词汇学 大作业, 全英文

1. London Olympic GamesHer Majesty the queen, your highness, distinguished guests, ladies, gentlemen! In a memorable 17 days later, tonight we appreciate. The London Olympic Organizing Committee in the public institutions under the strong support, have done a fantastic job. Thank you, Chris Duke, great London Olympic team. We will never forget the great volunteers smile, kindness and support. They are the Olympics really need heroes. Your public and public groups for this Olympic Games provided the best channel, in order to participant enthusiasm whoop, for the participants to provide strength, for every venue brings holiday half atmosphere. You show the world the hospitality of the people of the best, I know that the spirit of generosity will continue, especially when the US Paralympics athletes when admiration and support. Dear athletes, you win the global audience's respect and admiration, you as history of the Olympic Games and writing a new chapter in history, which began three thousand years ago in the ancient Olympic Games. Through your commitment to fair competition, respect for the opponent and the failure and success to show grace, you will have the right to become Olympic man. This is a happy game!happy and glorious2. Beijing Olympic GamesDear Chinese Friends,Tonight, we come to the end of 16 glorious days which we will cherish forever.Thank you to the people of China, all the wonderful volunteers and BOCOG! Through these Games, the world learned more about China, and China learned more about the world. Athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees came to these dazzling venues and awed us with their talent.New stars were born. Stars from past Games amazed us again. We shared their joys and their tears, and we marveled at their ability. We will long remember the achievements we witnessed here.As we celebrate the success of these Games, let us together wish the best for the talented athletes who will soon participate in the Paralympics Games. They also inspire us.To the athletes tonight: You were true role models. You have shown us the unifying power of sport. The Olympic spirit lives in the warm embrace of competitive rivals from nations in conflict. Keep that spirit alive when you return home.These were truly exceptional Games!And now, in accordance with tradition, I declare the Games of the XXIX Olympiad closed, and I call upon the youth of the world to assemble four years from now in London to celebrate the Games of the XXX Olympiad.3.Greek Olympic Games●1988年汉城(现称首尔)奥运会历史上最好的覆盖面最广的奥运会———萨马兰奇●1992年巴塞罗那奥运会历史上勿庸置疑最出色的奥运会———萨马兰奇●1996年亚特兰大奥运会最有特色的奥运会———萨马兰奇●2000年悉尼奥运会最成功的一届———萨马兰奇●2004年雅典奥运会心满意足，非常非常满意———罗格●2008年北京奥运会真正的无与伦比的奥运会———罗格2008IOC chief: Beijing Olympic Games "truly exceptional Games"罗格：这是一届真正的无与伦比的奥运会2004罗格说：雅典奥运会是令人难忘的“梦”奥运Olympic Games in Athens are unforgettable dream Olympic Games. 2000萨马兰奇:悉尼奥运会是历史上最好的一届奥运会Olympic Games in Sydney are in history best a Olympic Games 1988These were a veriest incomparable Olympic Games。

（完整word版）词汇学练习Chapter 5 Word Meaning (练习4)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.C 1. A word is the combination of form and ________.A. spellingB. writingC. meaningD. denoting2.B_____is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective worldin the human mind.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SenseD. Context3.Sense denotes the relationships ____D_the language.A. outsideB. withC. beyondD. inside4. Most English words can be said to be __A_____.A. non-motivatedB. motivatedC. connectedD. related5. Trumpet is a(n) ____C___motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. semanticallyC. onomatopoeicallyD.etymologically6.Hopeless is a ____A__motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD.etymologically7. In the sentence ‘He is fond of pen ’, pen is a _C_____ motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically8.Walkman is a ___D___motivated word.A. onomatopoeicallyB. morphologicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically9.Functional words possess strong __A___ whereas content words haveboth meanings, and lexical meaning in particular.A. grammatical meaningB. conceptual meaningC. associative meaningD. arbitrary meaning10.____B___is unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.A.Stylistic meaningB. Connotative meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Affective meaning11.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s __C_____towards the person or thing in question.A. feelingB. likingC. attitudeD. understanding12. _B_____ are affective words as they are expressions of emotions such as oh, dear me, alas.A. PrepositionsB. InterjectionsC. ExclamationsD. Explanations13. It is noticeable that D_______overlaps with stylistic and affective meanings because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocations.A.conceptual meaningB. grammatical meaningC. lexical meaningD. collocative meaning14.In the same language, the same concept can be expressed in ____D__.A. only one wordB. two wordsC. more than threeD. different words15.Reference is the relationship between language and the __C____.A. speakersB. listenersC. worldD. specific country16.P olysemy is a common feature peculiar to ___C___.A. English onlyB. Chinese onlyC. all natural languagesD. some natural languages17.F rom the ___B___ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the resultof growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word .A. linguisticB. diachronicC. synchronicD. traditional18.___A____ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning standsat the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.A .Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection19.. ____D_____ is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.A. DerivationB. RadiationC. InflectionD. Concatenation20. One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their _____CA. spellingB. pronunciationC. etymologyD. usage21. ___B___refer to one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.A. PolysemantsB. SynonymsC. AntonymsD. Hyponyms22. The sense relation between the two words tulip and flower is ___A____.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. antonymy23. _____B____ are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. bow/bau/; bow/beu/.A. HomophonesB. HomographsC. Perfect homonymsD. Antonyms24. The antonyms: male and female are __A____.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms25. The antonyms big and small are ___B___.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD.connected terms26. The antonyms husband and wife are _____C_.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms27. Composition and compounding in lexicology are words of A__.A. absolute synonymsB. relative synonymsC. relative antonymsD. contrary antonyms28. As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly __B____, they are often employed in a conversation to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.A. homographsB. homophonesC. absolute homonymsD. antonyms29.F rom the diachronic point of view, when the word was created, it wasendowed with only one meaning . The first meaning is called __A____.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. basic meaning30.S ynchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core ofword-meaning called____C___.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. secondary meaningII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.1.In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggesttheir ______/doc/6c9d2664148884868762caaedd3383c4bb4cb4f0.html pounds and derived words are ______ words and the meanings ofmany are the sum total of the morphemes combined.3._______ refers to the mental associations suggested by theconceptual meaning of a word.4.The meanings of many words often relate directly to their ______. Inother words the history of the word explains the meaning of the word.5.Lexical meaning itself has two components : conceptual meaning and_________.6.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms frompolysemants is to see their ____, the second principal consideration is ________.7.In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one______whereas homonyms are listed as separate ______.8.The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas : _______,connotation ,and _____.9.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is,the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. The general words are called the_____terms and the more specific words are called the _____ terms.III. Match the words or expression in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) discrimination of synonyms 2) types of antonyms 3) sources of synonyms.A B1. difference in denotation A. dead/alive2. borrowing B. handy/ manual3. dialects and regional English C. old / young4. contradictory terms D. answer the letter / reply to the letter5. figurative and euphemistic use of words E. jim6. contrary terms F. want/wish/desire7. difference in connotation G. dreamer /star-gazer8. coincidence with idiomatic expressions H. employer / employee9. difference in application I. help/ lend one a hand10. relative terms J. foe / enemyIV. Define the following terms .1. motivation2. hoponymy 4. semantic fieldV.Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short.1. What is reference ?2. What are sources of synonyms ?VI. Question:1. Explain the types of associative meaning with examples.2. Write the following words into a tree-like graph:vegetable, meat, pork, beef, turnip, carrot, bread, food, cake, cornflakes, cereal.Key to exercises:I. 1. C 2.B 3.D 4.A 5.C 6.A 7.C 8.D 9.A 10.B 11.C12.B 13.D 14.D 15.C 16. C 17.B 18.A 19.D 20.C 21.B22.A 23.B 24.A 25.B 26 .C 27.A 28.B 29. A 30.CII. 1. meanings 2.multi-morphemic 3.Semantic motivation4.origins5.associative meaning6. etymology, semanticrelatedness 7.headword, entries 8.denotation, application 9.superordinate, subordinateIII.21. F 22.J 23.E 24.A 25.G 26.C 27.B 28.I 29. D30.H1. . Associative meaning comprises four types:(1)Connotative meaning . It refers to the overtones or associationssuggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part of the word-meaning, but associations that might occur in the mind of a particular user of the language. For example, mother , denoting a ‘female parent’, isoften associated with ‘love’, ‘care’, etc..(2)Stylistic meaning. Apart feom their conceptual meanings, manywords have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features form the stylistic meanings of words . For example, pregnant, expecting, knockingup, in the club, etc., all can have the same conceptual meaning, but differ in their stylistic values.(3)Affective meaning. It indicates the speaker’s attitude towards theperson or thing in question. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories :appreciative or pejorative. For example, famous, determined are words of positive overtones; notorious, pigheaded are of negative connotations implying disapproval, contempt or criticism.(4)Collocative meaning. It consists of the associations a word acquiresin its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. For example, we say : pretty girl, pretty garden; we don’t say pretty typewriter. But sometimes there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words.2. food________________________________________________________ _meat vegetable cerealpork beef turnip carrot breadcake cornflakes。

Chapter 5 Word Meaning (练习4)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.C 1. A word is the combination of form and ________.A. spellingB. writingC. meaningD. denoting2.B_____is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective worldin the human mind.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SenseD. Context3.Sense denotes the relationships ____D_the language.A. outsideB. withC. beyondD. inside4. Most English words can be said to be __A_____.A. non-motivatedB. motivatedC. connectedD. related5. Trumpet is a(n) ____C___motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. semanticallyC. onomatopoeicallyD.etymologically6.Hopeless is a ____A__motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD.etymologically7. In the sentence ‘He is fond of pen ’, pen is a _C_____ motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically8.Walkman is a ___D___motivated word.A. onomatopoeicallyB. morphologicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically9.Functional words possess strong __A___ whereas content words haveboth meanings, and lexical meaning in particular.A. grammatical meaningB. conceptual meaningC. associative meaningD. arbitrary meaning10.____B___is unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.A.Stylistic meaningB. Connotative meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Affective meaning11.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s __C_____towards the person or thing in question.A. feelingB. likingC. attitudeD. understanding12. _B_____ are affective words as they are expressions of emotions such as oh, dear me, alas.A. PrepositionsB. InterjectionsC. ExclamationsD. Explanations13. It is noticeable that D_______overlaps with stylistic and affective meanings because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocations.A.conceptual meaningB. grammatical meaningC. lexical meaningD. collocative meaning14.In the same language, the same concept can be expressed in ____D__.A. only one wordB. two wordsC. more than threeD. different words15.Reference is the relationship between language and the __C____.A. speakersB. listenersC. worldD. specific country16.P olysemy is a common feature peculiar to ___C___.A. English onlyB. Chinese onlyC. all natural languagesD. some natural languages17.F rom the ___B___ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the resultof growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word .A. linguisticB. diachronicC. synchronicD. traditional18.___A____ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning standsat the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.A .Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection19.. ____D_____ is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.A. DerivationB. RadiationC. InflectionD. Concatenation20. One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their _____CA. spellingB. pronunciationC. etymologyD. usage21. ___B___refer to one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.A. PolysemantsB. SynonymsC. AntonymsD. Hyponyms22. The sense relation between the two words tulip and flower is ___A____.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. antonymy23. _____B____ are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. bow/bau/; bow/beu/.A. HomophonesB. HomographsC. Perfect homonymsD. Antonyms24. The antonyms: male and female are __A____.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms25. The antonyms big and small are ___B___.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD.connected terms26. The antonyms husband and wife are _____C_.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms27. Composition and compounding in lexicology are words of A__.A. absolute synonymsB. relative synonymsC. relative antonymsD. contrary antonyms28. As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly __B____, they are often employed in a conversation to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.A. homographsB. homophonesC. absolute homonymsD. antonyms29.F rom the diachronic point of view, when the word was created, it wasendowed with only one meaning . The first meaning is called __A____.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. basic meaning30.S ynchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core ofword-meaning called____C___.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. secondary meaningII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.1.In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggesttheir ______pounds and derived words are ______ words and the meanings ofmany are the sum total of the morphemes combined.3._______ refers to the mental associations suggested by theconceptual meaning of a word.4.The meanings of many words often relate directly to their ______. Inother words the history of the word explains the meaning of the word.5.Lexical meaning itself has two components : conceptual meaning and_________.6.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms frompolysemants is to see their ____, the second principal consideration is ________.7.In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one______whereas homonyms are listed as separate ______.8.The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas : _______,connotation ,and _____.9.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is,the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. The general words are called the _____terms and the more specific words are called the _____ terms.III. Match the words or expression in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) discrimination of synonyms 2) types of antonyms 3) sources of synonyms.A B1. difference in denotation A. dead/alive2. borrowing B. handy/ manual3. dialects and regional English C. old / young4. contradictory terms D. answer the letter / reply to the letter5. figurative and euphemistic use of words E. jim6. contrary terms F. want/wish/desire7. difference in connotation G. dreamer /star-gazer8. coincidence with idiomatic expressions H. employer / employee9. difference in application I. help/ lend one a hand10. relative terms J. foe / enemyIV. Define the following terms .1. motivation2. hoponymy 4. semantic fieldV.Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short.1. What is reference ?2. What are sources of synonyms ?VI. Question:1. Explain the types of associative meaning with examples.2. Write the following words into a tree-like graph:vegetable, meat, pork, beef, turnip, carrot, bread, food, cake, cornflakes, cereal.Key to exercises:I. 1. C 2.B 3.D 4.A 5.C 6.A 7.C 8.D 9.A 10.B 11.C12.B 13.D 14.D 15.C 16. C 17.B 18.A 19.D 20.C 21.B22.A 23.B 24.A 25.B 26 .C 27.A 28.B 29. A 30.CII. 1. meanings 2.multi-morphemic 3.Semantic motivation4.origins5.associative meaning6. etymology, semanticrelatedness 7.headword, entries 8.denotation, application 9.superordinate, subordinateIII.21. F 22.J 23.E 24.A 25.G 26.C 27.B 28.I 29. D30.H1. . Associative meaning comprises four types:(1)Connotative meaning . It refers to the overtones or associationssuggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part of the word-meaning, but associations that might occur in the mind of a particular user of the language. For example, mother , denoting a ‘female parent’, isoften associated with ‘love’, ‘care’, etc..(2)Stylistic meaning. Apart feom their conceptual meanings, manywords have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features form the stylistic meanings of words . For example, pregnant, expecting, knockingup, in the club, etc., all can have the same conceptual meaning, but differ in their stylistic values.(3)Affective meaning. It indicates the speaker’s attitude towards theperson or thing in question. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories :appreciative or pejorative. For example, famous, determined are words of positive overtones; notorious, pigheaded are of negative connotations implying disapproval, contempt or criticism.(4)Collocative meaning. It consists of the associations a word acquiresin its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. For example, we say : pretty girl, pretty garden; we don’t say pretty typewriter. But sometimes there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words.2. food________________________________________________________ _meat vegetable cerealpork beef turnip carrot breadcake cornflakes。

现代词汇学答案及英文课本第一章词的概述Exercises answer Chapter 1Ⅵ.All the words belong to the native stock. Ⅴ1. from Danish2. from French3. from German4. from Latin5. from Italian6. from Spanish7. from Arabic8. from Chinese9. from Russian10. from Greek 英语参考资料 Chapter 1A General Survey of a Word Ⅰ. Definition of a wordAristotle defined a word as the smallest significant unit of speech - a definition which held sway until recently. Modern methods of analysis have discovered semantic units below the word level. A new term is therefore needed to denote the smallest significant element of speech; in contemporary linguistic theory it is known as a morpheme. Bloomfield distinguishes between two types of linguistic forms: free forms and bound forms. Free forms can stand by themselves and sometimes act as a complete utterance whereas bound forms cannot. For example, the word nicely contains the free form nice, and the bound form -ly. The former can occur as an independent unit and even as a sentence (What about the other film? - Nice). But the suffix -ly cannot stand by itself, to say nothing of acting as a complete utterance. According to Bloomfield, a word is a minimal free form. Lexicology deals by definition with words and wordforming morphemes, that is to say, with significant units. It follows that these elements must be investigated in their form and in their meaning. Therefore, from the lexicological point of view, a word is a combination of form(phonological) and meaning (lexical and grammatical). In addition, a word acts as a structural unit of a sentence. Ⅱ. Sound and meaningThe Naturalists have argued that the origin of language lies in onomatopoeia, that people began talking by creating iconic signs to imitate the sounds heard around them in nature. They maintain that there is a natural connection between sound and meaning. The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. Facts have proved this argument to be valid. Words that convey the same meaning have different phonological forms in different languages - for example, English meat / mi:t /,Chinese ròu. Alternatively, the same phonological forms may convey different meanings - for example, sight, site, cite. Ⅲ. Meaning and conceptMeaning is closely related to a concept. A concept is the base of the meaning of a word. A word is used to label a concept. It acts as the symbol for that concept. The concept is abstracted from the person, thing, relationship, idea, event, and so on, that we are thinking about. We call this the referent. The word labels the concept, which is abstracted from the referent; the word denotes the referent, but does not label it. This approach to meaning can be diagrammed as follows: word - concept - referent The formula shows that the word refers to the referent through a concept.A concept is an abstraction from things of the same kind.When someone says \to you, how do you know it is a chair? It is simply because it shows certain characteristics shared by all the objects you call chairs. You have abstracted these characteristics from your experience of chairs, and from what you have learned about chairs. From this it can be deduced that a concept refers to something in general, but not something in particular. A word, however, can refer to both, as is shown in the following two sentences:...some have begun to realize that the automobile is a mixed blessing. The automobile was stalled in a snowstorm.The word \general whereas the word in the second sentence refers to a specific one. There are two aspects to the meaning of a word: denotation and connotation. The process by which the word refers to the referent is called \For example, the denotation of \is \quadruped\The denotative meaning of a word usually refers to the dictionarydefinition of a word. As opposed to denotation, connotation refers to the emotional aspect of a word. For example, the connotation of \include \ Ⅳ. Lexical item and vocabularyA unit of vocabulary is generally referred to as a lexical item. A complete inventory of the lexical items of a language constitutes that language's dictionary. In New Horizons in Linguistics, John Lyons points out that \ The term vocabulary usually refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language. But it may also refer to the words and phrases used in the variants of a language, such as dialect, register, terminology, etc. The vocabulary can be divided into active vocabulary and passive vocabulary: the former refers to lexical items which a person uses; the latter to words which he understands.The English vocabulary is characterized by a mixture of native words and borrowed words. Most of the native words are of Anglo-Saxon origin. They form the basic word stock of the English language. In the native stock we find words denoting the commonest things necessary for life, natural phenomena, divisions of the year, parts of the body, animals, foodstuffs, trees, fruits, human activity and other words denoting the mostindispensable things. The native stock also includes auxiliary and modal verbs, pronouns, most numerals, prepositions and conjunctions. Though small in number, these words play no small part in linguistic performance and communication.Borrowed words, usually known as loan-words, refer to linguistic forms taken over by one language or dialect from another.The English vocabulary has replenished itself by continually taking over words from other languages over the centuries. The adoption of foreign words into the English language began even before the English came to England. The Germanic people, of which the Angles and Saxons formed a part, had long before this event been in contact with the civilization of Rome. Words of Latin origin denoting objects belonging to that civilization (wine, butter, cheese, inch, mile, mint, etc.) gradually found their way into the English language.When the English were settled in England, they continued to borrow words from Latin, especially after Roman Christianity was introduced into the island in the sixth and seventh centuries. A considerable number of Latin words, chiefly signifying things connected with religion or the services of the church, were adopted into the English language. Among those which are still part of the language are bishop, candle, creed, font, mass, monk, priest and a great many others.To the Danes and Northmen the English vocabulary also owes a great deal. From these settlers, English adopted a surprising number of words of Scandinavian origin that belong to the core-vocabulary today: they (them, their), both, ill, die, egg, knife, low, skill, take, till, though, want, etc.The Norman Conquest in 1066 introduced a large number of French words into the English vocabulary. French adoptions were found in almost every section of the vocabulary: law (justice, evidence, pardon...), warfare (conquer, victory, archer...), religion (grace, repent, sacrifice...), architecture (castle, pillar, tower...), finance (pay, rent, ransom...), rank (baron, master, prince...), clothing (collar, mantle, vestment...), food (dinner, feast, sauce...) and many others. As an indication of the tremendous influx of French words, we may note that, discounting propernames, there are 39 words of French origin in the first 43 lines of the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.The revival of art and literature based on ancient Greek learning, known as the Renaissance in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, opened up a new source from which the English vocabulary could be enriched. English has borrowed many words from Greek through the medium of Latin and a smaller number direct, such as rhapsody, crisis, topic, pathos, stigma, coma, tonic, cosmos, dogma. From Greek also comes a wide range of learned affixes, such as bio-, chrono-, geo-, hydro-, logo-, auto-, hemi-, hetero-, homo-, mono-, neo-, epi-, meta-, para-, -ism, -ise, -logy, -graph, -phile, -meter, -gram and many others.From the sixteenth century onward, there was a great increase in the number of languages from which English adopted words. French continued to provide a considerable number of new words, for example, trophy, vase, moustache, unique, attic, soup. The Italian element was particularly strong in the fields of art, music and literature, for example, model, sonnet, opera, vista, soprano, quartet. There was also a Spanish element in English, for example, sherry, potato, cargo, parade, cigar. German, Portuguese and Dutch were also fertile sources of loan words, for example, dock, carouse, plunder, zinc, quarts (German); flamingo, cobra, caste, buffallo, pagoda (Portuguses); booze, wainscot, tackle, buoy, skipper, dock (Dutch).At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, with a growth ofinternational trade and the urge to colonize and dominate the unknown world, English made a number of direct adoptions from languages spoken outside Europe. Some examples are: sultan, sheikh, ghoul, roc (Arabic); boomerang, billabong, wombat, dingo (Australian); lichi, sampan, typhoon, ketchup (Chinese); shibboleth, kibbutz (Hebrew); schmozze, schmaltz (Yiddish); shah, divan, shawl, caravan (Persian); caften, yoghourt, kiosk,bosh (Turkish); bwana, safari (Swahili); hara-kiri. tycoon, kamikaze, judo (Japanese); guru, pundit, swami, pukka (Hindustani); proa, amok, raffia, sarong (Indonesian); rouble, czar, troika, commissar (Russian). Since the end of the Second World War, still more loanwords have been incorporated into the English vocabulary, for example, haute cuisine, discotheque, engagé (French), sushi (Japanese); gulag, apparatchik (Russian); mao tai (Chinese); favela (Portuguese); autostrada (Italian); autopista (Spanish); hamam (Arabic) and many others.In the present century it should be observed that English has created many words out of Latin and Greek elements, especially in the fields of science and technology, such as aerodyne, ambivert, androgen, antibiotic, astronaut, auto-visual, autolysis, barysphere, cacogenics, callipyous, chromosome, cartology, cryotron, cyclorama, dendrochronology,dromophobia, hypnotherapy, hypothermia, isotope... Because the lexical sources of Latin and Greek are treated as if they belonged to English, many neologisms combine elements from different sources: aqualung, television, microgroove, sonobuoy, etc. Although all these Latin-and Greek-derived words are distinctly learned or technical, they do not seem foreign, and are very different in this respect from the recent loanwords from living languages, such as montage, angst, cappuccino, sputnik, etc. Thus, for the Modern English period a distinction must be made between the adoptions from living languages and the formations derived from the two classical languages.第二章词的结构和词的构成方式练习答案Chapter 2Ⅲ:astir = in motion; in excited activity awhir = whirringanti-Marketeer = an opponent of Great Britain's entry into the European Common Marketanti-theatre = the theatre that lacks most of the traditional features of the theatredeplane = get out of an airplane after it landsdenationalize = deprive...of national rights or status disambiguate = rid...of ambiguity disadapt = make...unable to adaptecocide = the destruction of the earth's ecology through the uncontrolled use of pollutantsecocatastrophe = a catastrophe (a large-scale disaster) resulting from the uncontrolled use of pollutants。

词汇学作业从⽅框内选择词的适当形式填空Animals possess sensory powers that humans lack. 1 pigeons fly with great speed and accuracy when 2 with messages to faraway places. How do pigeons orient themselves in unfamiliar regions? This remains something or an enigma. The mystery, however, is partly explained by a pigeon’s ability to see ultraviolet 3 which reveals the sun’s position even through clouds. In addition, pigeons can hear 4 waves that have traveled hundreds of miles. These waves enhance a pigeon’s 5 of direction by indicating distant mountains and seas. Pigeons even appear to discern 6 in the earth’s magnetic field.Bats have impressive 7 equally worthy of acclaim. As nocturnal animals, they search for food in complete darkness. They do so by screeching in tones higher than any human can hear and then locating prey by the returning echoes.Scorpions also 8 the night hunter. Tiny leg hairs enable them to feel vibrations in the sand made by a 9 insect as far as two feet away.People with knowledge of the pigeons, bat, and scorpion can attest to the fact that such “innovations” as the magnetic 10 , radar, and the motion detector are nothing new.。

20110512044 张莉敏8班Discussion. To distinguish the origin of words,Latin or French ?state, power, prince, duke, judge, crime, angel, bacon, fry, roast, dress, coat. solar, lunar, abbot(修道院男院长), candle, altar, amen, apostle(传道者).stateearly 13c., "circumstances, temporary attributes of a person or thing, conditions," from Latin status"manner of standing, position, condition,"noun of action from past participle stem of stare "to stand" from PIE root *sta- "to stand" (see stet). Some Middle English senses are via Old French estat (French état; see estate).The Latin word was adopted into other modern Germanic languages (e.g.German, Dutch staat) but chiefly in the political senses only. Meaning "physical condition as regards form or structure" is attested from late 13c.Meaning "mental or emotional condition" is attested from 1530s (phrase state of mind first attested 1749); colloquial sense of "agitated or perturbed state" is from 1837.Prince prince[prins]PRINCE=Parts Reliability Information Center 零件可靠性情报中心([美]NASA)A male member of a royal family other than the monarch, especially a son of the monarch. 王子，亲王：王室中非君主的男性成员，尤指君主的儿子The ruler of a principality.国君，君主，诸候：公国的统治者A hereditary ruler; a king.君主，帝王：世袭的统治者；国王A nobleman of varying status or rank.贵族：各种爵位或地位的贵族An outstanding man, especially in a particular group or class:巨头，名家：杰出的人，尤指在某一特定团体或阶层中：a merchant prince.巨商prince来自拉丁语princepsprinceps【王子】注：古罗马共和国的时候意思是【统领】；奥古斯特被称为princeps，作为元老院的最有权力的元老；当他死后此词就通称皇帝的儿子了，也就是王子。

Chapter 1 The Basic Con cepts of Words and Vocabulary1、The Definition of a WordLexicology focuses on the study of meanin gs and origi ns of words.Accord ing to sema nticists （语义学家），a word is a unit of meaning.A word is a mi ni mal （最小的）free form of a Ian guage that has a give n sound,meaningand syn tactic fun ctio n （句法功能）2、VocabularyAll the words in a Ian guage make up what is gen erally known as its vocabulary. _________3、Sound and MeaningThe relati on ship betwee n sound and meaning is no logic ______4、Sound and FormThere was more agreeme nt betwee n sound and form in Old En glish tha n in Moder n Engl i s h.With the developme nt of the Ian guage, more and more differe nces arose betwee n sound and form.5、Classificati on of Words6简答(1)、What is the relati on ship betwee n sound and meaning? Give examples to illustratei tThe relati on ship betwee n sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional. _____________I n d i f f e r e n tIan guages, the same con cept can be show n by differe nt soun ds. a Woma n ,f o r e x a m p l e ,becomes “ Frau ” in German, Femme in French and “ fu nv ” in Chinese.O n t h e o t h e rhand, the same sound [mi:t] is used tomean“ meet,meat,mete”,deno ti ngd i f fe r e n tthi ngs.(2)、What are the four major reasons for the differe nces betwee n sound and form?The first reas on (he internal reas on) is that there are more phon emes （音素) t han l e t t e r s inEnglish-Another reas on is that the pronun ciati on has cha nged morer a p i d l y t h a n spelli ng over the years. The third reas ons that some of the differences more c r e a t e d b ythe early scribes. The fourth reas on is the borrowi ng.(3)、How are words classified in the course book?Words can be classified by differe nt criteria and for differe nt purposes.W o r d s may fallin to: the basic word stock and non basic vocabulary by use freque ncy; content words andfunctional words by no ti on; n ative words and borrowed words by origi n;si m p l e words,compo unds and derived words by morphology.(4)、What is the differenee between denizensand aliens?Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated ______________ (完全同化)in to the En glish Ian guage. But alie ns are borrowed words which have reta ined their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediatelyr e c o g nizable a s f o r e i g n in origi n.Chapter 2 The Developme nt of the En glish Vocabulary1、The Indo-European Language FamilyThe prehistoricIn do-Europea n pare nt Ian guage, thought to be a highly in fleeted（内部曲折2、 Three Phases of the Historical Developme nt The first peoples who in habited the land wereCelts.in flecti onal systems of Old En glish.Modern English ( 1500-present )In the early period of Moder n En glish, Europe saw a new upsurge of a r n i ng an c i eGreek and Roma n classics.It is estimated that about one fourth of modern English vocabulary come3、 Foreig n Eleme nts in the En glish VocabularyIn earlier stages of En glish, Lati n, Greek, French and Scandin avia n were the __ fourmajorcon tributors.The simulta neous existe nee of Fren ch, Lat in and En glish lasted for a cen tury. _________4、 Modes of Vocabulary Developme ntModer n En glish vocabulary develops through three cha nn els: creation, ________change(旧词新义)and borrow ing.Creation is the most importa nt way of vocabulary expa nsion.5、简答What are the characteristics of Old En glish?(1 )、 (2 )、 The sec ond Ian guage known in En glish was Lat in of the Roma n Legi ons. Old English (450-1150 )In the 9th century England was invaded by Norwegian and Middle English( 1150-1500 )The French in flue neeon En glish vocabulary s o fDanish Vikings.was one of the significant th Middle En glish period. The most importa ntfactof the Middle En glishperiodtwas the steady erosion h(3 )、Old English also known as the Anglo-Saxon, has a vocabulary of about 50000 to60000 words, which are almost monogen eous and en tirely Germa nic with only afew borrow ings from Lati n and Scandin avia n. Old En glish was a highly in flectedIanguage. It was a synthetic Ianguage (综合性语言) .(Modern English is ananal y t i c Ianguage )Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of En glish Words1、MorphemesThe minimal meaningful units in English are known as morphemes _____________ （词素）3、Morphs （形素）Morphemes are abstract un its, which are realized in speech by discrete un its known a smorphs.4、Allomorphs （词素变体）An allomorph refers to a memberof a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be furtherloss ofide ntity.7、简答（1 ）、What is the differenee between free morphemes and bound morphemes?Free morphemes which have complete meanings in themselves and can be useda s freegrammatical un its in sentences are in depe ndent of other morphemes, but bound morphemes which cannot occur as separate. Words are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.（2）、What is the differenee between derivational morphemes and inflectional mor p h e m es ?Derivatio nal morphemes are used to derive new words, but in flectio nalo r p h employed used to indicate nd f as grammatical markers.e m e s are the syntactic （句法）relati on ship betwee n words u n c t i o nChapter 4 Word FormatioThe most productive ways of creati ng new words are affixati on, compounding, and conversion.1、Affixationcalledderivatives.2、C ompounding （复合法）Example: workfare（work+welfare）In adjective-plus-noun compo un ds, the adjective eleme nt cannot takein fleet ional suffixes.Verb compo unds are created either though con vers ion or through back-formatio n.3、C on version （转类法）The conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs is the most productive. The con vers ion of two syllable nouns into verbs in volves a cha nge of stress. ____ Nouns fully con verted from adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns.4、Ble ndi ng （拼缀法）The overwhel ming majority of ble nds are nouns _____5、B ack-formation （逆身法）Back-formati on is con sidered to be the opposite process of suffixati on. ___________6简答（1 ）、What is the main differenee between prefixes and suffixes?Un like prefixes which primarily effect a sema ntic modificati on of the base, suffixeshave only a small semantic role, their primary function being to changes the grammaticalfunction of a base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slightmodification of meaning.（2 ）、What are the three main features of compounds?The three mai n features of compo unds are phono logical features, sema ntic feat u r e sandgrammatical features. The word stress of a compo und usually occurs on the first el e m e nt.Each compound should express a single idea just as one word. A compound tendsto playa sin gle grammatical role in a sentence.(3 )、What is back-formation? What are the characteristics of back-formation?Back-formatio n is the method of creati ng words by removi ng the supposedWords created through back-formation are verbs. Stylistically,back-formed words alargely in formal and some of them have not successfully gained curre ncy.(4)、What is acronymy? What is the differenee between initialisms and aernyms?Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letterso f c o m p o s i t e n ames of social and political orga ni zatio ns or phrases used as tech ni calt er ms. Wordsformed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms. Initialisms arepro noun c e d letter b y letter, but acronyms are pronounced as no rmal words7、论述题head of medical 'and the word “ care ”, and “ sitcom ”is formed by combining the head of ____________ “ si t u a t i on ”and that of “ comdey'.2、” Memo and “flu ”are clipped words. “Mem6 is formed by clipping the lack of“memoranduri”and “flu ”is formed clipping the front an ___________“ in flue nza ” .3、” TB”and “ NATC” are new words created through acronymy. “ TB" fromt uber cul osi s ________________________________________ i s an initialism, while “ NATO from “the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ”isan acronym.Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis （成份分析法）1、R efereneeWords are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired refere nee.2、C oneept （概念）Meaning and con cept are closely conn ected but not ide ntical. ________Concept, which is beyond Ianguage, is the result of humancognition, reflectingt h e o b j e c t i v eworld in the huma n mind.3、S enseUni ike refere nee, sense deno tes the relati on ships in side the Ian guage. 4、Motivation （理据）Motivati on refers to the connection betwee n the lin guistic symbol and its _____6、简答（1 ）、What is referenee? What are the characteristics of referenee?Refere nee is the relati on ship betwee n Ian guage and theworld.By means ofre f e r e n ce,aspeaker in dicates which things in the world are being talked about. There f e r e n e e o f aword to a thing outside the Ianguage is arbitrary and conven tio nal.Althoughre f e r e nc e i sa kind of abstract ion,yet with the help of con text,it can refer to somethingde fi nit e（2 ）、What is conceptual meaning? What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning? Con _stable, con ceptual meaning forms the basis for com muni cati on as The same word gen erallyhas the same con ceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same speech com mun ity. （la ng uage ）.（3）、What is the differenee between conceptual meaning and associative meaning?Con ceptual meaning known as cog nitive, deno tative, or desig native is the m ea ninggiven in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. But Associative meaning is the sec on dary meaning suppleme nted to the con ceptual meaning. It differs fromt hecon ceptual meaning because it is ope n-en ded and in determ in ate,liable to theinfluenceo fsuch factors as culture, experienee, religion, geographical region, classbackgro und educati on, etc..(4)、What is collocative meaning? What are the characteristics of collocative mea ning?Collocative meaning is that part of the word meaning suggested by the wordsw i t h w h i c h it co-occurs. It is again no ticeable that collocative meaning overlaps with c o n n o t a t i v e a n daffective meaning because i n a sense both conno tative and affective meanings a r erevealed by virtue of collocatio ns or contextualityChapter 6 Se nse Relatio ns （语义关系）Chapter 6 Se nse Relatio ns （语义关系）derived meaningsThe meaning of a more specific word is include in that of another more general word.简答What is the differe nee betwee n radiati on and con cate nati on （连锁型）？Un like radiati on where each of the derived meanings is directly conn ected to theprimary meaning, con cate nati on describes a process where each of the later meanings is related only to the precedi ng one like cha ins.Chapter 7 Chan ges in Word MeaningThe vocabulary is the most unstable element of a Ianguage as it is undergoing constantcha nges both in the sig n-shapes and sig n contents. _____1、Types of Change2、Causes of Change3、简答（1 ）、What is semantic transfer? What are the four main types of transfer?Some words which were used to desig nate/i ndicate one thi ng but latercha nged t o m e a n something else have experieneed the process of semantic transfer. The four main typescon cretemeanin gs, the tran sfer betwee n subjective and objective meanings and the syn e s t h e s i m .(2)、What are the two factors causing changes in meanings? Howare they classified?The two major factors that cause changes in meaning are the extra-linguisticfactors andthe linguistic factors. The extra-linguistic factors include the historicr e a s on, t h e classreas on and the psychological reas on. The lin guistic factors in clude short eni n g,borrow ing and an alogy. (类比)Chapter 8 Mea ning and Con text (语境)1、Types of Con textWithout context, there is no way to determ ine the meaning that the speaker intends t oconvey.Whenwe talk about con text, we usually thi nk of linguistic c on text, hardly awareo f t h e2、The Role of Con textAmbiguity often arises due to polysemy, homonymyand grammatical structure. Whenaword with multiple meanings is employed in in adequate con text, it createsa mb i g u i t y3、简答(1 )、what is the differe nce betwee n lin guistic con text and extra-li nguisticcon text?Lin guistic refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appearsa n d i t i s k n o w nas lin guistic con text or co-text may extend to embrace a paragraph, a wholec hap t e r a n deven the entire book. But extra-linguistic or non-1 inguistic con text referst o t h e participa nts, time, place, and eve n the whole cultural backgro und(2 )、What is the differe nce betwee n lexical con text and grammatical con text?Lexical con text refers to the words that co-occur with the word in questi on.The mea ningof the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words. Butg r a m m a t i c a lcon text refers to the structure which may in flue nce the mea ning of a polysema nt.4、论述题Read the sentence carefully. If you find any thi ng in appropriate, explain the r e a s ons a nd then improve the senten ce.a. He is a hard bus in essma n.Joh n ran the egg and spo on race.1、 The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by polysemy.2、 The word “ hard ” in this sentence can be understood as“ hardworking ” or“ difficult ” . The con text fails to n arrow dow n the meaning so that itis difficult for the reader to decide what exactly the speaker means. 3、 The ambiguity can be elimi nated by alteri ng the con text a little. Therewould be no misun dersta nding of the origi nal sentence if it is expa ndedas “ He is a hard bus in essma n to deal with ” , or “ He is a hard bus in essma n and he is often praised by his employer” .(participated or organized John ran the egg and spoon race and got second place. orJoh n ran the egg and spo on race and gain a larger nu mber of mon ey. )b. They saw her duck. The ball was attractive.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by homonymy.2、The word “ ball ” in this sentence to“ roundobject to play in a game ” or a n arrow dow n thecan be understood as a noun, which referthe reader to decide what exactly thespeaker mea ns.3、 The ambiguity can be elimi nated by alteri ng the con text a little. It is clear if it isexpa nded as “ The ball was attractive with nice music and a lot of _____________ peoples ” , or “ Theball made of leather of different colors was attractive” .(kind of poultry or verb meaning” lower one ' s head or body quickly,dodgeThey saw her duck or swim ming in the river or They saw her duck herbody.)c 、The fish is ready to eat. I like Mary better tha n Jea n.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by in adequateg r a m m a t ic a lstructure..2、 The sentence has two different interpretations. It may mean “ the fishi s c o o k ed orserved, so ready for people t o eat or a "the fishis readyto eat things ” .Th e con t ex t f a i l s w to n arrow down the meaning h a t so that e it is x difficult a for thec reader t to decide l ythe speaker mea ns.3、The sentence can be improved as “ Hownice the fish smell! The fish is ready t o eat. o r“ The fish is ready to eat things.dancing party .The con text fails tomeaning so that it is difficult for(I like Mary better than I like Jean or I like Mary better than Jean likes MaryI like Mary better than Jean does. or I like Mary better than I doJean.)iChapter 9 En glish Idioms1、 Characteristics of Idioms3、Stylistic Features（文体特征）Stylistically, idioms are gen erally felt to be in formal and some are _______col I oqui al i sms （口 语 体）and sla ng.4、Rhetorical Features4、简答（1 ）、 What are the characteristics of English idioms?The two main characteristics of English idioms are semantic unity and st r u c t u r a l s t a b i l i t y . Idioms each con sist of at least two or more con stitue nts, but each is a semanti cun ity.Thestructure of an idiom is to a large exte nd in variable. __________（2）、What are the rhetorical features of English idioms?The rhetorical features of English idioms include the phonetic manipulation,h el exi calman ipulati on and the sema ntic man ipulati on. The phon etic man ipulati on ncIu desalliterati on and rhyme （叠韵） .The lexical man ipulati on in cludese i t e r a t i on,r e p l e t i on and juxtapositi on. The sema ntic manipulati on in eludes (Figures of speech)S i m i l e Metaphor, Metonymy, Syn ecdoche, Personi ficati on. Euphemism.Chapter 10 En glish Dictio naries1、Types of Dictionaries2、T he main body of a dictionary is its definitions of words.3、D ictionaries（1 ）、Lon gma n Dictionary of Con temporary En glish-E nglish-Ch in ese（LDCE《朗文高级当代英语词典英汉双解》）Features: Clear Grammar Codes, Usage Notes, Lan guage Notes, Newwords（2 ）、Colli ns COBUILD En glish Dictio nary（CCE《〈柯林斯COBUILD英语词典》）Features: Defin iti on. Extra Colu mn, Freque ncy Marker, Pragmatics（词语用法说明）4、B ritish or AmericanAmerica n dict ion aries contain more en cyclopaedic in formatio n in the main bodyt h a n Britishone whereas British dictionaries, especially learner ' s dictionaries, embracemore gram mat i calin formati on.5、简答What is a dictio nary? What is the relati on ship betwee n a dictio nary and lexicology?A dictionary is a book which presents in alphabetical order the words of English,with information as to their spelling, pronunciation, meaning, usage, rules of grammar, and in some, their etymology. It is closely related to lexicology because both deal with the same problems: the form, meaning, usage and origins of vocabulary un its.。

Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words We have discussed the historical, cultural and social factors that facilitate (使……容易；推动) the development of the English vocabulary. Borrowing, as we see, has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary. In modern times, however, vocabulary is mainly enlarged on an internal basis. That is, we use word-building material available in English to create new words. But before we discuss the actual ways and means to make new words, we need to have a clear picture of the structure of English words and their components (成分) —word-forming elements. This chapter will discuss morphemes(语素；词素), their classification(分类) and identification(辨别), the relationship between morphemes and word-formation(构词法).3.1 MorphemesTraditionally, words are usually treated as the basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules(句法规则). Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Take decontextualization for example. This is one word, but can be broken down into de-, con-, text, -a/ , -iz(e), -ation , each having meaning of its own. These segments (部分) cannot be furtherdivided; otherwise, none of them would make any sense. Though -ation has a number of variants (变体) such as -tion, -sion, -ion, they belong to the same suffix as they have the same meaning and grammatical function and occur owing to (因为；根据) different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes (morphe is the Greek word for 'form'; -eme as in 'phoneme' (音素) means 'class of' ). In view of word-formation, the morpheme is seen as 'the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words' (Crystal 1985). Syntactically(从句法上看), however, a morpheme is the minimal form of grammatical analysis (语法分析). For instance, each of the word-forms studies, studying, studied, consists of the morpheme study + ; the forms -es in studies, -ing in studying, -ed in studied are morphemes, which express grammatical concepts (语法概念) instead of deriving new words (See Classifying Morphemes).3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs(词素变体)Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units (具体单位) known as morphs(形素). 'They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning' (Bolinger and Sears 1981:43). In other words the phonetic or orthographic strings(语音串或拼写字串)or segments (切分成分；节) which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs' (Bauer 1983:15). The morpheme isto the morph what a phoneme (音位) is to a phone (音素). Most morphemes are realized by single morphs like bird, tree, green , sad, want, desire, etc. . These morphemes coincide (巧合) with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a set of morphs in different sound context, e. g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in matches /iz/. The alternates (作为替换的事物) /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are three different morphs. The same is true of the link verb morpheme {be}. Its past tense is realized by two distinct orthographic forms was , were, each of which happens to be a word-form, realizing {preterit} and {singular}, and {preterit} and {plural} respectively and each has its own phonetic form /woz/ or /wə:/. Therefore, both was, were and their phonetic forms /woz/ and /wə: / are morphs (See discussion in Bauer, p15).An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme. Just as we class phones(音素) together as allophones (音位变体) of a single phoneme(音位), so we class morphs together as allomorphs of a single morpheme. Take the plural morpheme {-s} again. Phonetically, it is realized by /s/, /z/, /iz/, all of which are allomorphs. In English, many morphemes canhave more than one allomorph, particularly those freestanding morphemes which are functional words in their own right. Once they occur in connected speech, they may be realized by different forms, depending on whether they are accented or weakened (Look at the data in the table).Morphem e AllomorphStrong Weak{am} /aem/ /əm/, /m/{ was} /woz/ /WəZ/{have } /haev/ /həv/, /v/{would } /wud/ /wəd/, /əd/,/d/{he} /hi:/ /i:/, /i/{his} /hiz/ /iz/{for} /fo:/ /fə/{to} /tu:/ /tu/, /tə/Then what is the difference between morphs and allomorphs? The relationship can be illustrated by the diagram below.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph →allomorph/wud/ /wəd/ /əd/ /d/3.3 Classifying MorphemesMorphemes vary in function. Accordingly, we can classify morphemes into several general categories: free versus bound, derivational versus inflectional, and lexical versus grammatical. However, their boundaries are not as clear-cut as they appear to be due to some overlapping(重叠). For the sake of discussion, we shall define each type in terms of its characteristics.1. Free versus Bound Morphemes(自由词素与粘着词素)This is the easiest and most preferred classification in morphological studies, discussed in Hatch and Brown (1995), Crystal (1985), Fromkin and Rodman (1983), Bauer (1983), Bolinger and Sears (1981) and Matthews (2000). Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with(与……完全相同) words, for example, man, earth, wind, car and anger.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particulargrammatical function.Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words (派生词). Let us take recollection, idealistic and ex-prisoner for example. Each of the three words comprises three morphemes: recollection (re- collect-ion) , idealistic (ideal-ist-ic) , ex-prisoner (ex- prison -er). Of the nine morphemes, collect, ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes. All the rest re-, -ion , -ist, -ic, ex-and -er are bound as none of them are freestanding units.Free morphemes are all roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words like collect, ideal, prison , whereas bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes, most of which can be used to create new words like -dict- , -ced- (接近；去), re-, -ion, -ist, -ic and ex-(前). But there are a few affixes which can only indicate such grammatical concepts as tense, aspect, number and case, for example, the -ing in watching, -er in easier, -s in books, and -ed in worked.The English language possesses a multitude of (大量的) words made up of merely bound morphemes, e. g. antecedent, which can be broken down into ante-, -ced- and -ent. Among them, -ced- is a root meaning 'approach, go to', ante-, a prefix meaning 'before' and -ent, a noun suffix meaning 'a person, a thing', thus the whole word antecedent meaning 'something that goes before'(前例；前事；先行词；祖先). These examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types: bound root (See Root, Stem, Base) and affix.2. Derivational versus Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes (派生词素) because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.In English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes. For example, a + mor + ai, clear + ance, Life + Like and homo + gen + eous are results of such morphological processes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折词素), in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, fridges, desks, radios and potatoes; the same forms can be added to verbs to indicate the simple present for the third person singular such as likes, works and goes; the form -'s is used to denote the possessive case of nouns such as the children ' s library, the man ' s role and the mother-in-law' s complaints; the suffixes -er, -est are usually attached to simple adjectives or adverbs to show their comparative or superlative degrees like happier—happiest,harder—hardest. Apart from these, there is the past tense marker -ed and progressive marker -ing added to verbs. The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemes can be summarized as follows (See Hatch and Brown, p266): Inflectional Derivational(1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem (1) Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem.(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.(2) Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.(3) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs at margins of words.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.3. Content versus Grammatical MorphemesOn a semantic and syntactic basis, morphemes can fall into content and grammatical morphemes (Traugott and Pratt 1980:90; Bolinger and Sears, pp66~70; Hatch and Brown, p267). Content morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used as wesee above to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes. These morphemes, whether free or bound, have a lexical content, hence the name. Grammatical morphemes, on the other hand, function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, -while, -where, but and that, which are traditionally called functional words.3.4 Identifying Morphemes(词素的区分)Since morphemes are the minimal distinct units, they should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution. Generally speaking, lexical morphemes are easy to define:Mono-morphemic: land, skyDouble-morphemic: chill + y, mis + takeTriple-morphemic: anti + govern + ment, sports + man + shipFour-morphemic:un + friend + li + ness, morph + olog( i) + cal + lyOver-four-morphemic: inter + nation + al + iz(e) + ationIf the morphemes are always consistent in form and meaning, there should be no difficulty in identification(区分). However, thereis often mismatch(不一致)between form and meaning. Some morphemes are identical(相同的) in form but different in meaning, for instance, -er in teacher, clearer and eraser. -er in teacher means 'one who', but -er in clearer indicates 'the comparative degree', and -er in eraser denotes 'an object'. Therefore, -er in each case is a different morpheme.Some morphemes are not meaningful in isolation(单独)but acquire meaning by virtue of(通过)their connection in words (Fromkin and Rodman, p116). The classic examples are cranberry(越橘), huckleberry (黑果；乌饭树浆果)and boysenberry(博弈增莓), each seeming to be a kind of berry. But when cran-, huckle- and boysen- are isolated, they are meaningless and they are incapable of forming new words with other morphemes rather than with berry. There are other morphemes which occur in many words, but their meaning is difficult to define, for instance, -ceive in conceive (想象；设想), perceive(感觉，察觉；认为)and receive. Some forms are meaningful, but not morphemes, such as fl- meaning 'moving light' in flash , flame and flicker(闪烁，忽隐忽现), and gl-meaning 'static light' in glow(发光，燃烧)，glisten (闪耀；反光)and glitter(闪光；光彩夺目). These are only sound symbols often employed by poets in their literary creation but do not qualify as morphemes.The identification of inflectional morphemes is more problematic. In most cases, an inflectional morpheme can be segmented (切分)from the stem of a word and naturally can be added to the stem like the plural morpheme {s} in gloves, tables and classes. But what is the plural morpheme in men, sheep and feet ? The same is true of the past tense morpheme {ed} , which is explicit and segmentable in walked, loaded and danced. How can we isolate the past tense morpheme from knew, taught and cut ? To solve the problem, we have to resort to other ways.3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationWe know that words can be analyzed into morphemes, which are the minimal meaningful units in the composition of words. In word-formation, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.1. AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes because none of them can stand as words in their own right. According to the functions of affixes, we can divide them into inflectional affixes like -s, -ed and -ing, and derivational affixeslike pre-, ex-, de-, -less, -dom and -ic. Derivational and inflectional affixes are identical with derivational and inflectional morphemes. In view of their distribution in the formation of words, affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Prefixes are all derivational, i.e. they are used to form new words whereas suffixes embrace(包括) both derivational suffixes and inflectional suffixes. Accordingly, the above-mentioned affixes can be further grouped into prefixes: pre-, ex- and de-y and suffixes: -less, -dom, -zc, -5, -ed and -ing.2. Root, Stem, BaseBefore we begin our actual discussion of word-building processes, there are some basic concepts that need clarifying(澄清). The processes of derivation and compounding involve different word-forming elements: affixes and root or stem or base. Indeed, some people use root or stem undiscriminatingly (不加区别地) on all occasions. But these three terms are not the same, and they denote to a greater or lesser degree different concepts despite the semantic overlapping between them.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity (Crystal 1985). As mentioned earlier, the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the maincomponent of meaning in a word. In the word internationalists, removing inter- , -at, -ist, -s leaves the root nation. If we further divide nation as * na/tion or * at /ion, though -tion and -ion coincide with the noun suffix, the other part is meaningless and the original lexical identity is totally lost. Therefore, nation defies(使不能；使落空)further analysis. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a 'root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed' (Bauer 1983). Take internationalists again. After the removal of the inflectional affix -s and the derivational affixes -ist, -al and inter-, nation is what is left and thus is the root.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, understatement. To make things more clearly, we say that the stem is used only when we deal with inflectional affixes. As Bauer defines, a stem is 'that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed' (ibid). In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem. Consider the word internationalists again. Nation is a root as well as a stem as the plural -s can be added to it; national is not a root as it can be further divided, but a stem because an inflectionalaffix -s can be added to it when used as a noun; similarly, international is not a root but a stem for the same reason. This is also true of internationalist, which is a stem.A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. In the case of internationalists, nation is a base, national is a base, so are international and internationalist.nation(root, stem, base)national(stem, base)international(stem, base)internationalist (stem, base)InternationalistsIt should be noted that such an example gives the impression that a stem is just as good as a base. This is not true. In many cases, a form of word can neither be a root nor a stem, but only a base. This often happens when we deal with derivational affixes exclusively, for example impracticality(不切实际；无用；不现实). Removing the derivational affix -ity leaves only the base form impractical, and by further removing im- we have the base form practical left and by still further analysis, only practice remains.impracticalityimpractical (base)practical(base)practice(root, stem, base)Therefore, in the chapters to follow, we shall employ only the term base to refer to any basic word-building element.英语词汇学第三单元课后练习及答案Questions and Tasks1. Write the terms in the blanks according to the definitions.a. a minimal meaningful unit of a language ( )b. one of the variants that realize a morpheme ( )c. a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme ( )d. a morpheme that can stand alone ( )e. a morpheme attached to a base, stem or root ( )f. an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( )g. an affix that forms new words with a base, stem or root ( )h.what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes ( )i. that part of a word that can take inflectional affixes ( ) j. a form to which affixes of any kind can be added ( )2. What is the difference between grammatical and lexicalmorphemes, and inflectional and derivational morphemes?Give examples to illustrate their relationships.3. Analyze the words in terms of root, stem and base.individualistic undesirablesanize the following terms in a tree diagram to show their logical relationships.affix morphemederivational affix free rootbound root inflectional affixprefix free morphemebound morpheme suffix参考答案1. a. morphemeb. allomorphc. bound morphemed. free morphemee. affixf. inflectional affixg. derivational affixh. rooti. stemj. base2. Inflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end ofwords to denote grammatical concepts such as -s (-es) , -ed,-ing and -est (to show superlative degree of adjectives andadverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes andsuffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un- , -lion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles,auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and was; lexicalmorphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixesand suffixes.3.individualisticindividualist+ic[stem, base]individual+ist[stem, base]individu+al[stem, base]in+dividu[root, stem, base]undesirablesun+desirable[stem, base]desir+able[root, stem, base]4. morpheme free morpheme=free rootbound morpheme bound rootaffix inflectional affixderivational affix prefixsuffix。

I. Term explanation1. motivation2. morphological motivation3. Semantic motivationII. How many types of motivation are there? What are they?III. Classify the following (underlined) words into proper categories of motivationa coat of paint; airmail; amoral; black-market; bleat; crow; disloyal; greenhorn; microcomputer; miniskirt; overweight; reading-lamp; squeak; the bonnet of a car; theIV. Tell the CONNOTATIVE MEANINGS of the underlined words with cultural motivations. 1. He is a living Sherlock Holmes.2. Can't you feel that the sword of Damocles is hanging over you?3. It is unfair that historians always attribute the fall of kingdoms to Helen of Troy.4. She didn't think of the beautiful umbrella bought the day before should become a Helen of Troy in her family. Because of this she and her husband quarreled for a long time.5. Be careful not to open the Pandora's box.6. This problem seems to be an apple of discord between the Soviet union and the USA.7.SHYLOCK: A Daniel come to judgment! Yea, a Daniel! O wise young judge, how Ido honour thee!V. Match the words in the left column with the connotative meanings in the right column.第 1 页共2 页VI. Rearrange the following groups of words in the order of appreciative—neutral—pejorative.1. fashionable, modish, stylish ________________________________2. accumulate, gather, hoard ________________________________3. accomplice, companion, friend ________________________________4. anger, indignation, rage ________________________________5. backward, developing, underdeveloped________________________________6. clique, club, group _______________________________7. flaw, shortcoming, sin _______________________________8. encourage, instigate, promote ______________________________9. forget, neglect, overlook ______________________________10. careful, meticulous, scrupulous ________________________________ VII. Explain the collocative meanings of the underlined words.1. He also has the hardest schedule of business activities of any man I know.2. His presentation is an eloquent proof of the facts.3. The girls are blooming with health and beauty.4. a black future; the black market5. I had a light meal this evening6. light musiclight traffica light conversation 7. a good beatinghave a good timeWe now have good reason to challenge this thinking.VIII. Explain the underlined words of their semantic meanings 1. Hope is a good breakfast, but it is a bad supper.2. The room sat silent.3. Lend me your ears, please.4. a complete Shakespeare5. There are about 100 hands working in his factory.6. She is shedding crocodile tears.第 2 页共2 页。