经济管理类毕业论文外文文献.doc

金融体制、融资约束与投资——来自OECD的实证分析R．SemenovDepartment of Economics，University of Nijmegen，Nijmegen（荷兰内梅亨大学，经济学院）这篇论文考查了OECD的11个国家中现金流量对企业投资的影响.我们发现不同国家之间投资对企业内部可获取资金的敏感性具有显著差异,并且银企之间具有明显的紧密关系的国家的敏感性比银企之间具有公平关系的国家的低.同时，我们发现融资约束与整体金融发展指标不存在关系.我们的结论与资本市场信息和激励问题对企业投资具有重要作用这种观点一致，并且紧密的银企关系会减少这些问题从而增加企业获取外部融资的渠道。

一、引言各个国家的企业在显著不同的金融体制下运行。

金融发展水平的差别(例如，相对GDP的信用额度和相对GDP的相应股票市场的资本化程度），在所有者和管理者关系、企业和债权人的模式中，企业控制的市场活动水平可以很好地被记录.在完美资本市场,对于具有正的净现值投资机会的企业将一直获得资金。

然而，经济理论表明市场摩擦，诸如信息不对称和激励问题会使获得外部资本更加昂贵，并且具有盈利投资机会的企业不一定能够获取所需资本.这表明融资要素，例如内部产生资金数量、新债务和权益的可得性，共同决定了企业的投资决策.现今已经有大量考查外部资金可得性对投资决策的影响的实证资料（可参考，例如Fazzari（1998）、 Hoshi(1991)、 Chapman（1996）、Samuel(1998））.大多数研究结果表明金融变量例如现金流量有助于解释企业的投资水平。

这项研究结果解释表明企业投资受限于外部资金的可得性。

很多模型强调运行正常的金融中介和金融市场有助于改善信息不对称和交易成本，减缓不对称问题,从而促使储蓄资金投着长期和高回报的项目,并且提高资源的有效配置（参看Levine（1997)的评论文章）。

因而我们预期用于更加发达的金融体制的国家的企业将更容易获得外部融资.几位学者已经指出建立企业和金融中介机构可进一步缓解金融市场摩擦。

外文文献原文Improve the concept of financial supervision in rural areas Farmers in China's vast population,has some large-scale production of the farmers,but also survival-oriented farmers,huge differences between the financial needs of rural finance inter mediation makes complex,together with agriculture itself is the profit low,natural and market risks high risk decision to weak agricultural industry characteristics,resulting in the cost of r ural financial transactions is far higher than the city,also decided to organize the rural financi al system in terms of operation or in the market has its own special characteristics.20years of financial refor,financial development while the Chinese city made impressive achieveme-nts, but the rural finance is the entire financial system is still the weakest link.Insufficient supply of rural finance,competition is not sufficient,farmers and agricultural enterprises in getting loa ns and other issues is alsovery prominent,backward rural financial system can no longer effec tively support the development of modern agriculture or the transformation of traditional agri culture and the building of new socialist countryside,which to improve the rural financial supe rvision new topic.China's rural financial regulatory problems(A)the formation of China's financial regulatory system had"a line three commission" (People's Bank,the Securities Regulatory Commission,Insurance Regulatory Commissio n and the Banking Regulatory Commission)financial regulatory structure.Bank These stringent requirements,different management and diversification of monitoring has its positive role,but it also had some negative effects.First,inefficient supervision,supervisi on of internal consumption of high costs,limited financial industry business development and innovation space.Second,the regulatory agencies,regulatory bodies and the information asym metry between central banks,banking,securities,and insurance mechanisms of coordination b etween regulatory bodies are not rmation between central banks and regulatory ag encies is difficult to share,is difficult to create effective monitoring forc.Basically between th e various regulators in their respective state regulators,regulatory policies and measures to ove rlapping or conflicting phenomena have occurred,unable to cope with China's current rural fin ancial market complexity and diversity and so on.Third,financial institutions have liquidity ris k or out of the market and so on,may be excessive because the central bank assistance,financi al institutions and financial institutions led to the person in charge"capacity risk"and"moralhazard",or for financial institutions regulatory arbitrage possibilities;addition,since the lack of recourse,may adversely affect the financial stability.(B)rural financial ecological environment is not in-depthThe current financial environment in rural county building still remains in the letter the use rvillage,township,community development credit level,"government-led,human-propelled,de partmental interaction"and create a mechanism for financial ecological environment in rural a reas lack.Local governments and authorities the importance of financial knowledge of the eco logical environment is not deep,implementation and functions of individual local protectionis m and heavy,there is interference with the financial sector credit and other daily business situa tion.Rural credit system lag,lack of bad credit punishment mechanism,rural businesses and re sidents in the overall credit awareness is not high,rural finance development and expansion of social services and social protection of the environment has not yet formed.(C)China's existing legal system of financial supervision and a number of shortcomings, can not guarantee that financial regulation is reasonable,effective,standardized implem entation.First,regulatory lag,supporting regulations are incomplete,the content is too rough,too simpl e,the banking,securities and insurance supervision laws and regulations more old,a general lac k of quantitative science.Supervisory regulations and standards,regulatory methods and techn ical means not meet regulatory requirements in the market.Staff in the actual implementation, not easy to grasp the scale,may of operation.Second,the Chinese regulators and the regulate d objects exist some interest,and the existing regulations,lack of supervision and regulatory enforcement are to ensure that financial regulation can not be just and reasonable.Finally,Chi na's financial supervision is still difficult to shake off the inertia of the executive-style regulat ory impact.(D)of the Rural Financing drifting outside the existing financial regulatoryAccording to IFAD study,Chinese farmers from the informal financial institutions,loans fr om official credit institutions about4times.For farmers,the importance of informal financial markets over the formal financial market.China's mainly rural folk form of finance rural credi t cooperatives,Cooperation,private lending,private banks,private funds,microfinance,etc., of which only rural credit cooperatives and microfinance in China's financial supervision und er the rest of the financial forms the lack of appropriate supervision.The general lack of ruralfinancial organizations of civil norms,there is a big risk,China's existing laws and regulations on private financial institutions in rural areas is one of"isolation"policy,making a lot of mon ey from the dark into the rural financial market and greater regulation of financial difficulty,o n rural financial security is a potential threat.learn from the developed countries(A)improve coordination of rural finance mechanisms for external supervision1.The United States"multiple composite"of the coordination mechanism.U.S.financial c ooperation system in rural areas by the federal mid-term credit banks,cooperative banks,fede ral land banks and federal land bank system composed of three Cooperatives,the Farm Credit Administration(NCUA)leadership,and with the Council under the leadership of the private banks in rural commercial credit,National Rural Credit Bank policy of the United States shar ed the task of rural financial intermediation.The organizational model is a typical multi-mode hybrid system,three systems have an independent management system,with clear terms of re ference.To ensure the healthy development of rural financial institutions,commercial banks i n the United States adopted a different regulatory models,specifically setting up a relatively s ound financial regulatory system in rural areas,including regulators,industry self-regulation a ssociations,financial intermediation and mutual insurance group clearing center,the four kind of independent agencies and their subsidiary bodies,the functions of different,but share the s ame objectives as a common rural cooperative financial institutions to serve the regulatory sys tem.2.Germany's"comprehensive regulatory model"of coordination mechanisms.Low concen tration of the German banking system,in the very important parts of the bank,the representati ve of the financial mixed monwealth Bank and the Federal Financial Supervis ory Authority the power to regulate the two main regulators of the banking sector there is a cl ear division of labor,but also close monwealth Bank in Germany,nine state s have branch offices,using their own network advantages to the Federal Financial Supervisor y Authority is responsible for daily transmission of data banks focus for the Federal Financial Authority to provide a better basis for the exercise of regulatory functions,but it is not directl y involved in the regulation work,nor has the administrative punishment.The Federal Financi al Supervisory Authority did not have branches in the states,it is difficult to carry out regular supervision,need to cooperate with the Commonwealth Bank to perform its regulatory functions.Germany's main central banks and industry rely on the federal audit of the regulatory syst em and risk prevention and protection system to ensure rural finance in the specification on the basis of continuous development.3.Japan's"complement each other-type"coordination mechanism.In Japan,the dual super vision of the implementation of rural finance:first,the Office of Government financial regulat ion,supervision on the implementation of various financial institutions,to achieve the overall risk control;Second,national and local Forestry and Fisheries Department with the Office of Financial Regulation on the implementation of rural financial institutions supervision,includi ng the Ministry of Agriculture consists of the branch on Norinchukin supervision,Forestry an d Fisheries set up in six major areas of agricultural area in County Council on joint supervisio n of the letter,and all,Road House,County Farmer of the Ministry of Agriculture within its ju risdiction Association for Cooperative Finance Supervision Department(B)the establishment of deposit insurance and emergency rescue system to form a three-tier safety netDeveloped financial system generally established strict internal management system,depos it insurance system and the system of three emergency safety net.As a second-class safety net of deposit insurance system has been very satisfactory.The federal government on rural finan ce unified compulsory deposit insurance,the specific business operation by the Federal Depos it Insurance Corporation's SavingsAssociation Insurance Fund,and to assume supervision of t he insured financial institutions;the German government on the implementation of the volunt ary deposit of credit co-insurance,not mandatory insurance,its insurance sector is the industr y organization;Japan's credit co-national compulsory deposit insurance,the insurance agency is a joint venture between Government and the people,by the Government,Norinchukin Bank ,Japan Bank,Credit Union and a coalition of agricultural water fishery credit cooperatives In dustry Insurance Agency.As a third-class safety net for emergency rescue system,specific me asures for implementation in different countries,bank deposits for the brink of bankruptcy,in some countries directly by the central bank to offer special low-interest loans(such as the U.S .and Italy),in some countries by the bank regulatory authorities and other Commercial Bank for the establishment of special institutions to finance the rescue(such as France and Belgium ),a number of countries came forward by the deposit insurance agency to provide funds(such as Japan),more by one or a few large banks in support of official support.(C)rural finance within the industry associations to play a regulatory role1.U.S.Rural Cooperative Finance Association of self-management.In the United States,v arious credit associations or co-finance up to several dozen,including a long history,nationall y renowned for the National Association of Credit(CUNA),a specialized credit services for t he Federal Register Association(NAFCU),there are also special school credit for community service credit unions and associations(CCUC),etc..While the states also have their own Cre dit Union Association.The trade association is one of the major work to develop a code of co nduct,self-regulation management.2.German credit cooperation and other cooperative system of industry self-regulation of m utual integration.German cooperation in the National Credit Union(BVR)is a cooperative ba nk industry self-regulatory organizations,grass-roots local cooperative banks,cooperative ban ks and district central cooperative banks,as well as professional co-finance companies,coope rative credit union is a member.Germany11contributions from the various types of cooperati ves set up jointly organized a regional cooperative audit association,responsible for annual au dit of the specialized agencies of the various types of cooperatives,which are also common ty pes of cooperatives at the district level,the industry watchdog,plays an important industry su pervisory role.3.Set supervision and service in one of the Japanese Agricultural Association.Japanese go vernment in1947promulgated the"Agricultural Cooperative Law,"agricultural association p rovides services for members of cooperative organizations,its not for profit,adhere to the rura l communities and members for the service centers,institutional system based on grass-roots l evel according to facilitate farmers,established the principle manageable.The main source of funding is to absorb the rural deposits,in principle,limited to serving as a member of the far mers and agricultural groups.To ensure financial security cooperation,and healthy run,set up a rural credit insurance,temporary transfers of funds mutual aid system and credit cooperativ e organizations,and government co-funded deposit insurance system,agricultural disaster co mpensation system and the agricultural credit guarantee system for the insurance system meas ures.improve the financial supervision of the concept of rural China(A)improve and perfect the legal system of rural financial regulation,supervision accor ding to lawFinance as the core of the economy,the continued growth of rural finance is more in need o f legal regulation and a sound legal environment,accelerate the development of rural finance l aws,no legal basis to change the situation,has become the strong demand of rural financial d evelopment.Since the reform and opening up,no one for rural finance,rural financial regulati on can serve as a basis for law.To achieve effective supervision,the need for additional profe ssional laws,regulations,and specific regulatory measures,regulations and implementation d etails,so as to achieve from the general administrative supervision to improve the legal syste m,efforts to establish changed the credit system,and ultimately control law.While in strength ening the legal system,adopt effective measures to strengthen the integrity of the whole com munity education and step up publicity to raise awareness of the general financial and legal re sidents,to actively support the work of the national collective finance;education of the popul ation according to lending,and actively with the illegal lending practices fight,really create a sound legal basis,that the law according to the credit environment and legal environment. (B)give full play to grassroots government,professional regulatory function Actively co operate with local governments at all levels and support the financial To actively coordinate local government and non-basic level target consistency,to avoid th e expense of national interests and local interests of the occurrence.The Chinese government should establish a tax system is different from commercial banks,a low tax or tax-free policy, by policy banks to provide low-interest or interest-free loans of rural finance,rural finance to increase subsidies and assistance.Those relatively large amount of private credit,shall be app roved by local authorities just to strengthen the audit checks to the legitimate rights and intere sts protected.China's rural economy,small and dispersed operations,has not been large-scale establishment of agricultural insurance,in case of force majeure,the rural financial system w ill face great risk.Chinese financial institutions in the internal governance structure and risk management system has been initially established,the basic external financial regulation in pl ace of the case,should refer to the experience of developed countries,commercial banks in th e country to establish a mandatory deposit insurance system and the emergency rescue system ,the formation of three protection network.(C)strictly rural financial institutions,"access and"to improve the professional standar ds of financial supervisionFinancial regulators should be a good loan companies,postal savings banks,rural credit union funds,village banks and other new-type rural financial institutions,market access,ensure t hat the new-type rural financial institutions in corporate governance,capital adequacy ratio to meet the requirements.Kind in the country selected the new rural financial institutions,better internal control system,modified to add a representative of management to form the template to help set up rural financial institutions,covering credit,billing,savings,cash,security and ot her risk point of internal control system.Establish small rural banks and other financial instit utions,guidance system,the financial regulators to conduct the transition of its guidance,to pr omote rural financial institutions to a sound system of internal control as soon as possible,im prove management,risk control and management mechanisms work well.(D)to play the role of industry self-regulatory associations,to promote the vitality and fo rce the formation of the banking sectorWorking Committee,the current to China Banking Regulatory Commission and the provinc ial government regulatory framework based on an industry self-regulatory organization more. Promoting the Development,promoting and developing self-regulatory functions of trade ass ociations,for building a healthy banking system in China is significant.Association to play a functional role to guide the establishment of liaison mechanisms and management of daily wo rk,and improving the industry conventions and regulations,regulators should not control thos e,which were needed in the work of regulatory bodies,as far as possible by the association re sponsible for promoting the formation of the energy and banking efforts to achieve self-mana gement and trade association national regulatory authorities to monitor the combination syste m of regulation.ConclusionIn short,improving financial supervision in terms of its breadth,should be an include gover nment regulation,industry self-regulation,financial institutions,internal control,four levels o f social supervision system;its depth,it should be involved in risk prevention,effective access ,legal norms,the operation simple and efficient aspects of a systems engineering.Only by stri ving to improve the new concept of financial supervision,the introduction of new methods of financial supervision in order to receive financial regulation expected results.Only in this wa y can be established consistent with China's national conditions,but also to adapt to modern r equirements of international financial regulatory system in rural China.外文文献译文发展中国农村金融监管的思考农民在中国人口众多,有一些大型生产的农民,但也自给自足的农民,巨大的金融需求之间的差异使农村金融需求很是复杂,连同农业本身是利润低、自然和市场风险高的风险决策农业产业特性,软弱的农村金融交易的成本远高于城市,也决定组织农村金融体系的运行或市场有其自身的特点。

关于经济的外文文献1."Capital in the Twenty-First Century" by Thomas Piketty（《21世纪的资本》 - 托马斯·皮凯蒂）2."Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything" by Steven D.Levitt and Stephen J.Dubner （《怪诞经济学：一个叛逆经济学家揭示一切的隐藏面》 - 史蒂文·D·列维特和斯蒂芬·J·邓纳）3."The Wealth of Nations" by Adam Smith（《国富论》 - 亚当·斯密）4."Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness" by Richard H.Thaler and Cass R.Sunstein （《推动力：关于健康、财富和幸福的决策改进》 - 理查德·H·塞勒和卡斯·R·桑斯坦）5."Thinking, Fast and Slow" by Daniel Kahneman（《思考，快与慢》 - 丹尼尔·卡尼曼）6."The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time" by Karl Polanyi（《伟大转型：我们时代的政治与经济起源》 - 卡尔·波兰尼）7."The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry into Profits, Capital, Credit, Interest, and the Business Cycle" by Joseph A.Schumpeter（《经济发展理论：对利润、资本、信用、利息和商业周期的探究》 - 约瑟夫·A·熊彼特）8."The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time" by Jeffrey D.Sachs（《贫困的终结：我们时代的经济可能性》 - 杰弗里·D·萨克斯）9."Development as Freedom" by Amartya Sen（《自由发展》 - 阿马蒂亚·森）。

经济学相关的英文论文Economic Growth and Income InequalityIncome inequality has been a topic of great interest and concern among economists and policymakers for many years. The relationship between economic growth and income inequality has been the subject of much debate and research, with many different theories and viewpoints on the issue.One theory posits that economic growth leads to increased income inequality, as the benefits of growth are disproportionately enjoyed by the wealthy while the poor see little improvement in their economic situation. This theory suggests that as the economy grows, the gap between the rich and the poor widens, leading to greater income inequality.On the other hand, some economists argue that economic growth can actually reduce income inequality. They argue that as the economy grows, more opportunities are created for people to improve their economic situation, leading to greater upward mobility and a reduction in income inequality.Empirical evidence on the relationship between economic growth and income inequality is mixed, with some studies finding a positive relationship between the two and others finding no significant relationship. This suggests that the relationship between economic growth and income inequality is complex and influenced by many different factors.Policies aimed at reducing income inequality often focus onredistributive measures, such as progressive taxation and social welfare programs. However, the effectiveness of these policies in reducing income inequality is also a topic of debate among economists.In conclusion, the relationship between economic growth and income inequality is complex and multifaceted. While some theories suggest that economic growth exacerbates income inequality, others argue that it can actually reduce it. The effectiveness of policies aimed at reducing income inequality isalso a topic of debate. More research is needed to fully understand the relationship between economic growth and income inequality and to develop effective policies to address this issue.另一种看待经济增长和收入不平等之间关系的观点是，收入不平等可能对经济增长产生负面影响。

经管类经典英文文献There are many classic English literature works in the field of economics and management. Some of the most well-known and influential ones include:1. "The Wealth of Nations" by Adam Smith - This book, published in 1776, is considered the foundation of modern economics. It explores the basics of free markets, division of labor, and the invisible hand theory.2. "Principles of Economics" by Alfred Marshall - First published in 1890, this book introduced the concepts of supply and demand, marginal utility, and elasticity. It became the standard textbook for many years.3. "The Theory of Economic Development" by Joseph Schumpeter - Published in 1911, this book introduced the idea of entrepreneurship and innovation as the driving force behind economic development.4. "The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money" by John Maynard Keynes - Published in 1936, this book revolutionized macroeconomic theory by advocating for government intervention during economic downturns.5. "The Practice of Management" by Peter Drucker - First published in 1954, this book provides a comprehensive guide to the principles and practices of effective management.6. "Competitive Strategy" by Michael Porter - Published in 1980, this book is a seminal work in the field of strategic management. It introduced the concept of competitive advantage and the five forces framework.7. "The Innovator's Dilemma" by Clayton M. Christensen - Published in 1997, this book explores how successful companies can fail if they don't adapt to disruptive technologies. It has greatly influenced the field of innovation and entrepreneurship.These are just a few examples of classic English literature in the field of economics and management. There are many other important and influential works out there that have shaped the discipline.。

经济管理类英文文章1000字Macroeconomics is a sub-field of economics that examines the behavior of the economy as a whole, once all of the individual economic decisions of companies and industries have been summed. Economy-wide phenomena considered by macroeconomics include Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and how it is affected by changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, and price levels.In contrast, microeconomics is the study of the economic behaviour and decision-making of individual consumers, firms, and industries.Macroeconomics can be used to analyze how to influence government policy goals such as economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments.Macroeconomics is sometimes used to refer to a general approach to economic reasoning, which includes long term strategies and rational expectations in aggregate behavior.Until the 1930s most economic analysis did not separate out individual economics behavior from aggregate behavior. With the Great Depression of the 1930s, suffered throughout thedeveloped world at the time, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of macroeconomics began to expand. Particularly influential were the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, who formulated theories to try to explain the Great Depression. Before that time, comprehensive national accounts, as we know them today, did not exist .One of the challenges of economics has been a struggle to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models. Starting in the 1950s, macroeconomists developed micro-based models of macroeconomic behavior (such as the consumption function). Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first comprehensive national macroeconomic model, which he first built for the Netherlands and later applied to the United States and the United Kingdom after World War II. The first global macroeconomic model, Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates LINK project, was initiated by Lawrence Klein and was mentioned in his citation for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1980.Theorists such as Robert Lucas Jr suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional Keynesian (after British economist John Maynard Keynes) macroeconomic models werequestionable as they were not derived from assumptions about individual behavior, although it was not clear whether the failures were in microeconomic assumptions or in macroeconomic models. However, New Keynesian macroeconomics has generally presented microeconomic models to shore up their macroeconomic theorizing, and some Keynesians have contested the idea that microeconomic foundations are essential, if the model is analytically useful. An analogy might be that the fact that quantum phisics is not fully consistent with relativity theory doesn´t mean that realtivity is false. Many important microeconomic assumptions have never been proved, and some have proved wrong.The various schools of thought are not always in direct competition with one another - even though they sometimes reach differing conclusions. Macroeconomics is an ever evolving area of research. The goal of economic research is not to be "right," but rather to be accurate. It is likely that none of the current schools of economic thought perfectly capture the workings of the economy. They do, however, each contribute a small piece of the overall puzzle. As one learns more about each school of thought, it is possible to combine aspects of each in order to reach an informed synthesis.The traditional distinction is between two different approaches to economics: Keynesian economics, focusing on demand; and supply-side (or neo-classical) economics, focusing on supply. Neither view is typically endorsed to the complete exclusion of the other, but most schools do tend clearly to emphasize one or the other as a theoretical foundation.• Keynesian economics focuses on aggregate demand to explain levels of unemployment and the business cycle. That is, business cycle fluctuations should be reduced through fiscal policy (the government spends more or less depending on the situation) and monetary policy. Early Keynesian macroeconomics was "activist," calling for regular use of policy to stabilize the capitalist economy, while some Keynesians called for the use of incomes policies.• Supply-side economics delineates quite clearly the roles of monetary policy and fiscal policy. The focus for monetary policy should be purely on the price of money as determined by the supply of money and the demand for money. It advocates a monetary policy that directly targets the value of money and does not target interest rates at all. Typically the value of money is measured by reference to gold or some other reference. The focus of fiscal policy is to raise revenue for worthygovernment investments with a clear recognition of the impact that taxation has on domestic trade. It places heavy emphasis on Say's law, which states that recessions do not occur because of failure in demand or lack of money.• Monetarism, led by Milton Friedman, which holds that inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon. It rejects fiscal policy because it leads to "crowding out" of the private sector. Further, it does not wish to combat inflation or deflation by means of active demand management as in Keynesian economics, but by means of monetary policy rules, such as keeping the rate of growth of the money supply constant over time.• New Keynesian economics, which developed partly in response to new classical economics, strives to provide microeconomic foundations to Keynesian economics by showing how imperfect markets can justify demand management.• Austrian economics is a laissez-faire school of macroeconomics. It focuses on the business cycle that arises from government or central-bank interference that leads to deviations from the natural rate of interest.• Post-Keynesian economics represents a dissent from mainstream Keynesian economics, emphasizing the role of uncertainty and the historical process in macroeconomics.• New classical economics. The original theoretical impetus was the charge that Keynesian economics lacks microeconomic foundations -- i.e. its assertions are not founded in basic economic theory. This school emerged during the 1970s. This school asserts that it does not make sense to claim that the economy at any time might be"out-of-equilibrium". Fluctuations in aggregate variables follow from the individuals in the society continuouslyre-optimizing as new information on the state of the world is revealed. Later yielded an explicit school which argued that macro-economics does not have micro-economic foundations, but is instead the tool of studying economic systems at equilibrium.。

经济学相关论文英文Over the past few decades, the global economy has undergone substantial changes driven by technological advancements and globalization. These changes have led to both benefits and challenges for economies around the world. In this paper, we will examine some of the key economic trends shaping the global economy today.One of the most significant trends in the global economy is the rise of the digital economy. The proliferation of digital technologies has transformed the way businesses operate, creating new opportunities for growth and innovation. E-commerce, digital payments, and online platforms have become increasingly important drivers of economic activity, providing new channels for businesses to reach customers and increasing efficiency in various economic sectors.Another key trend in the global economy is the increasing importance of services as a driver of economic growth. In many advanced economies, services have overtaken manufacturing as the primary source of economic activity. This shift has been driven by changes in consumer preferences, technological advancements, and the rise of the knowledge-based economy. Services such as finance, healthcare, and technology have become critical drivers of economic growth and productivity.Globalization has also played a significant role in shaping the global economy. The increased interconnectedness of economies around the world has led to greater trade, investment, and mobility of goods, services, and capital. While globalization has broughtmany benefits, such as increased economic growth and job creation, it has also created challenges, including rising income inequality, job displacement, and environmental degradation.In conclusion, the global economy is undergoing significant changes driven by technological advancements, globalization, and shifting consumer preferences. These trends have reshaped the economic landscape, creating new opportunities and challenges for economies worldwide. Policymakers, businesses, and individuals must adapt to these changes to ensure sustainable and inclusive economic growth in the years to come.。

英文写的经济学论文In recent years, the global economy has experienced significant challenges with regard to trade, investment, and economic growth. One of the major issues facing the global economy is the rise of protectionist policies and trade barriers imposed by various countries. Such policies have led to increased tensions and disruptions in international trade, leading to concerns about the future of the global economy.Protectionist policies, such as tariffs and quotas, are often implemented by countries in an attempt to protect domestic industries and jobs. However, these policies can have detrimental effects on the global economy by reducing trade and investment opportunities, increasing consumer prices, and hindering economic growth. Furthermore, protectionism can lead to retaliatory measures from other countries, further exacerbating tensions and uncertainties in the global economy.Another significant challenge facing the global economy is the issue of inequality. Economic inequality has been on the rise in many countries, leading to social unrest and political instability. In addition, inequality can have negative repercussions for economic growth, as it can limit opportunities for human capital development and lead to a less efficient allocation of resources.The global economy also faces challenges related to technological advancement and automation. While technological advancements have the potential to boost productivity and economic growth, they also pose risks of job displacement and income inequality. As automation continues to advance, many workers may findthemselves without the skills necessary to secure well-paying jobs, leading to further economic disparities.In order to address these challenges, it is essential for policymakers to work together to promote free and fair trade, reduce economic inequality, and support workers in adapting to technological changes. Additionally, there is a need for increased cooperation and coordination among countries to address the underlying causes of these economic challenges and to promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth.In conclusion, the global economy is facing significant challenges with regard to trade, inequality, and technological advancement. These challenges require coordinated efforts from policymakers and international organizations to promote economic stability and inclusive growth. By addressing these issues, the global economy can overcome the current challenges and pave the way for a more prosperous and sustainable future.In response to the challenges facing the global economy, various strategies can be implemented to promote economic stability and inclusivity. First and foremost, efforts to reduce trade barriers and promote fair trade practices are crucial. This can be achieved through bilateral and multilateral trade agreements that aim to lower tariffs, eliminate non-tariff barriers, and establish transparent and predictable trading rules. Additionally, international organizations, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), can play a significant role in mediating trade disputes and promoting a rules-based global trading system. Addressing economic inequality is another critical aspect of fostering a sustainable global economy. Governments andinternational organizations can consider implementing policies aimed at redistributing wealth, such as progressive taxation, social safety nets, and investments in education and healthcare. Additionally, promoting inclusive economic policies that provide opportunities for marginalized groups, such as women and minority communities, can contribute to a more equitable distribution of economic benefits.Furthermore, addressing the potential job displacements resulting from technological advancements is essential. Governments and businesses can invest in retraining and upskilling programs to equip workers with the necessary skills for the evolving job market. Additionally, fostering entrepreneurship and innovation can create new economic opportunities and mitigate the adverse effects of automation on the labor force.Another crucial aspect of addressing global economic challenges is enhancing international cooperation and coordination. Countries can work together to address common concerns, such as climate change, sustainable development, and the regulation of global financial systems. Additionally, collaborative efforts to address geopolitical tensions and conflicts can contribute to a more stable and predictable global economic environment.In conclusion, the challenges facing the global economy require a comprehensive and coordinated approach involving trade policy reforms, measures to address economic inequality, strategies to adapt to technological changes, and enhanced international cooperation. By working together to address these challenges, theglobal economy can move towards a more sustainable, inclusive, and prosperous future.。

Modern Human Resources Management1. The general situation of human resource managementModern human resources management of enterprise roughly can divide into three levels, tactics plan, and carry out plan. Three levels represent human resources management advance, can embody the transition from traditional personnel management to modern human resources management. We will welcome E era in the 21st century. In the face of the brand-new challenge, enterprises to obtain the competition advantage, human resources development and management can't be ignored. Through adapt to E era violent change and new challenge can promote enterprises’ organiz ation system development, procedure recombination and management transformation. To promote latent energy of human resources become enterprise human resources management department’s chief duty.Among the course of enterprise management developing, it is not difficult to find that enterprise management have gone through production period and market period ,then enter the human resources leading period. We can say, at E era human resources will become direction of enterprises management. As we know, production period have kept quite a long stage, then we paid attention to products. Ford Motor was a vivid case of that period: Do you need the automobile which other colors? We only produce the black.Market leading is the trend of recent ten years domestic enterprises also pay attention to it. Its character is to pay attention to market trend, market require, and customer satisfaction. Products quality and service are the foundation of customer satisfaction. Product quality and service promoted, enterprise could keep the occupation rate of market.Enterprise will adopt human resources to E era main characters globalization, world net and knowledge. Enterprises must know the function of human resources in the development.First of all, knowledge and technology have ch anged the measure of enterprise’s wealth and competition rule. Knowledge is strategic assets of enterprise, enterprise is the organization which can combine, create, transmit and use knowledge. So whether enterprises have innovative knowledge, or heterogeneity technology be not coded, will promote enterprises to boost productivity in succession, promote and create the advantage in competition. As knowledge and technology’s medium (human resources) on behalf of special knowledge, technology and ability. Though science and technology and knowledge of enterprise invisible, knowledge, technology and ability’s medium (human resources) is realistic, and can manage, train and develop. So, human resources of enterprises become the key factor of enterprise’s market value. For instance speaking, the market value of Microsoft goes beyond GE.In era of knowledge-driven economy, the fundamental change takes place in enterprises’ competition. E-era is knowledge-driven economy era, the competition based on key ability of enterprise. According to McKinsey advisory company’s view so-called keyability me an organization’s a series of complementary technical ability and knowledge, it have made one or many aspects of business reach competition field first-class level. The cultivation of enterprise’s key ability will be based on information management. As to abroad position CEO, CIO, CKO (Chief Knowledge Officer), Chinese should be called chief knowledge officer or knowledge inspector. The responsibility is to promote staff knowledge and technical ability constantly, to guarantee organization’s competitiveness at high level.Secondly, networked development change traditional space-time conception, create one no demarcation and global working environment and vision. So, the development at full speed of the new technology, not only improved production efficiency, reduced the trade expenses greatly, but also made an impact to enterprise’s management. For example, application of computer and network technology, redistribute the power of enterprises. The development of communication means and network technology enable customer and staff getting more relevant information, improving reaction speed and flexibility. The development of technology will redefine working time and working model constantly. The development of information technology, make enterprises realize the important function of technology creator. More and more enterprises will improve the human resources management to quite important extent.Moreover, globalization has already changed the border of the competition. Enterprises will face unprecedented challenge. Global economy integration under trade liberalization will make multinational enterprises become important strength in international market competition. To obtain competition advantage under globalization background, enterprises’ administrators and human resources department must take human resources to program. They will set up new mode and procedure, train global sensitive sense and key ability. A lot of trans-corporation adhere “thinking globalization, take action locality” principle. It is the challenge that globalization bring to enterprises. The promotion of international competition must promote enterprises to dispose resources in the whole world, including human resources disposition in world wide. Management including problems as follows: the difficulty training, conflict of different culture and managing cross-culturally will become important problems of enterprise’s human resources management.2. E era: Deep change of human resources managementE era, knowledge and technology, network and globalization are the main character. New market, new product and new concept contain new thinking of enterprise’s key ability and management style. Human resources management in enterprise will take deep change: In the face of knowledge economy society, it demanding knowledge and information shared. Network make institutional framework do away with hierarchical system. On one hand, network tissue group replace regular working office or position. Inside enterprises, the group and the other group are independent and complementary, the comprehensive result of the sum greater than the part wholly. In this case, group depends on members’ability (not post) and tusk. Performance of group is the standard to get reward. On the otherhand, network made middle management information sharing loser. So, high positions reducing in the enterprise, it made the traditional promotion way reduce. In adapt to the development of enterprise human resources system. The work is not a position but a task and the task changing constantly.In future, the steady, machinery, repeated work will be replaced by the machine. There only left mental work, creative work. The “knowledge worker”will utilize his knowledge and innovation ability, offer products and additional value of service. People no longer regard pursuing the senior managerial position as the main goal of job development. What they need are bigger autonomy and working elasticity, in order to give play to their higher production capacity. Thus, as the administrator, must be good at communicating and building the relaxed working atmosphere. With engineering level developing constantly, staff will be more and more important among enterprise. To meet staff working and life requests become E era one key goal of human resources management. The staff need get the fair and reasonable pay, get development self chance and condition. He need job security. In other words, enterprises will realize what the staff need is not work, but the vocation.As to above-mentioned changes, organization system redesigned should on background of human resources management of E era. E era, organization system will change produce, market, sale and research, development and financial departments. But implement a hierarchical system and network framework. In traditional pyramid institutional framework, it was ordering and control that emphasized, emphasis describing the staff’s task clearly, so the expectation to the staff of the organization is clear. To promote staff vertical means increase, improvement and high remuneration of status and responsibility. All information of human resources management concentrated on the supreme administration and supervision authorities. By contrast, in flat institutional framework, emphasize the mandate of the staff, and make up work group on commission. The organization enc ourages the staff to expand one’s own working content, improve the staff's common ability and flexibility. Train system and remuneration system support the promotion of competence. In networked organization, company will make up various kinds of work groups according to special ability to finish the specific task. The work group usually includes expert. In networked organization, emphasize the management of staff participation, construct the border of organization again. Over the past 5-10 years, industrial economy era occupy specializing in ordering with control decision and resource allocation to arrange status concentrate on management that make way for flexible organization system already. GE’s CEO Jack Welch said, “Guarantee and organize successful, the key is to let suitable persons to solve the most important business question. Whether he enterprises which grade and which position in organization.”It is the vivid portrayal of this mechanism. In practice, the most important thing is to let the staff step functional departments and work together, and guarantee they have the power of decision and information needed. Look from trend, human resources management emphasize staff individual and work group’s responsibility. Achievement of work group become the core, to encourage staff individual will become history.As the wide application of Internet technology, the competition and development will under the background “E-Business”times. It is obvious, management reconstruction and procedure recombination will become important means to break traditional rule and to obtain new competitive power. The rule of industrial economy can’t adapt to the growth and development of E-era. Human Resource Department is layman or servant of technology no longer, information technology will be got application in human resources management widely. The manpower resources management of enterprises will set up on enterprise’s network framework, and break through the limitation of the enterprise border. Research, exchange and communication inside and outside enterprises will be swifter. In human resources, employee’s relation,job vacancy, expert searches, employees training and support, and study remote will use Internet effectively.Internet technology can help enterprises organize and realize fictitiously management. Internet technology will help enterprises to set up the administrative system of knowledge, set up studying type organization, help enterprises to win competitiveness of long-term development. One organization must have ability on “how to study”, study ability will become competition advantage than rival.3. E era: Existence of the human resources managerIn E era competitive environment changing fast, it makes the managers face the change of human resources management field, play a role in transformation. More and more enterprises realize that set up competition advantage, the key is to make human resources management effective. The administrator on the senior level of enterprises places much hope on this. Enterprise’s human resources manager would meet the challenge of E era.First of all, enterprise's human resources administrator's duty will be liberated from homework, administrative affairs gradually, will engage in strategic human resources management more. So, enterprise manpower resources by the original non-mainstream functional department gradually become administrative department and strategic partner of business management. Among the 1994, American human resources management association meeting, council chairman Gale Parker point out, “Enterprise rebuild, structure recombination, scale simply require human resources managers to become CEO's strategic partners, help to plan, implement the organization transformation. The human resources managers participate in enterprise’s plan to organize the operational activity more and more. They lead enterprises improvement, set up competition advantage, propagate function technology and act as the role propagator and promoter, and will responsible for staff's performance and productivity etc.. Many foreign enterprises’ human resources directed by a vice president. It can improve human resources strategic value.As we know that traditional human resources management of enterprise can roughly be divided into two respects, one from homework, another strategic. So-called homework project mean attendance, personnel file administration, performance check and rate, wage and welfare administration and general affairs. And strategic project include manpower resources formulation, execution of policy, help on the middle and senior level selection ofexecutive, education, training, career of staff plan, organization development plan and retain staff for business development. Some non-central, traditional personnel management would be put out. It can promote competitiveness, because of the added value of homework is very low, and human resources manager divert his attention and be deviated from the important strategic affairs. Staff affairs should be managed by other “affairs department”. So, Enter prise’s human resources manager will be from that kind of administration of the past gradually. Role of general affairs and welfare committee would be changed. And become learning type organization, training pusher, senior advisor agent, strategic business partner, administration’s expert and improvement advocator.Secondly, manpower resources manager need to possess the corresponding global human resources management skill, he can understand and grasp the suitable professional knowledge. He required speak the same “language”to the business segments. Human resources administration is very important in the chain of enterprises day by day. It includes not only outside customer but also departments of enterprise. Human resource department should move towards “the service cent er” from the status“power center”. Human resources manager must possess a brand-new mode of thinking. And know customer’s need and how to offer these services.Finally, human resources manager should locate a new role. Michigan University Reich professor said, as helper of enterprise to get competitiveness, human resources management should pay attention to output of work. According to strategic policy, administration’s efficiency, the staff’s contribution and changing, these four kinds outputs of human resources management, Reich sum up 4 basic roles of human resources management. They are strategic human resources, mechanism structure, of staff management contribution, management transition and change.In order to realize the above-mentioned roles, enterpri se’s human resources manager need master four major key technical skills.First, they should master the business procedure.Human resources employee becomes a part of core managing and management. They participate in the basic operational activity, have strategic business directions.Second, they grasp the manpower resources.It means that human resources management should guarantee basic managements and coordinate each other, and should bear the responsibility the executive function.Third, personal reputationIt means that human resources employee should possess good interpersonal influence, conquest ability and innovation ability.Fourth, grasp transformationIt requires human resources manager to understand how to lead enterprises’improvement and recombination.现代企业人力资源管理一、现代企业人力资源管理概况现代企业的人力资源管理大致可分为三个层次，及策略规划、制度规划和作业执行。

The green barrier to free tradeC. P. ChandrasekharJayati GhoshAs the March 31 deadline for completing the "modalities" stage of the proposed new round of negotiations on global agricultural trade nears, hopes of an agreement are increasingly waning. In this edition of Macroscan, C. P. Chandrasekhar and Jayati Ghosh examine the factors and the players constraining the realisation of such an agreement.AT THE END of the latest round of meetings of the agricultural negotiations committee of the WTO, the optimism that negotiators would meet the March 31 deadline for working out numerical targets, formulas and other "modalities" through which countries can frame their liberalisation commitments in a new full-fledged round of trade negotiations has almost disappeared. That target was important for two reasons.First, it is now becoming clear, that even more than was true during the Uruguay Round, forging an agreement in the agricultural area is bound to prove extremely difficult.Progress in the agricultural negotiations was key to persuading the unconvinced that a new `Doha Round' of trade negotiations is useful and feasible.Second, the Doha declaration made agricultural negotiations one part of a `single undertaking' to be completed by January 1, 2005. That is, in a take `all-or-nothing' scheme, countries had to arrive at, and be bound by, agreements in all areas in which negotiations were to be initiated in the new round. This means that if agreement is not worked out with regard to agriculture, there would be no change in the multilateral trade regime governing industry, services or related areas and no progress in new areas, such as competition policy, foreign investment and public procurement, all of which are crucial to the economic agenda of the developed countries.The factors making agriculture the sticking point on this occasion are numerous. As in the last Round, there is little agreement among the developed countries themselves on the appropriate shape of the global agricultural trade regime.There are substantial differences in the agenda of the US, the EU and the developed countries within the Cairns group of agricultural exporters. When the rich and the powerful disagree, a global consensus is not easy to come by.But that is not all. Even if an agreement is stitched up between the rich nations, through manoeuvres such as the Blair House accord, getting the rest of the world to go along would be more difficult this time.This is because the outcomes in the agricultural trade area since the implementation of the Uruguay Round (UR) Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) began have fallen far short of expectations. In the course of Round, advocates of the UR regime had promised global production adjustments that would increase the value of world agricultural trade and an increase in developing country share of such trade.As Chart 1 shows, global production volumes continued to rise after 1994 when the implementation of the Uruguay Round began, with signs of tapering off only in 2000 and 2001. As is widely known, this increase in production occurred in the developed countries as well.Not surprisingly, therefore, the volume of world trade continued to rise as well after 1994 (Chart 2). The real shift occurred in agricultural prices which, after some buoyancy between 1993and 1995, have declined thereafter, and particularly sharply after 1997. It is this decline in unit values that resulted in a situation where the value of world trade stagnated and then declined after 1995, when the implementation of the Uruguay Round began.As Table 1 shows, there was a sharp fall in the rate of growth of global agricultural trade between the second half of the 1980s and the 1990s, with the decline in growth in the 1990s being due to the particularly poor performance during the 1998 to 2001 period.Price declines and stagnation in agricultural trade values in the wake of the UR Agreement on Agriculture were accompanied and partly influenced by the persisting regionalisation of world agricultural trade.The foci of such regionalisation were Western Europe and Asia, with 32 and 11 per cent of global agricultural trade being intra-Western European and intra-Asian trade respectively (Chart 3). What is noteworthy, however, is that agricultural exports accounted for a much higher share of both merchandise and primary products trade in North America and Western Europe (besides Latin America and Africa) than it did for Asia.Thus, despite being the developed regions of the world, agricultural production and exports were important influences on the economic performance of North America and Western Europe.It is, therefore, not surprising that Europe is keen on maintaining its agricultural sector through protection, while the US is keen on expanding its role in world agricultural markets by subsidising its own farmers and forcing other countries to open up their markets. The problem is that the US has been more successful in prising open developing country markets than the large EU market.Thus, out of $104 billion worth of exports from North America in 2001, $34 billion went to Asia and $15 billion to Latin America, whereas exports to Europe amounted to $14 billion.The Cairns group of exporting countries (Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Paraguay, the Philippines, South Africa, Thailand and Uruguay), for some of whom at least agricultural exports are extremely important, want world market to be freed of protection as well as the surpluses that result from huge domestic support in the US and the EC.We must note that $35 billion of the $63 billion of exports from Latin America went to the US and the EU. More open markets and less domestic support in those destinations is, therefore, crucial for the region.The fact that Europe has been successful in its effort at retaining its agricultural space with the help of a Common Agricultural Policy that both supports and subsidises its agricultural producers is clear from Chart 4, which shows that intra-EC trade which accounted for 74 per cent of EU exports in 1990, continued to account for 73 per cent of total EU exports in 1995 and 2001.But North America, with far fewer countries in its fold, has also been quite insular. Close to a third of North American exports are inter-regional. Little has changed since the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture.It is widely accepted that three sets of actors account for this failure of the AoA:First, in order to push through an agreement when there were signs that the Uruguay Round was faltering, the liberalisation of agricultural trade in the developed countries was not pushed far enough;Second, is the ability to use "loopholes", especially those in the form of inadequately well-defined Green and Blue Box measures, in the AoA, to continue to support and protect farmers on the grounds that such support was non-trade distorting; andFinally, there are violations of even the lax UR rules in the course of implementation, which have been aided by the failure of the agreement to ensure transparency in implementation.Not surprisingly, some countries, especially the Cairns group of exporting countries, have proposed an ambitious agenda of liberalisation in the agricultural area.Tariffs are to be reduced sharply, using the "Swiss formula", which would ensure that the proportionate reduction in the tariffs imposed by a country would be larger, the higher is the prevailing bound or applied tariff in that country.中文翻译：题目：自由贸易中的绿色壁垒作者：C. P. Chandrasekhar 、Jayati Ghosh在A完自由化的承诺在其最新一轮会议的农业谈判委员会，世界贸易组织，乐观地认为，谈判的框架将在3月31日最后期限为制定数字指标，公式和其他“方式，哪些国家可以”通过新的全面谈判回合贸易几乎已经消失。