语言学6PPT课件
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胡壮麟语言学课件Chapter 6_cognition
2.3 Language production
A: Would you like a coffee?
B: Yes, please.
… B: No and no. A: Right.
Ambiguity
More than one interpretation.
1. 2. 3.
Lexical / semantic ambiguity Grammatical / syntactic ambiguity Pragmatic ambiguity
Three-word-utterance stage
Give doggie paper.
Put truck window. Tractor go floor.
Fluent grammatical conversation stage
Embed one constituent inside another
John painted the car in the garage.
Reasons for ambiguity
expected patterns of things.
[RESTAURANT] Schema:
Entering, ordering, eating and exiting.
Entering Scene:
The customer enters a restaurant,
looks for a table, decides where to sit, walks to the table…
Chapter Six Language and Cognition
1. What is Cognition?
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition课件
and written production.
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
(1) Access to words
• Steps involved in the planning of words: • 1. processing step, called conceptualization,…… • 2.to select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. • 3.morpho-phonological encoding • Generally, morphemes are accessed in sequence, according to
• 1). Serial models…… • 2). Parallel models…… • Structural factors in comprehension of sentences • 1). minimal attachment which defines “structural simpler” • 2).“Garden path” • Lexical factors in comprehension • Information about specific words is stored in the lexicon.
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
6.2.3 language production
• Language production involves…… • 1. generation of single words • 2. generation of simple utterances • Different mappings in language comprehension and in language production • Discussions: • A. production of words orally, • B. production of longer utterances, • C. the different representations and processes involved in spoken production
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
(1) Access to words
• Steps involved in the planning of words: • 1. processing step, called conceptualization,…… • 2.to select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. • 3.morpho-phonological encoding • Generally, morphemes are accessed in sequence, according to
• 1). Serial models…… • 2). Parallel models…… • Structural factors in comprehension of sentences • 1). minimal attachment which defines “structural simpler” • 2).“Garden path” • Lexical factors in comprehension • Information about specific words is stored in the lexicon.
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
6.2.3 language production
• Language production involves…… • 1. generation of single words • 2. generation of simple utterances • Different mappings in language comprehension and in language production • Discussions: • A. production of words orally, • B. production of longer utterances, • C. the different representations and processes involved in spoken production
胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part6
Chapter 4 SyntaxSyntax: the study of the formation of sentences. Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study. This chapter introduces four representative approaches in treating sentence structure: the traditional approach, the structural approach, the generative approach and the functional approach.4.1 The traditional approach4.1.1 Number, gender and caseNumber: singular and pluralCase:1)Pronouns: nominative(I, he, she), accusative(me, him,her), genetive(my, your, his)2)Nouns: general(John, boy), genitive(John’s, boys’)4.1.2 Tense and aspectTenses: past and presentAspect: perfective(perfect) and progressive(continuous)4.1.3 Concord and governmentConcord(Agreement) is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. Eg. this man, these men; a book, some booksGovernment is another type of control the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions. It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain category.Eg. She gave him a book. She gave a book to him.4.2 The structural approach4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations (Saussure) -Signified(concept) and signifier (sound image)-Syntagmatic relation(structure, horizontal relation,chain relation):the relation between one item and others in a sequence-Paradigmatic relation(system, vertical relation, choicerelation): the relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis)-construction and constituents(Bloomfield)-immediate constituents-ultimate constituents-IC analysis:the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.ex.1 (a) ( ( Poor) (John) ) ( ( ran) ( away) )(b) Poor John ran awayex.2 John left yesterdayex.3 dis place mentAdvantage:Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities will be revealed.Ex. 1.(a) Leave the book on the shelf(b) Leave the book on the shelf(b) my small child’s cot(c) my small child’s cotEx.3(a) The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son(b) The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s sonEx.4(Labelled tree diagram)more expensive clothes more expensive clothes Adj Adj N Adv Adj NNP APNP NPEx.5(Is he really) that kind? (Is he really) that kind?Det N Adv AdjNP APEX.6They can fish herePron Aux V AdvPron V N Adv-Problems:1) Binary division ? Old men and women2) Discontinuous constituents ? make it up4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions-Endocentric construction(headed construction) is a construction whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approachingequivalence, to one of its constituents, whichserve as the center/head of the whole.e.g. poor John, the three small children1) Subordinate construction:only one head (e.g.really very late, the book on the shelf, walked away immediately)2) Coordinate construction:more than one head(e.g.boys and girls, coffee or tea, the city Rome)-Exocentric construction is a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents.e.g.Prepositional phrases ：on the shelf, if he is goingBasic sentences ：The girl smiled.? Verb plus object constructions ：visit Bill, read books。
语言学教程 chapter6 PPT
University of Chicago Press.
含义： An image-schema is a “skeletal” mental
representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience. 意象图式是在对事物之间基本关系的认知的基 础上所构成的认知结构
Involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following:
A starting point A progression through successive events
without backtracking A return to the initial state
Cognition is the way we think.
Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.
It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.
类型：
Involves
a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and
degrees of distance from the core.
含义： An image-schema is a “skeletal” mental
representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience. 意象图式是在对事物之间基本关系的认知的基 础上所构成的认知结构
Involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following:
A starting point A progression through successive events
without backtracking A return to the initial state
Cognition is the way we think.
Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.
It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.
类型：
Involves
a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and
degrees of distance from the core.
语言学第六章chapter6ppt课件
（5）Susan’s sister bought two houses.
This sentence presupposes that Susan exists and that she has a sister.
In English, words like here, there, this, that, now, and then, as well as most pronouns, such as I, we, you, he, her, them.
(2) You’ll have to bring that back tomorrow, because they aren’t here now.
பைடு நூலகம்
可编辑课件
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6.2.3 Anaphora
Anaphora (照应) is coreference of one expression with its antecedent. The antecedent provides the information necessary for the expression’s interpretation. This is often understood as an expression “referring” back to the antecedent.
I was waiting for the bus, but he just drove by without stopping.
To study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.
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This sentence presupposes that Susan exists and that she has a sister.
In English, words like here, there, this, that, now, and then, as well as most pronouns, such as I, we, you, he, her, them.
(2) You’ll have to bring that back tomorrow, because they aren’t here now.
பைடு நூலகம்
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6.2.3 Anaphora
Anaphora (照应) is coreference of one expression with its antecedent. The antecedent provides the information necessary for the expression’s interpretation. This is often understood as an expression “referring” back to the antecedent.
I was waiting for the bus, but he just drove by without stopping.
To study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.
可编辑课件
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语言学ppt课件
语言不仅是文化的载体，还是文化的传承工具。通过语言的学习和传承，人们可以了解和继 承前人的文化遗产，同时也可以将本民族或社会的文化传承给后代。
文化对语言的影响
文化背景影响语言使用
不同的文化背景会影响人们的语言使用。例如，不同民族或社会对于礼貌、谦虚、尊重等方面的文化价值观 不同，因此在语言使用上也会有所不同。
语言学ppt课件
目录
CONTENTS
• 语言学概述 • 语音学 • 词法学 • 句法学 • 语用学与社会语言学 • 语言与文化的关系
01
语言学概述
语言学的定义与研究对象
定义
语言学是研究人类语言的科学，探 讨语言的性质、结构、演变以及语 言与思维、文化、社会等的关系。
研究对象
语言学的研究对象包括语音、语法、 语义、语用等方面，以及语言在社 会文化背景下的运用和变化。
语言学的研究方法
田野调查法
通过实地观察和记录语言使用情 况，收集第一手语言材料。
文献研究法
利用历史文献和现代语言学著作， 对语言进行系统和深入的研究。
实验法
通过设计和实施语言实验，验证 语言学理论和假设。
比较法
对不同语言或同一语言的不同变 体进行比较，揭示语言的共性和
差异。
语言学的发展历史
结构主义语言学时期
会话含义的推导
通过合作原则、礼貌原则等推导会话含义。
社会语言学的研究对象与内容
社会语言学的研究对象
研究语言在社会中的使用、变化和发展的学科。
社会语言学的研究内容
包括语言变异、语言规划、语言与性别、语言 与年龄等。
社会语言学的研究方法
包括田野调查、语料分析、实验等。
语言变异与语言规划
01
文化对语言的影响
文化背景影响语言使用
不同的文化背景会影响人们的语言使用。例如，不同民族或社会对于礼貌、谦虚、尊重等方面的文化价值观 不同，因此在语言使用上也会有所不同。
语言学ppt课件
目录
CONTENTS
• 语言学概述 • 语音学 • 词法学 • 句法学 • 语用学与社会语言学 • 语言与文化的关系
01
语言学概述
语言学的定义与研究对象
定义
语言学是研究人类语言的科学，探 讨语言的性质、结构、演变以及语 言与思维、文化、社会等的关系。
研究对象
语言学的研究对象包括语音、语法、 语义、语用等方面，以及语言在社 会文化背景下的运用和变化。
语言学的研究方法
田野调查法
通过实地观察和记录语言使用情 况，收集第一手语言材料。
文献研究法
利用历史文献和现代语言学著作， 对语言进行系统和深入的研究。
实验法
通过设计和实施语言实验，验证 语言学理论和假设。
比较法
对不同语言或同一语言的不同变 体进行比较，揭示语言的共性和
差异。
语言学的发展历史
结构主义语言学时期
会话含义的推导
通过合作原则、礼貌原则等推导会话含义。
社会语言学的研究对象与内容
社会语言学的研究对象
研究语言在社会中的使用、变化和发展的学科。
社会语言学的研究内容
包括语言变异、语言规划、语言与性别、语言 与年龄等。
社会语言学的研究方法
包括田野调查、语料分析、实验等。
语言变异与语言规划
01
语言学概论(6)语法介绍
三、组合规则
1、语素组合成词的规则（构词法） A.词根和词缀 按作用语素分词根和词缀两类 词缀按与词根语素的关系分前缀、中缀、后缀 词缀按功能分派生词缀和屈折词缀 词根和构词词缀叫构词语素，屈折词缀叫变词语素 B.单纯词和合成词 单纯词，由一个词根语素构成的词。 合成词，由两个或两个以上构词语素构成的词，分复合词与 派生词两种。 合成法与派生法（附加法）
2、词与词组合的规则（结构类型） 主谓结构（有的语言需要主谓一致的形态变化） 述宾结构（有的语言宾语在前，述语在后） 偏正结构（有的语言正在前，偏在后） 联合结构（一般用虚词连结相关语法单位） 述补结构（属于汉语特有的一种结构） （英语：主语补足语，宾语补足语 Push the door open;push the door hard）
d.句子是表达比较完整的意思，具有一定语
调的交际的基本单位。 语素、词、词组是语言的静态单位、备用单 位；句子是语言的动态单位、使用单位。 按结构分类，句子可以分为主谓句、非主谓 句；单句和复句。 按语气或功能分类，句子可分为陈述句、疑 问句、祈使句、感叹句。
2、语法规则
语法规则是指语法单位之间的关系，主要分组合规 则和聚合规则 A、组合规则：语法单位相互连接起来构成更大的语言 片段的规则，包括语素构成词的构词法（构词法和 构形法合称词法）和词构成词组或句子的句法。 B、聚合规则：语法单位的归类的规则，也就是什么样 的语法单位同什么样的语法单位在语法功能上相同， 能够相互替换，这些单位形成一个聚合。 C.组合规则和聚合规则是相互依存的：组合规则的实 现依托于聚合，聚合类的归并也源于具体的组合。
D、民族性
语法的民族性指的是一种语言的语法在结构Байду номын сангаас则上表现出来 的不同于其他语言的特点，也即是说，各民族语言都有自己 的语法规则和语法体系。我们对不同语言进行比较就会发现 他们之间有不同之处。例如，汉语说“两本书”，而英语则 说“two books”，两者词序相同，但是英语没有量词。汉 语说“一个女孩”，法语则说 “une fille chinoise”，法语 不但没有量词，而且，二者词序也和汉语有所不同，并且， 法语的冠词、名词、形容词等都有阴性、阳性的区别，汉语 中则没有。
普通语言学 6-Syntax
4. 句法分析的最初模式
• 短语结构规则生成基本的句子结构，再 通过转换生成句子。 • 每个句子都有两层结构：深层结构和表 层结构。 • 深层结构是句子的抽象句法表示。 • 表层结构是实际发出的或者听到的句法 结构，它是句法派生的最后阶段。
模式
• 短语结构规则生成深层结构，通过应用 一组转换规则，再形成表层结构。
•节点C, D, F, H, J是终极节 点。
C-统制
• 用来解释句子是否合乎语法的结构关系 • C-统制：αC-统制β，当且仅当α不统辖β ，而且每一个统辖α的γ也统辖β
怎么确定C-统制？(Radford, 2002)
• 把α和β想象为火车站点
• αC-统制β：乘北向列车从α出发，在第一 个站点下车，换乘（不同线路的）南向 列车到达β。
?
Theory
• Syntactic Structures (1957): 乔姆斯 基革命 • 儿童为什么能够很容易地习得第一语言？ • 为什么语言使用者可以说出无限的合乎语 法的句子，并且说出并听懂以前从未说出 和听过的句子？
语言观
• 天赋论（innateness hypothesis） • 语言习得机制（LAD）
笛卡尔 洪堡特 索绪尔
• 语言：(有限的成分集合构成的)句子的集合 • 语言能力(competence)与语言运用(performance)
目 的
• 用于描写各种语言的普遍语法（UG） • 思维的本质和机制
grammar
?
发展阶段
1. 经典理论（ 1950s）建立了生成语法的概念，以及短语 结构规则和转换的概念。 2. 标准理论（ 1960s）确立了与转换相关的深层结构和表 层结构，并且为了限制生成不合形式的句子，在深层结 构中引入了语义成分。 3. 扩展的标准理论（ 1970s）提出表层结构决定了语义解 释，并且引入了语迹理论。 4. 管辖和约束理论（ 1980s），也称作原则与参数理论， 引入了规则和规范的概念，包括X-语杠理论，θ 理论， 格理论，约束理论，移位理论。 5. 最简方案（ 1990s及以后），核心假设是应该用最少的 理论和描写工具对语法进行描写。
语言学概论(6)
第六章 词汇 第一节 词汇和词汇学 一、什么是词和词汇 词是人们自然地感觉到的、 词是人们自然地感觉到的、在说话中能自由运用的 最小语言单位。 最小语言单位。 The word is the smallest significant unit of a given language capable of functioning alone. 词汇，又叫语汇，是词语的总汇， 词汇，又叫语汇，是词语的总汇，即语言符号的聚 合体。语汇所指范围有大有小， 合体。语汇所指范围有大有小，最大范围是指一种语言 系统中的全部词语。 系统中的全部词语。语汇一般指一种语言或方言中某个 历史时期的词语的聚合体。如现代汉语语汇等。 历史时期的词语的聚合体。如现代汉语语汇等。词汇有 时还指某个作家、某部作品、 时还指某个作家、某部作品、某个学科或某种性质的词 语的聚合体。如鲁迅的语汇、 红楼梦》的语汇、 语的聚合体。如鲁迅的语汇、《红楼梦》的语汇、计算 机语汇等。 机语汇等。 一种语言的语汇不是杂乱无章的， 一种语言的语汇不是杂乱无章的，而是一个有机的 系统。 系统。
root prefix inflectional affix eg. books affix infix suffix derivational affix eg. careful The majority of roots are free forms, and bound roots are relatively few ,but they do exist, such as -ceive, -tain and -cur in receive, retain and recur. 3 、 morpheme
3）语素变体（allomorph） ）语素变体（ ） An allomorph is a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary distribution. eg. ir-, im-,in -, etc; -ion,-tion, etc. （2）词（omission） ） ） （3）固定短语（omission） ）固定短语（ ）
root prefix inflectional affix eg. books affix infix suffix derivational affix eg. careful The majority of roots are free forms, and bound roots are relatively few ,but they do exist, such as -ceive, -tain and -cur in receive, retain and recur. 3 、 morpheme
3）语素变体（allomorph） ）语素变体（ ） An allomorph is a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary distribution. eg. ir-, im-,in -, etc; -ion,-tion, etc. （2）词（omission） ） ） （3）固定短语（omission） ）固定短语（ ）
语言学第六章 语用学
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
---- Sentence meaning（句子意义）: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; having a dyadic relation as in: What does X mean? ----utterance meaning（话语意义）: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; having a triadic relation as in: What did you mean by X?
Performatives (行事话语) ---- sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
Note: Sometimes it is easy to get confused, e.g.“It is raining outside” can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.
The locutionary act（言内行为）an act of saying
something,uttering words,phrases ,clauses and so on, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);
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• Such rules concern the pronunciation of specific morphemes.
• Thus the plural morphophonemic rules apply to the plural morpheme specifically, not to all morphemes in English.
Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Language
Hale Waihona Puke honology vs. Phonetics
• The study of how speech sounds form patterns is phonology
• The study of speech sounds is called phonetics
Additional example
• The patterns of Plural morph II: house /haus/ thief / i:f/ belief/bili:f/ foot /fu:t/ passer-by/pas bai/
• Morpheme of past tense • The phonological presentation
The Pronunciation of Morphemes
• Plural form of English
how to pronounce the plural morpheme?
• Allomorphs of plural morpheme
• To define the distribution of allomorphs by minimal pair
• The science of phonetics attempts to describe all of the sounds used in all languages of the world.
Phonology tells that:
• what sounds are in your language and which ones are foreign;
• Phonetics tells that : when we judge physically different sounds to be the same; which aspects of pronunciation are linguistically important and which are not.
• Distribution of the allomorphs in term of phonetics
• According to the distribution, the basic or underlying form of the plural morpheme is /z/
Allomorphic rule (1) Insert a [ə] before the plural morpheme /z/ when a regular noun ends in a sibilant, giving [əz].
• /d/
The rules of phonology are based on properties of segments rather than on individual words is one of the factors which makes it possible for young children to learn their native language in a relatively short period.
• what combinations of sounds could be an actual word, and what combination of sounds could not
• why certain phonetic features are important to identifying a word, while other features are not crucial
Allomorphic rule (2) Change the plural morpheme /z/ to a voiceless [s] when preceded by a voiceless sound.
Input →rules →output
• The particular phonological rules that determine the phonetic form of the plural morpheme and other morphemes of the language are morphophonemic rules.
• A minimal pair :two words with different meanings that are identical except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in each word.
• cab vs. cap; map vs. match
• allows us to adjust our pronunciation of a morpheme to suit the different phonological contexts that it occurs
• The word phonology refers both to the linguistic knowledge that speakers have about the sound patterns of their language and to the description of that knowledge that linguists try to produce.
• Thus the plural morphophonemic rules apply to the plural morpheme specifically, not to all morphemes in English.
Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Language
Hale Waihona Puke honology vs. Phonetics
• The study of how speech sounds form patterns is phonology
• The study of speech sounds is called phonetics
Additional example
• The patterns of Plural morph II: house /haus/ thief / i:f/ belief/bili:f/ foot /fu:t/ passer-by/pas bai/
• Morpheme of past tense • The phonological presentation
The Pronunciation of Morphemes
• Plural form of English
how to pronounce the plural morpheme?
• Allomorphs of plural morpheme
• To define the distribution of allomorphs by minimal pair
• The science of phonetics attempts to describe all of the sounds used in all languages of the world.
Phonology tells that:
• what sounds are in your language and which ones are foreign;
• Phonetics tells that : when we judge physically different sounds to be the same; which aspects of pronunciation are linguistically important and which are not.
• Distribution of the allomorphs in term of phonetics
• According to the distribution, the basic or underlying form of the plural morpheme is /z/
Allomorphic rule (1) Insert a [ə] before the plural morpheme /z/ when a regular noun ends in a sibilant, giving [əz].
• /d/
The rules of phonology are based on properties of segments rather than on individual words is one of the factors which makes it possible for young children to learn their native language in a relatively short period.
• what combinations of sounds could be an actual word, and what combination of sounds could not
• why certain phonetic features are important to identifying a word, while other features are not crucial
Allomorphic rule (2) Change the plural morpheme /z/ to a voiceless [s] when preceded by a voiceless sound.
Input →rules →output
• The particular phonological rules that determine the phonetic form of the plural morpheme and other morphemes of the language are morphophonemic rules.
• A minimal pair :two words with different meanings that are identical except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in each word.
• cab vs. cap; map vs. match
• allows us to adjust our pronunciation of a morpheme to suit the different phonological contexts that it occurs
• The word phonology refers both to the linguistic knowledge that speakers have about the sound patterns of their language and to the description of that knowledge that linguists try to produce.