语言学cp原则

CP principle语言学考研论述题“合作原则”是由美国著名语言哲学家格莱斯于1967年在哈佛大学的演讲中提出的。

格赖斯认为，在人们交际过程中，对话双方似乎在有意无意地遵循着某一原则，以求有效地配合从而完成交际任务。

因此，格赖斯(H.P.Grice)提出了会话中的“合作原则”(Cooperative Principle简称CP)。

格赖斯提出的四条准则及其相关次准则是:1、数量准则(The maxim of quantity)数量准则就是指所说的话要包含当前交谈目的所需要的信息，信息要适量，不多也不少。

因此，数量准则的违背产生于两个方面：一是没有提供足够的信息，即当谈话者故意没有提供对方所需要的信息时导致幽默的产生；二是提供的信息超过需要的量，多产生讽刺的效果。

例：丈夫：今天是几号了?妻子：2月14日。

去年和前年的今天，你都送我巧克力和一大捧玫瑰了。

妻子故意提供了过量信息。

她不但回答了丈夫的问题，还额外地加了一句和问题无关的话，其真实目的是间接提醒丈夫，今年的情人节他没有送自己礼物。

2、质量准则(The maxim of quality)质量准则是指不要说自知是虚假的话，不要说缺乏足够证据的话。

但有时为了达到特定的会话目的，当说话人或作者违背质量准则时，也就是故意说一些不符合事实的话时，便产生了夸张(hyperbole)、反语(irony)、隐喻(metaphor)等修辞手段，而这些修辞手段能表现出幽默的语言效果。

例：老师：麦克，为什么今天没有上交作业啊?麦克：老师，路上我遇到一只熊，它把我的作业叼走了。

老师：看来这是一只爱学习的熊。

这个例子中，麦克撒了很明显的谎，违背了质的原则，而老师也顺着麦克的谎话说这只熊“爱学习”，达到了一个幽默的效果。

3、关系准则(The maxim of Relevance)说话者在表达信息的时候，会产生关联期待，对方通过推理推断语境暗含，置身于与说话者同一认知模式，积极配合，最终取得语境效果从而达到交际成功。

语言学合作原则的基本内容语言学合作原则最早由美国学者格里斯（Herbert Paul Grice）在1975年提出，被称为“格里斯原则”，后来逐渐发展为“合作原则”。

它主要包括四个重要原则：信息原则、最大量原则、关联原则和合适度原则。

首先，信息原则要求语言交流参与者提供有效的信息，以便让对方理解其意图。

这意味着说话者应该尽量提供真实、准确、具体和清楚的信息，避免使用歧义、模糊或隐晦的表达方式。

同时，听话者也要努力去理解对方的意图，通过适当的提问和回应来澄清不清楚的地方。

其次，最大量原则要求说话者提供足够的信息，以便让听话者能够理解说话者的意图。

这意味着说话者需要提供必要和相关的信息，但又不能提供过多的信息。

如果说话者提供的信息过少或者过多，都可能导致交流的不成功。

同时，听话者也需要通过有效的反馈来确认自己对信息的理解是否正确。

第三，关联原则要求说话者提供与当前交流话题相关的信息，而不是无关的信息。

这意味着说话者应该避免离题或者不相关的话题，以免使对方误解说话者的意图。

通过确保交流的相关性，可以减少交流的歧义和误解，提高交流效果。

最后，合适度原则要求说话者选择适当的方式和程度来表达自己的意图。

这意味着说话者需要考虑到话语的情境、听话者的背景知识和交流目的等因素，选择合适的语言和表达方式。

例如，使用合适的语气、语调、表情和手势等，以辅助交流的表达效果。

除了以上四个基本原则，语言学合作原则还包括一些相关的话语策略和修辞手段。

例如，说话者可以通过使用直截了当的语言表达自己的观点和要求，或者通过使用委婉的语言来避免冲突和伤害对方的感情。

同时，语言学合作原则还要求交流参与者之间的彼此理解和信任，以便有效地进行语言交流。

总之，语言学合作原则提供了一种理论框架，用于理解和研究人类语言行为的交流过程。

它强调了信息的准确性、充分性，以及交流的相关性和合适度。

通过遵循这些原则，可以提高语言交流的质量和效果，减少误解和歧义，促进人际关系和社会发展。

语言学名词解释及知识点1.Linguistics is the scientific study of language.ngugage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.(1)Arbitrariness任意性refers that there is no logic or intrinsic固有的relationship between form(sound) and meaning.(2)Duality双重性means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level arecomposed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(3)Productivity多产性means language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.(4)Displacement means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.(5)Cultural transmission: language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. The details of thelinguistic system must be learned by each speaker.(6)Interchangeability互换性means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.nguage is human unique.5.Six prmary factors of any speech event and language functions（Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics 1960 Jakobson）:(1)context语境——referential（to convey message and information）(2)message——poetic（to indulge in language for its own sake）(3)addresser陈述人——emotive（to express attitudes，feelings and emotions）(4)addressee受话人——conative（to persuade and influence others through commands and requests）(5)contact接触方法——phatic（to establish communion with others）(6)code编码（手语等）——metalingual元语言的（to clear up表达intentions and meanings）nguage Functions: Informational信息功能；Interpersonal人际功能；Performative施为功能；Emotive；Directive；Phatic communion寒暄功能；Metalingual（the analysis of language itself）；Recreational7.Scope of Linguistics(1)Microlinguistics微观语言学: sound: phonetic语音学, phonology音系学; form：morphology形态学, syntax句法学;meaning: semantics语义学; pragmatics语用学(2)Macrolinguistics宏观语言学: interdisciplinary交叉学科, sociolinguistics社会语言学, psycholinguistics心理语言学,applied linguistics应用语言学, anthropological linguistics人类语言学, computational linguistics计算机语言学8.Key Concepts in Linguistics(1)Descriptive描写means the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.(2)Prescriptive规定means the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in usinglanguage to tell people what they should say and not say.(3)Synchronic共时in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time 时间点(4)Diachronic历时in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time and treated historically.时间段(5)Langue语言is the set of conventions and rules, it is abstract and relatively stable.(6)Parole言语is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules, it is concrete and varies fromperson to person, and from situation to situation.(7)Competence语言能力is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his or her language.(8)Performance语言表现is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (NoamChomsky Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965)9.Phonetics语音学is defined as the scientific study of speech sounds, especially on its production, transmission and perception.10.Consonants辅音are sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air in the oral cavity.11.Vowels元音are produced when the air stream meets with no obstruction.12.Phonology音系学is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of a specific language. It aims to discover the principles that governs the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.13.Relationship between phonetics and phonology;(1)Phonetics is the basis for phonological study while phonology is the extension of phonetics.(2)Phonetics is gloal while phonology is local.(3)Phonetic transcription音标is in [ ] (square brackets) while ponemic transcription is in / / (slashes).14.Phoneme音位is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in a language and which can distinguish two words.(phonology)15.Phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.But a phone does not distinguish meaning. (phonetics)16.Allophone音素的变位means the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.17.Tone is useless in English. (X) ; English is tone-language. (X)18.Morphology形态学is the study of word-formation and the study of the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components, that is morphemes.19.Morpheme词素is the minimal unit in terms of relationship between expression and content(form and meaning), a unit which can not be devided without destroying or drastically极端地altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.20.Word is a minimum free form which is stable and relatively uninterruptible.21.Allomorph语素变体is any of the different shapes or phonetic forms of a morpheme. (cats,dogs,horses中的s,z,iz是复数词尾s的变体）22.Word-formation: compounding复合词(blackboard,wedding-ring,coffee table); derivation派生(happy-unhappy); coinage新造词; blending合成词(brunch,smog); back-formation逆生词(commentate is a back-formation from commentator); clipping缩减; acronymy缩写; analogical creation类比创造; borrowing借词23.Types of Morphemes：(1)Affix词缀is the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.(2)Root词根is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.(free：friend；bound：-ceive）(3)Stem词干is a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix may be added, eg.possibility+esparing inflectional屈折(不改变意义和词类，只能是后缀；三单,-ed,-ing,-en,pl,所有格,-er/-est) and derivational派生morphemes：①In terms of productivity②Whether the word class of the stem词干is changed or not③Grammatical need vs semantic need④Order: derivational morpheme + inflectional morpheme⑤Suffix后缀: derivational + inflectional; Prefix前缀: derivational25.Syntax is the study of the internal structure of sentences(clauses and phrases) and the rules that govern the formationof sentences.26.Morphology + Syntax= Grammar27.Autonomy自主性of syntax is the unique feature.28.Endocentric向心structure is one whose distribution is functionaly equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents. There is a head中心语. (NP,VP,PP,AP,TP)29.Exocentric离心structure refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, There is no head.30.Systemic Functional Grammar系统功能语法：related to social settingsGenerative Grammar生成语法（形式语言学，Chomsky）：do not care about social settings31.Semantics语义学is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.32.Reference指称意义means the relationship between the linguistic form and what it refers to in the non-linguistic world of experience or physical world.33.Sense is the inherent固有的meaning of the linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and decontextualized.34.Contextualism: one can derive meaning from observable contexts which include situational context and the linguistic context.35.Behaviorism: meaning is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls for the in the hearer.36.Semantic Componential Analysis语义成分分析法is the approach that analyze word meaning by decomposing is into its atomic features. It shows the semantic feature of a word.37.Pragmatics语用学is the study of meaning in context, the study of speakers’ meaning and the study of utterance meaning.38.Pragmatics = Meaning - Semantics39.Utterance 话语meaing: units of language in useSentence meaning: abstract units of the language system.40.Context is the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.41.Speech act theory 言语行为理论由Austin 提出How to Do Things with Words 196242.Locutionary act以言指事（言内行为）is the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.43.Illocutionary act以言形事（言外行为）is the act performed in saying something.Illocutionary force: the most interesting part for pragmatic study.44.Perlocutionary acty以言成事（言后行为）is the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.45.Cooperative Principle(CP)合作原则——The essential thesis: Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purposes or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.四个准则：maxim of quantity 数量准则；maxim of quality 质量准则（修辞）；relation；manner46.Sociolinguistics社会语言学is the subfield of linguistics that studies language in relation to society. It is interested in how social factors influence the structue and use of language.47.The key issue in sociolinguistics is variation.nguage and Gender(1)Major ideas concerning language and gender:①Men and women speak differently.②Language is discriminatory against women.(2)Features of women’s language①Frequent use of hedges like “I’m afraid that…”, “I’m not sure but…”, “kind of ”, and “sort of “.②Abundant use of tag question as in “The lecture is terribly interesting, isn’t it?”③Greater use of qualifiers and intensifiers than men: “awfully”, “lovely”, “terribly”, and “fascinating”, among others.④Preference for use of the standard form of a language, and more polite than men’s language(3)Language sexism①Job stereotypes: nurse, teacher, clerk, president②In word-formation: author/ authoress, actor/ actress, widow寡妇/ widower鳏夫, hero/ heroine③In meaning: governor/ governess保姆; master/ mistress情妇。