ASEAN, the Asian trade group, uses English at its meetings. Can you think of other situations in which English is used as a common language?STUDENT 2: How about this class? All of us are listening to you in English.TEACHER: Absolutely. Educational settings are a great example. Any others?STUDENT 2: How about a chatroom on the Internet? I sometimes go to chatrooms and everyone is using English.TEACHER: Excellent example. The Internet has created a lot of international communities and people often use English. In fact, most people who use the Internet know English. This helps support the view that English is a global language.The second major reason that people believe English is a global language is that it is the official languageof more than seventy-five countries. This means these countries use English in schools, banks, business, and government. Of these seventy-five countries, English may be the only official language of the country, like in England, or English may be used along with other official languages, like in the Philippines, Singapore, and India. In countries like India, where so many languages are spoken, you can see how using English as an official language makes it easier for people to communicate.The third reason to support the global argument is that every year about 1 billion people study English. Why? What are some of the reasons? Hiroshi? How about you?STUDENT l: Well, now to study, and someday I want to be in international business.TEACHER: That’s a solid reason. How about you, Oksana?STUDENT 3: I’m not really sure. I just think it will help me in the future somehow.TEACHER: OK. There’s a more general reason. The point is, people want and need to learn English because it offers them opportunities.To sum up, English is used every day by many people. People all over the world come in contact with each other for many reasons. They need a common language, a language to facilitate communication. Being proficient in English gives someone an advantage in these situations.OK. I have given you many examples of how English is used in a variety of situations. Nevertheless, does this mean that English is a global language?Let’s look at why some people don’t believe English has replaced other languages. First, there are about three times as many people who speak Chinese as their first language as those who speak English as a first language. And in many countries where some people use English for work each day, they don’t use English anywhere else. Even in English-speaking countries, there are millions of people who prefer to speak a language other than English at home, with friends, or at work.Second, I mentioned before that seventy-five countries have English as their official language. This doesn’t mean all, or even most of the people in these countries can speak English. For example, in India, most sources agree that only about 5 percent of the population speaks English. That’s a small percentage!Third, how much English does a person need to know to be called an English speaker? People may learn some English for specific situations, such as the taxi driver I mentioned earlier. However, I think you would all agree with me that a taxi driver who knows a few phrases like “Where are you going?”or “What is the name of your hotel?” isn’t really a proficient English speaker. Another example is Airspeak, the English that is used by air traffic controllers and pilots. A pilot for Japan Airlines or an air traffic controller in Paris needs to know Airspeak. But they may learn only the English words they need for these jobs, and therefore they can’t be considered English speakers.The point here is that people all over the world may use some English for work or other situations. Nevertheless, this doesn’t mean they are fluent in English. They still use their first language for daily communication. English is not their main language.So, what does this all mean? I think it’s safe to say that English will continue to be the main language used in many international settings because, as I said earlier, people all over the world need a common language. And, for now, English is that language.But, English won’t replace other languages for most daily communication and this, to me, is what a global language really is, one that replaces others for most everyday communication. Some people are afraid of this. They worry that as people use English more and more, their ability in their first language will decline. I think people will use English along with other languages. We are moving into a global culture, and as this continues, I think people from non-English speaking countries will want to maintain their culture, including their first language. They may still want to learn English, but I don’t see them giving up their own language for English. What do you think?I’m going to stop there. I know that’s a lot of information to digest. We’ll continue talking about some of the differences in the English words used in various countries like Australia, Singapore, and the Philippines. That’s all for today. Come see me if you have any questions.。

Unit1Slang:Talking CoolT EACHER:OK,let's get started...Today we're going to be looking at a really interesting phenomenon,slang.We'll be looking at where slang comes from,who uses it and why.We all use it more often than you might think—every day of our lives,in fact. And we use it for a reason.You know,most of us are fascinated with slang.We continually hear new words and phrases enter the language and replace old,and we see familiar words take on new meanings.We feel a need to keep in touch with these changes,to be aware of the latest street talk.Fact is,we love slang.But what is it exactly?What is slang?Anyone like to suggest a definition?S TUDENT1:Isn't it basically kind of casual talk?TEACHER:Can you say a bit more?STUDENT1:You know,the sort of words we use with friends...in relaxed situations. TEACHER:Good.You're pretty much there with your idea of casual language.We can say that slang is language that's found only in the very informal speech of particular groups of people.It can help to identify the communities,the groups of people,who use it.And this brings me to the first important point of the lecture—why people use slang.A lot of slang comes from not wanting to be understood by outsiders,people outside your circle.In other words,people exploit slang to give their group an identity,by making their language exclusive,or at least private.Through this private language,they can tease one another,enjoy shared experiences,and keep everyone else at a distance. All cultures contain groups or subcultures with different interests and priorities,and each group tries to establish a separate identity.They want people to know who they are, what they stand for—and slang helps to construct and cement that identity.We can say, then,that slang reflects the experiences,beliefs,and values of its speakers.Now let's look more closely at this relationship between slang and community,slang and identity.A nice example of this is,uh,student language,sometimes called "youth-speak."Young people use a lot of slang,and many of the words they use are used by both sexes,often metaphorically rather than literally.That is to say,the conventional meaning of the words change.For example,words that have traditionally had strong negative literal meanings that are used as insults have taken on,uh,gentler, and in many cases even positive meanings in conversation.We'll look at some examples later.Now,if you ask college students why they use slang,they'll tell you it's cool,and that's true in several different ways.First,it's cool because it's in style,in ing current slang shows that the speaker is in tune with the times...you know,that he or she knows what's in fashion and is pan of that fashion.Second,slang is cool in the sense of showing that the speaker is knowledgeable...the speaker is"in the know,"the speaker knows when slang is acceptable.People don't use slang all the time,only in situations and with people who accept the use of slang—a point I'll return to later.Research tells us that although young people often deny that they use slang intentionally,in fact they clearly choose whether or not to use it depending on the situation they're in.As we've already said,slang's typically used in informal rather than formal settings,and this is certainly true among college students: They usually avoid using it in the class-room or a work environment,for example. Anyone like to suggest why?S TUDENT1:People won't understand them.STUDENT2:Yeah,so it's like a waste of time.TEACHER:Well,that may be true,but it's not the main reason.They don't use it simply because it could make them look bad.And everyone hates looking bad,right?So,to review,we've said that students use slang only in certain situations.But they also only use it with certain people,usually friends.When they use slang,they are showing that they share social and emotional experiences—so slang reinforces their relationships.But...it also gives special meaning to what they say.For instance,to say "That party was the bomb"is more than merely saying it was a very good party.It shares an emotional experience that might otherwise take several sentences to explain.In other words,it's a kind of...shorthand.The third and final way slang's cool is that it's fun;it's very creative in the same way that poetry is,and it's often humorous.In other words,it's a form of play,a way of entertaining.So...uh,let me repeat:I've said that slang's cool for three reasons:One,it shows the user's fashionable and in tune with the times;two,it's a way of reinforcing relationships and communicating efficiently;and three,it's fun and entertaining.Got that?All right then,let's now take a look at different kinds of slang,in particular three types of slang words:those that are currently most used,those that linger year after year,and those that have become unfashionable.So...now what is the most used slang?Well,research tells us that over the past few years,in the number one position is"dope,"which basically means very good,great,excellent,attractive,or nice.So somebody might say,for example,that his friend's new motorbike is really dope;in other words,it's very good.Other words that feature in the top twenty include"chill out"(to calm down or relax),"the bomb"(meaning the best or most excellent),"whack"(which means bad,unfair,crazy,or foolish),and"dude" (meaning person—usually a man,actually).Any other examples?Yes?S TUDENT1:Hella.T EACHER:Meaning?S TUDENT1:Very,a lot.T EACHER:OK,yep.Luis?STUDENT3:"Kick it,"which means,like,to hang out,uh,relax,you know,sit around doing nothing.TEACHER:Right.And it's interesting,isn't it,how most slang terms indicate approval or disapproval;they show what we feel positive or negative about.So,like"dope"and "the bomb,"we have"sweet,""phat"—spelled P-H-A-T,not F-A-T—"cool,"and "tight"—all meaning good,excellent,nice,or attractive.And then you have words like"bad"which really mean good;so"That new CD is bad" actually means it's good!So you see,slang does strange things with language.Like I said earlier,it's certainly creative.As a matter of fact,some slang words have many different meanings,sometimes as many as nine or ten.For instance,the word"trip"or"tripping" has various meanings,but they all reflect the idea of unusual,strange,or extreme.When a word's used a lot or has a number of different meanings like this,we sometimes say it "works hard."The word"trip,"then,is a word that works hard.Uh...now,the second type of slang consists of words that linger from decade to decade and never seem to go out of fashion—and these words also work hard,that is, they have a lot of meanings.A great example is the word cool—forever popular,it seems!Other terms in this category are"nerd,""cheesy,""chick,""the man,""toasted," "wasted,""what's up,""blow away,"and"gross."And once again,most of these show approval or disapproval.And...now,finally,there are slang terms that come and go;they disappear almost as quickly as they appear.Examples include"gimme five,""how's it hanging,"and"core." Words like these often disappear because they're closely associated with famous personalities who similarly come and go—they're popular,in the spotlight for a while, and then seem almost to disappear.And when they disappear,the slang associated with them tends to disappear as well.Now,today,public tolerance of slang is at an all-time high—just look at how widely it's used in newspapers.But how do college teachers and academics view slang?Well, some persist with the idea that its use will degrade...uh,you might even say"pollute" academic discourse.However,among themselves students tolerate words their teachersmight consider taboo.Students are actually very good at code-switching;that is,they're very good at using different styles or codes of communication in different situations.Do you agree?Do you use slang in your essays or when you speak with a teacher? STUDENT3:Personally I never use slang in essays.It just doesn't feel right.It's true, you know,most students know when to use slang,and when not to.STUDENT2:I agree.I sometimes use it with teachers,though;it just depends on who the teacher is.TEACHER:Why,I imagine most people do the same.Here's something you may find surprising:A recent study on student conversation suggests that students don't in fact use slang that often but instead they choose more ordinary colloquial vocabulary.OK,to finish up,now let me say something about the history of slang.Many years ago, slang was closely associated with underground,criminal organizations,groups that deviate from mainstream society...uh...with notions of outcasts and socially unacceptable behaviors.A look back in time shows,for example,that in the seventeenth century more than twenty words were used to refer to vagrants,that is,to someone who has no home or job.Today,of course,these associations are much weaker and slang's used much more widely.As underground culture has become more mainstream,there's not the same need for the kind of secret code that slang offered.Today,most of us use slang and aren't ashamed of using it.It may still have negative connotations,but like it or not it's here to stay,and increasingly it's become the subject of serious academic study. And why not?As I've tried to show,it's a fascinating social as well as linguistic phenomenon.So,any questions?...Unit2Murphy's LawTEACHER:Good afternoon,everyone.More than200years ago,the Scottish poet Robert Burns said that"the best laid plans of mice and men often go awry."I'm sure we all have firsthand experience with what Burns means;no matter how carefully we plan a project and no matter how carefully we try to,uh,anticipate problems,we're likely to,uh encounter something unexpected and unwelcome that will throw our plan off course. Well,class today we'll be looking at how plans can go right or wrong...and,uh,how we can make sense of this.Are you all familiar with Murphy's Law?Well,according to Murphy's Law,anything that can go wrong will go wrong.So we'll be looking at everyday examples of Murphy's Law—uh,things like why toast falls buttered-side down, why it always seems like we choose slow lines at the supermarket,and why it is so difficult to win when we gamble.As you may know,we now have many different versions of Murphy's Law,and today I'd like to look at the science behind three of them.I'll try to show you that some thingswhich have happened to you,and which you may have thought were simply bad luck, had nothing to do with luck at all.What I'm saying is that there are some very good scientific reasons for many of the things that happen to us,and we're not victims of bad luck as often as we might think.When we consider some basic science and probability theory,we can more clearly understand why some"bad"things happen the way they do. All right.Let's begin with a very commonplace situation.Let's say you've just gotten up. You're still sleepy,and you make your way to the breakfast table.In your half-awake state,you accidentally hit your piece of toast,which has butter on one side.The toast begins to fall to the floor.Now what are the chances that you'll be lucky and the toast will land buttered-side up?Well,the toast has only two sides,so most people think that the answer is fifty-fifty.Fifty percent.Right?Do you think that there's a50percent chance that the toast will land with the buttered-side up?STUDENT1:Well,this sounds like a trick question,but,uh,yeah.Logically,50percent sounds about right.TEACHER:Yes,50percent does seem right,but,in this case,Murphy's Law of Falling Toast says:"Toast which falls from a table will land buttered-side down."Actually,the probability of this happening is extremely high.It's close to100percent.Now,here's why.When something like a piece of toast falls from a table,its behavior is not random. The rate of spin is controlled by the laws of physics.This is the problem.The rate of spin, that is,how fast the toast spins,is too low for the toast to make a complete revolution.It's too slow to turn completely around and hit the floor buttered-side up.The rate of spin is determined by the force of gravity.So in a very real sense,the laws of physics,and specifically the rate of spin,make sure that our toast lands buttered-side down almost all the time.So the point is that simple probabilities—for example,the probability that toast has a fifty-fifty chance of landing buttered-side up—can be greatly affected by other more fundamental factors,such as the laws of physics.So,in this case,we believe that we have bad luck because we don't understand that the natural laws of physics are in effect.The toast should land buttered-side down.OK?Let's look at the next point.Now we come to one of my most frustrating situations in life—the supermarket line.In this case,Murphy's Law of Supermarket Lines says:"The line next to you will move faster than yours."Now everybody wants to get into the fastest line when they go to the supermarket,right?OK,so let's say that you're at your local supermarket and there are five lines,but each of the five lines looks pretty much equal in length.Now,of course, you want to try to anticipate which one of the five lines will move the fastest.Well,this is where simple probability theory enters the picture.The chances that you have chosen the fastest of the five lines is one divided by the number of lines,which is five in this case.So mathematically,the formula is one divided by N where N is the total number of lines.So in this example,one divided by five gives us what?STUDENT2:One divided by five is one-fifth or...uh...20percent.TEACHER:Right.Twenty percent.There's only a20percent chance that we have chosen the fastest of the five lines.Now even if we reduce that to three lines,our line and the lines on each side of us,the chances we've chosen the fastest line are still only what?S TUDENT2:Uh,33percent.One out of three.TEACHER:Sure.One divided by three is33percent,so it's not just your imagination that one line near you almost always moves faster than yours.Simple probability theory shows that the odds are against you.If there are very many lines,the chances that you'll choose the fastest one is quite low.So,you see,it has little to do with luck,but w e perceive that it does.All right.Now let's look at a final situation that shows how we commonly misunderstand the laws of probability.We've come to Murphy's Law of Gambling that says simply:"You will lose."Now in the case of the supermarket lines that we've just talked about,probability theory applied very nicely.And actually,as we go through life, most things are fairly predictable because they follow the basic laws of probability. Weather is an example.Let's say that it's been raining for a week,and a friend says to you"I think it's going to be sunny tomorrow."Is that an unreasonable statement?Well, no.Clouds move,and they are of limited size,so if it's been raining for a week,it's likely that the rain and clouds will end soon.In other words,the next sunny day is more likely to occur after the seventh day of rain than after the first,because the storm front has what is called a life history.Now this is important,so let me explain that term.Events with a life history have changing probabilities of certain events occurring over time.For instance,uh,if you plant flower seeds,you can predict with reasonable accuracy when the plants will come up,when they will bloom,and how long they will bloom.For instance,with some types of flowers,there's a90percent chance that they will come up fifteen to twenty days after the seeds have been planted.In short,the growth of a flower follows a clear predictable pattern,and we call this pattern a life history.But this is the trick with many gambling games.The casino owners want us to believe that dice also have a life history and that we can therefore estimate the probability of events related to the dice.However,gambling devices like dice are different because they don't have life histories.Now...what do you think that means?STUDENT1:There aren't any reliable patterns?Um,just because I rolled a seven last time doesn't tell me anything about the next roll.TEACHER:Right.You can't look at the past rolls of the dice and predict what the next roll will be.Now many people,especially gamblers,think that they can,but this is what's called the gambler's fallacy.The gambler's fallacy is expecting to roll a seven with a pair of dice because a seven hasn't come up recently.So,in other words,there's a widespread belief among gamblers that dice have a life history.In thereal world,that's not a bad way to reason,but in a casino,it's the path to financial loss. Dice have no memory,no life history.Now you can predict that if you roll one dice many,many times,the number five will come up about16percent of the time.That's one divided by six.But that's not what we're concerned with here.We're concerned with the next roll of the dice.As a result,the element of arbitrariness or randomness makes prediction of the next roll impossible.Statisticians who work with probability theory call the roll of a pair of dice a single-event probability,and many of these same statisticians believe that the probability of a single event can't even be computed mathematically.So, the same probability theory that works well with supermarket lines won't help you win a million dollars in a dice game in Las Vegas.It could,in fact,lead to a catastrophe!So,to sum up,we have looked at three cases involving Murphy's Law and our perception of"bad luck."The first case was the toast,right?Our toast lands buttered-side down far more often than we would predict because the basic laws of physics have a strong effect on normal probabilities.The second case was the supermarket line, remember?Another line moves faster than ours because the laws of probability are behaving normally,even though we might perceive them as behaving unfairly.And the third case was the dice game.People lose at gambling games like dice because the laws of"life history probability"simply don't apply in those situations,even though gamblers think they do.So,as you can see,in some cases,Murphy's Law is not just some form of bad luck. There are some very real,scientific explanations for these events.OK,that's about it for today.For next class I'd like you to take a look at Chapter7and be ready to talk about the discussion questions on page255.See you then.Unit3Types of MemoryTEACHER:Good morning everyone.Um...today,I have the pleasure of introducing you to the basics of what I think is one of the most fascinating topics in the field of psychology—memory.What is memory?How does memory work?The research in this field is fascinating and dates back to the late1800s,so it's been going on for more than a century.I'll begin today by saying a few things about three types of memory that we all have,and then we'll look at how memory is measured.All right.First of all,let's begin by looking at types of memory.One of the most common ways to classify memory is based on time...based on time and duration of use.So typically,memory is divided into three types:sensory memory,working memory (which is also referred to as short-term memory),and long-term memory.Again,that's sensory memory,working memory,and long-term memory.Let's talk about sensory memory for a minute.Sensory memory holds information for only an instant,say,less than half a second.This is just long enough to register an impression on one or more of our five senses—sight,hearing,touch,smell,or taste.Let me give you an example of aphenomenon concerning visual sensory memory that I'm sure you've all experienced. Imagine that you're holding up a flashlight on a dark night.You start to move it in circles slowly,watching it carefully the whole time.Pretty soon you aren't just seeing the flashlight...you can see a full circle of light!Of course,it's actually just one point of light being moved around,but your memory of the visual sensation of the light fills in the rest of the circle.That's one example of sensory memory.So remember,you can hold something in your sensory memory for just a fraction of a second,up to around half a second,then it fades away.Now if you want to keep the information for longer than a second,you have to put it into your working memory.Working memory,the second type of memory,allows us to hold on to things for as long as we think about them,that is,as long as we're paying attention to them.It's something like a kind of temporary storage place.Let me give you a simple math problem.Are you ready?Here goes...18plus44plus9plus19...I'll say that one more time.OK?18plus44plus9plus19....All right?...Do you all have the answer?Maya?S TUDENT1:Uh,I think it's90.Yeah,90.T EACHER:Let's see...18plus44is62...plus9is71...plus19is90.Ninety is the answer.Now,to figure out this problem,you had to use your working memory.As you did the problem,you had to continue holding the numbers in your memory until you got the final answer.If you stopped concentrating on the numbers,that is,you stopped saying them to yourself,or stopped visualizing them,you would have forgotten them and then you wouldn't have been able to solve the problem.Do you see how that works? Here's one more example of working memory involving reading.Look at the sentence: "Honey is the only natural food that is made without destroying any kind of life."It's written down in your textbook.Why,you may wonder,do we need working memory to understand such a simple sentence?Well,the answer is because working memory holds the first part of the sentence,"Honey is the only natural food..."while our eyes move on to the last part,that is,"made without destroying any kind of life."Without our working memory,we would forget the first part of the sentence before we got to the end.So reading even short or simple passages would be impossible without our working memory.OK,I think you can see how important working memory is,but our working memory is very limited,and it can only hold information temporarily.It usually lasts only one and one half to two seconds and then it begins to fade.So if working memory were all we had,we would be very limited.Essentially,working memory mediates between how we experience the environment and our long-term memory.This brings us to the third type of memory that we'll talk about today,long-term memory.Now,long-term memory is involved with information that's stored for considerable lengths of time.For example,do you remember the name of your best friend when you were ten years old?I bet you do,because this information is certainly in your long-term memory.Actually,memory that's tested after about one minute behaves in a very simi-lar way to memory tested after a day,a week,or even years,so many scientists believe that any memories more than one minute old are part of our long-term memory. Interestingly,these memories seem to change over time in the sense that we tend to add information to them.In a sense,our memories become somewhat distorted.The reason behind these changes is that our memory is designed to keep or preserve meaning,not to keep impressions or images,but to keep meaning.For example,try to remember a conversation you had yesterday with a friend.Now if you're like most people,you can't remember the exact words that you or your friend said,but you can remember the ideas that you discussed.Your memories of the points that were most important to you will be the clearest.So the essential feature of long-term memory is that it specializes in holding meaning.OK,are there any questions about that?Yes?STUDENT1:Yeah.Can you explain why we don't remember all of the details of our past conversations?TEACHER:So the question is,"Why do we forget?"Well,most experts believe that if we remembered all of the details of our past experiences,our memory system would be filled with a lot of trivial information,a lot of trivial and generally useless information. Secondly,it is conceivable that we would find it extremely difficult to sift through such a...a mass of detailed information and find the really important information that we need.Um...in other words,memory searches would proceed a lot more slowly.S TUDENT1:OK,I see.Thank you.TEACHER:OK,let's move on to ways of measuring memory.Just as we distinguished three types of memory,there are three main ways of measuring how much a person remembers.The first of these methods is called recall.You use recall many times every day.Here's what I mean....Take out a sheet of paper....OK,now look at the word list in your text:drum,band,studio,and so on....Read it silently to yourself....OK?... Have you looked at all of the words?...OK,you should be finished by now.Now,close your book.Write down the words you saw,as many as you can,on your paper....Go ahead....OK,that's a simple recall test.Now,most of you probably remembered most of the words,but not all of them.Our memories,of course,are not perfect,and of course forgetting is natural.The second method of measuring memory is recognition.OK,for this you need another piece of paper,or just turn that one over....All right.Number the page from one to eight....Now look at the word list again.OK,now close your book.I'm going to say eight words.You have to write"yes"or"no"—"yes"if the word I say was on the list, "no"if the word I say was not on the list.Ready?Here I go.1.studio.2.guitar.3.stage.4.recorder.5.wiring.6.song7.vocalist.8.drum....OK,everybody finished?The answers are1.yes,2.no,3.yes,4.no,5.yes,6.no,7.yes,and8.yes....How did you do?Anyone get all eight correct?...Good!That's what we call a recognition test.In contrast to the recall test,recognition is more receptive and doesn't require you to produce anything.For this reason,recognition is a lot easier for most of us than recall.In other words,asking yourself "Have I seen this before?"is easier than remembering everything you saw.Now the third basic method used to measure memory is relearning.Let me give you an example of a relearning test.First,you try to memorize a list of words.Then you don't look at the list for a period of time,maybe a week.If you're like most people,you won't be able to remember all of the words.After a week,you then look at the list a second time and try to relearn it.As you would guess,most people relearn information somewhat faster than they learn it the first time.By measuring the time people need to relearn information,we can calculate how much information they have stored in their long-term memories the first time.So,let's stop there for today.Uh...I hope that you'll put today's material in your long-term memory...or you're going to have a hard time with the test.See you next week.Unit4Actions Speak Louder than WordsTEACHER:OK,class,OK...let's begin.What do we mean when we say that actions speak louder than words?STUDENT1:Uh...that means we believe people's actions more than we believe their words.TEACHER:Yes,exactly right—and,uh,in a sense,actions are more important than words.That's because we usually judge speakers'intentions by the nonverbal signals they send us.And that's what our subject today's all about,nonverbal communication—how we communicate through our actions—facial expressions,eye contact,tone of voice,uh,body movement,and so on.And if any of you doubt the importance of these things,you might like to consider a couple of statistics I've got here in front of me.Some communication specialists estimate we spend about75percent of our waking hours communicating.And,more to the point,words account for only,mm, 10to30percent of that communication—the bulk's nonverbal.That's food for thought, uh?Now although people clearly understand its importance,nonverbal communication—I'll call it N.V.C.for short—is actually a rather recent field of study and owes a lot to an American anthropologist named Raymond Birdwhistle—spelled B-I-R-D-W-H-I-S-T-L-E.Easy name to remember,right?Birdwhistle began studying nonverbal communication in the1950s and,um...one of his main ideas was that the meaning of nonverbal behavior depended on the context in which it was used....Uh,it depends on the context.So,he looked at the whole context of nonverbal behavior—how and,uh,where certain types of nonverbal behavior appeared—and not just one particular behavior in isolation.Facial expressions,for example—frowns,smiles,raised eyebrows, and,uh,so on—we all use these to convey many different meanings.But those meanings are largely determined by the situations we're in and the relationships that we have with the people we're communicating with.So,the same。