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摘要本论文以概念隐喻理论为基础，研究时间概念隐喻及其在俄语中的体现。
时间作为物质存在的基本方式，一直是自然科学和人文社科研究的重要课题。
由于其本身的高度抽象性，在语言中时间有自己独特的表达方式——隐喻。
认知语言学认为，隐喻不仅仅是一种语言现象、修辞手段，还是认知世界的主要方式。
语言中的时间隐喻是系统的、概念化的，与个人的认知经验、思维模式乃至整个民族文化、民族心智紧密相关。
任何一种文化都有着自己独特的、素有的或外来的时间概念体系，它在文化内部语境和跨文化交流中起着重要作用。
透过俄语中的时间概念隐喻，可以看到俄罗斯人民对时间的认知途径以及对世界的理解方式。
本文依据由理论到实践的路线，采取从意义到形式的方法，结合大量例句对俄语的时间概念隐喻进行深入研究，由浅入深、层层递进地提出了俄语中时间的八大概念类型，三大隐喻维度和两种认知模型。
并且针对不同的隐喻类型提出了不同的翻译策略建议。
本文对时间概念隐喻的研究揭示了研究对象的基本特征和语言背后隐藏的认知规律，它可以解释语言背后的心智活动，帮助我们理解俄语中时间隐喻的深刻内涵，在跨文化交际中消除文化壁垒，做出正确的判断和预测，进行有效沟通。
因此该项研究具有重要的理论意义和实践价值。
本文主要由绪论、三章正文及结论三部分构成。
绪论部分主要为隐喻理论的研究历史与现状的文献综述，并阐述了本文的研究意义、主要内容、重点难点和基本框架。
第一章阐释了隐喻理论概论，其中包括隐喻理论研究的基本问题和研究内容，以及概念隐喻理论的学科背景、基本特征和基本类型。
第二章论述了俄语中的时间概念隐喻现象。
第一部分将俄语中的时间概念划分为参数、年龄、时空、货币、道德、价值、末世和事件八大概念类型；第二部分阐述了时间的方位隐喻、本体隐喻和结构隐喻。
第三部分从静态和动态两大模型分析人与时间的关系，及其在语言中的体现。
第三章探讨了俄语时间概念隐喻在翻译实践中的应用。
通过实例论证了影响I隐喻转换的三大因素，并分别解释了直译和意译两种翻译策略的选择情境。
论弗罗斯特《摘苹果之后》中的死亡隐喻发布时间：2022-07-21T08:53:03.876Z 来源：《时代教育》2022年5期作者：刘沛婷[导读] 乔治·莱考夫和马克?约翰逊于《我们赖以生存的隐喻》一书中指出隐喻不仅仅是一种修辞手法，更是一种思维方式刘沛婷湖南师范大学，湖南长沙 410006摘要：乔治·莱考夫和马克?约翰逊于《我们赖以生存的隐喻》一书中指出隐喻不仅仅是一种修辞手法，更是一种思维方式，在人们的日常语言和活动中无所不在。
诗歌是高度隐喻化的体裁，本文就将以弗罗斯特的短诗——《摘苹果之后》为例，通过挖掘诗歌中的结构隐喻、方位隐喻和本体隐喻，深刻剖析弗罗斯特的死亡观建构，为该诗的解读提供新的维度，也有助于丰富该理论的应用范畴。
关键词:《摘苹果之后》；结构隐喻；方位隐喻；本体隐喻；死亡On death metaphors in Frost’s “After Apple-Picking”Peiting LiuHunan Normal University, Hunan Changsha 410006Abstract: George Lakoff and Mark Johnson put forward in their book Metaphors We Live By that metaphor is not only a figure of speech but a way of thinking, pervasive in everyday language and action. Since poetry is highly metaphorical, this thesis is to explore how Robert Lee Frost construct his insight of death through structural metaphors, orientational metaphors as well as ontological metaphors in his short poem “After Apple-Picking”, with the hope to provide a new dimension for the interpretation of the poem and to expand the application scope of the theory. Key words: “After Apple-Picking”; structural metaphors; orientational metaphors; ontological metaphors; death 1.IntroductionLakoff and Johnson in their monograph Metaphors We Live Вy, point out that metaphor not only can be understood from the figurative perspective, but is the thinking way.[1] Ungerer and Schmid hold that conceptual metaphor, as a cognitive instrument, is not just a stylistically dramatic way of expressing thoughts by means of literary language, but a way of thinking.[2] K?vecses has put that conceptual metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain.[3] On the basis of the cognitive approach to the understanding of conceptual metaphor, it can be divided into structural metaphor, orientational metaphor and ontological metaphor. The development of conceptual metaphor theory has brought advance to Linguistics, Anthology, Literature and so on.Robert Lee Frost commands an important place in any list of outstanding poets in the twentieth century. His poem “After Apple-picking” is written in the first person. The speaker is an orchard worker who has picked apples long and hard but is now on the verge of being overwhelmed by fatigue and the depth of the experience. On the edge of falling sleep, he remembers not only the ripe apples successfully picked but also those that fell and were considered damaged and had to be sent to the cider mill. He knows that his sleep will be troubled by the failures more than by the successes. He is not sure about the nature of the sleep he is about to drop into—whether it will be ordinary sleep, more like a hibernation, or more like death.The entire poem is a kind of extended metaphor, in which the activity of harvesting apples represents people’ life and the speaker’s falling asleep suggests human death.As a classical literary work, the study of this poem mostly focuses on its rhythm and writing devices. The analysis of multiple themes and symbols has always been the research hotspot of literature works. Li Yingxue discussed the fuzziness of the meaning of poetry from the perspective of deconstruction, and there are many scholars who explore metaphors in Frost’s other poems.[4] Few people applied it to analyze “After Apple-Picking”. Therefore, this paper is to discuss how Frost structures his thoughts on death metaphorically by describing a laborer’s picking apples. The first three chapters of this thesis illustrate Frost’s views of death through the construction of structural metaphors, orientational metaphors and ontological metaphors in “After Apple-Picking” respectively. At last it is followed by a logical conclusion of this thesis.2.Structural MetaphorsIn structural metaphor, one greatly structured and explicitly delineated concept is applied to structure another. As Lakoff and Johnson point out that one domain of conceptual metaphor is metaphorically structured in light of another. Structural metaphor allows its source domain to offer a comparatively rich knowledge structure for the target domain, that is to say, the cognitive function of structural metaphor is to enable audiences to understand the target domain by the structure of the source domain. The poem “After Apple-Picking” include two key conceptual metaphors: DEATH IS SLEEP and PEOPLE ARE PLANTS.2.1 DEATH IS SLEEPFrost chooses a laborer who is overtired with apple-picking and falls asleep to reflect his insight of death. Hence the poem can be understood as a mapping from a source domain (sleep) to a target domain (death). The mapping is tightly structured. There are ontological correspondences. The dead correspond to those who have a sound sleep. The retrospection before death corresponds to the unconscious state near sleep. The darkness corresponds to the night. The cease of life corresponds to the stillness and motionlessness of sleep. As Lakoff puts it, “people use a concrete source domain to describe an abstract target domain.”[5] Death is an abstract concept, which can be understood vividly through the concept of sleep. The word “sleep”has been repeated five times. “Winter sleep” suggests the emotion of being decayed, forlorn and silent triggered by death because winter, in the metaphoric meanings, has strong associations with death.[6] Another euphemistic expression of death is “long sleep”, which is indicative of its permanence. “Human sleep” is the most evident reflection of conceptualization of death as sleep, showing that human death is what Frost has discussed. In the light of sleep, Frost’s “After Apple-Picking” is no longer a lyrical poem of a worker’s experience on the orchard farm and fatigue aftera day’s labor, but a profound thought on life and death through an extended conceptual metaphor of death as sleep.2.2 PEOPLE ARE PLANTSBoth man and tree are living beings that go through birth and wither, and the achievements of man are kin to the fruits of plants. “Apples I didn’t pick upon some bough” correspond to those unfilled dreams while apples that “struck the earth/ No matter if not bruised or spilled with stubble”correspond to people’s failed pursuits. The scent of apples refers to delight and satisfaction brought by success. In Frost’s poem, the act of apple-picking is a metaphor for the fruits the speaker has achieved in life.[7] It is universally acknowledged that success is what people desire and is something enjoyable. However, the speaker is overtired of the great harvest and wished to rest, which illustrates that the speaker has been bored with worldly sense of accomplishment and hopes to simple have a dream and a “long sleep”. Due to the sweet smell of the apple, the narrator actually falls asleep after fatigue and he enters into “long sleep”(death) with a sense of emptiness resulted from the excessive fruits he has gathered. The speaker’s experience reveals the poet’s meditation on life that it is futile people achieve a great deal of success but eventually own nothing after death. Therefore, the poet don’t ponder on human sleep for no reason but he penetrates the meaninglessness of long tough life struggles.The two root metaphors are carefully chosen to reflect Frost’s philosophy on death. This also confirms the cognitive value of metaphor, that is, vehicles(such as sleep) are usually well known to readers, and their features and structures will be mapped to relatively unfamiliar things when they interact with tenor (such as death) to help readers understand the characteristics and structures of ontology. The characteristics of sleep are mapped to the characteristics of death. Frost’ poem “After Apple-Picking” is not only a pastoral work of rural world in orchard farm but also a thought-provoking poem on death. The end of labor leaves the speaker with a sense of completion and fulfillment yet finds him blocked from success by winter’s approach and physical weariness. The futility that what people achieved as a result resembles fallen apples of no worth leads to fatigue and wish to seek relief in sleep, that is death. Therefore, this seemingly idyllic poem is in fact the ultimate exploration of human destiny through the metaphors of death as sleep and people as plants.3.Orientational MetaphorsOrientational metaphors do not structure one concept in terms of another but instead organize a whole system of concepts with respect to one another.[1] Most of them have to do with spatial orientation: up-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral. These spatial orientations arise from the fact that we have bodies of the sort we have and that they function as they do in our physical environment. As Lakoff points out that CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN. HEALTH SND LIFE ARE UP; SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN. This poem employs spatial antagonism to construct death metaphor. “The Apple-Picking” involves a development from consciousness to unconsciousness. At the very beginning, the farmer is sober enough on the long two-pointed ladder sticking toward heaven. The spacial position is rather high. After the speaker has been done with apple-picking, rest is badly needed after the arduous labour. He is drowsed off and no longer in his conscious state. Frost adopts simple past tense from line8 to line17, serving as a beginning of the speaker’s dream. In the half unconsciousness of the farmer, the autumn evening bursting with the aroma of the apples has for a moment changed into a winter morning with hoary glass. In farmer’s dream, things “melted”, “fall and break”, which suggests a downward trend. Finally both woodchuck and the farmer fall asleep on the ground. The perspective of the whole poem shifts from heaven to earth, that is from top to bottom, revealing the opposition of space. A pane of glass divides the world into two parts: reality and dream. The transition from reality to dream is the manifestation of change of the speaker’s consciousness. The higher position represents reality and consciousness while the lower dream and unconsciousnessWhat’s more, the positional contrast reveals the opposition of life and death. In the first line of “After Apple-Picking”, the ladder occupies a central position in the whole picture of the poem, acting as a bridge between heaven and earth, life and death. The imagery of heaven and apples evokes the garden of Eden. The act of ascending the ladder symbolized a re-approach to heaven and eternal life while the movement down the ladder symbolizes the descent from heaven to earth, also from life to death[4]. According to Bible, picking apples is considered as corruption and degradation. As baskets of apples fall down and are spiked, they become worthless. This is true of human beings. After the farmer has finished apple-picking, fatigue and emptiness has wrapped him. His vigorous life reaches a pause, which actually means the farmer’s death. Most of fundamental concepts are organized in terms of one or more spatialization metaphors. In Frost’s “After Apple-Picking”, the poet shows the transition from consciousness to unconsciousness as well as from life to death in virtue of the binary opposition of space. The physical basis of such division is that humans sleep and die lying down and stand up when they are awaken. Therefore, the antagonism of life and death is constructed through the opposition of up and down positions, which contributes to the further construction of the root metaphors.4.Ontological MetaphorsOntological metaphor helps us understand those abstract entities through conceptualizing them as these entities and substances which are related to human’s experience. As Lakoff and Johnson point out: “our experience of physical objects and substances provides a further basis for understanding.” Ontological metaphor could be classified into three types, which are entity and substance metaphor, container metaphor and personification.Firstly, an invisible abstract concept, in entity and substance metaphor, is considered as a visible concrete object. Human being expresses abstract concepts as these entities and substances which are related to human’s experience. Death is an abstract concept, which can be understood thanks to another common concept—sleep. The dark and bleak state of death is implied by night in winter. The poet also tries to clarify the hibernation of hamsters and the long sleep of human beings: one is short seasonal rest and the other is an eternal stop of motion. In this way, the characteristics of death are no longer vague. The first root metaphor of death as sleep receives deeper and more detailed illustrations. Similarly, human achievements becomes a measurable entity like apples in “ After Apple-Picking”. Through these well-known common things, the original abstract concept can be elucidated. The essence of metaphor lies in the comparison between two entities.Secondly, container metaphor is a kind of ontological metaphor in which an invisible abstract concept is regarded as a container which has a surface owning scope and range with an in-out orientation. In Frost’s poem, the farmer’s dream and sleep is a container, where he can see “magnified apples”, feel “the pressure of ladder-round”. The farmer’s falling into dreams shows the motion from one space to another space. The state of farmer can be classified into “in sleep” and “out of sleep”, which symbolize death and life respectively.Lastly, personification specifies the physical object as being a man, which can make people to comprehend these different physical objects in light of human characteristics, motivations and activities. In Frost’s poem, apple “struck the earth” and long sleep can “come on” are all personification. They are extensions of ontological metaphors and that they allow us to make sense of phenomena in the world on the basis of our own goals. It is carefully chosen to endow this poem a dynamic effect so that the theme of this poem can be effectively conveyed. All in all, the understanding of a poetic metaphor is a cognitive process.[8] Ontological metaphor makes us understand abstract concepts by use of concrete concepts. The poet uses sleep to explain death, making the abstract concept simplified and concrete. In the poem, the dream not only reflects the structural metaphor, but also reflects the container metaphor. It forms a contrast between “in dream” and “out of dream” so as to further strengthen the difference between life and death. Apple has bruises, and Death actively does come in. These anthropomorphic expressions embody the metaphorical nature of language and the symbolic nature of death. As a result, metaphor of death in this poem has been justified.5.ConclusionThe exploration of the relationship between Frost’s view of death and Lakoff’s cognitive metaphors will undoubtedly help readers to guard against deceptive surface meanings when interpreting and appreciating Frost’s poems, and to explore the profound life philosophy reflected in his poems through metaphorical thinking and active participation.Through dividing metaphors in Frost’s “After Apple-Picking” according to Lakoff’s classification, the way of constructing poem’s theme is evidently revealed. At the first glance, it seems to be a lyrical poem, but it actually a poem of death after further analysis. Frost implicitly depicts life actions as apple picking activities, apples are symbols of human achievements, and death is similar to long sleep, which are structural metaphors, through which the characteristics of abstract concept death can be easily understood. Moreover, the orientational metaphors constitute to the body of this poem. The up-down spatial position divides the farmer’s state into consciousness and unconsciousness, also a reflection of human’s state of life and death. The contrast between in-out categories reflects the whole poem’s structure: it shifts from reality to dream. Since the farmer’s dream is explained as a container, the state of dreaming metaphorically stands for death. Therefore the whole poem is based on structural metaphors of death is sleep and people are plants, which are illustrated with orientational metaphors and ontological metaphors.However, the thesis still has some limitations due to the author’s slim analysis. It can be better with more logical illustrations and evidences. But it is no doubt that the thesis provides a new perspective of discussing Frost’s poem. It expands the application scope of Lakoff’s conceptual metaphor and enriches its practice, and produces referential meaning to literature appreciation. References[1]Lakoff, G & M. Johnson. Metaphors We Live By[M]. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.1980.[2]Ungerer, F & H. J. Schmid. An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics.[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2008.[3]K?vecses, Z. Metaphor: A practical introduction[M]. New York: Oxford University Press.2002.[4]李应雪. 一个解构批评的范本——析罗伯特·弗洛斯特诗歌《摘苹果之后》意义的模糊性[J]. 宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版), 2007(04): 78-81.[5]Lakoff, G. The Invariance Hypothesis: is abstract reason based on image-schemas?[J]. Cognitive Linguistics, 1990(01): 39-47.[6]Huo, Lirong. Comments on “After Apple-Picking”[J]. Overseas English, 2012(01): 196-197.[7]赵志宇. 罗伯特·弗洛斯特的《摘罢苹果》[J]. 文学语言学研究, 2007(02):70-71.[8]胡壮麟. 诗性隐喻[J]. 山东外语教学, 2001(03): 3-8.。
三位一体英语书The Triune God: An Exploration of the English LanguageThe concept of the Triune God, or the Holy Trinity, is a fundamental tenet of Christianity that has captivated the minds and hearts of believers for centuries. As a Christian, I am deeply intrigued by this profound and mysterious doctrine, which speaks to the very nature of the divine. In this essay, I will delve into the intricacies of the Triune God and explore how the English language can be utilized to capture the essence of this theological concept.At the heart of the Triune God lies the understanding that the divine is composed of three distinct yet inseparable persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. This belief in the Trinity, or the three-in-one, is a central pillar of Christian faith, and it has been a subject of intense theological discourse and contemplation throughout the history of the Church.The English language, with its rich vocabulary and nuanced grammatical structures, offers a unique opportunity to explore the complexities of the Triune God. One of the key challenges in conveying this concept lies in the inherent limitations of humanlanguage to fully capture the essence of the divine. The Triune God, by its very nature, transcends the boundaries of human understanding and defies simple explanations.Nevertheless, the English language provides us with a powerful tool to delve into the depths of this theological mystery. The use of specific terms, such as "Trinity," "Godhead," and "Hypostasis," allows us to engage with the conceptual framework of the Triune God and to grapple with its intricacies. These words, rooted in the Greek and Latin traditions, have been carefully crafted and refined over centuries to convey the nuances of this profound doctrine.Moreover, the English language offers a rich tapestry of metaphors and analogies that can be employed to elucidate the complex relationships within the Triune God. For instance, the concept of the "three-in-one" can be likened to the structure of an equilateral triangle, where each side is distinct yet inseparable from the whole. Similarly, the metaphor of the sun, with its distinct components of the core, the rays, and the heat, can be used to illustrate the unity and diversity within the Godhead.The versatility of the English language also allows for the exploration of the unique roles and attributes of each person within the Trinity. The Father, often depicted as the eternal, all-powerful, and all-knowing creator, can be described using words such as "sovereign,""omnipotent," and "transcendent." The Son, the incarnate Word of God, can be portrayed through the language of "redemption," "sacrifice," and "incarnation." The Holy Spirit, the divine presence and the giver of life, can be expressed through terms like "comforter," "advocate," and "sanctifier."Furthermore, the English language provides a platform for delving into the intricate relationships and interactions within the Triune God. The concept of "perichoresis," which describes the mutual indwelling and eternal dance of the three persons, can be explored through the nuances of language. The idea of the "economic Trinity," which refers to the outward manifestation of the Triune God in the world, can be juxtaposed with the "immanent Trinity," the internal dynamics of the Godhead.As I engage with the Triune God through the lens of the English language, I am struck by the profound depth and complexity of this theological concept. The words we use, the metaphors we employ, and the grammatical structures we construct all play a crucial role in our understanding and articulation of this mystery.In conclusion, the Triune God, with its multifaceted nature, finds a powerful medium of expression in the English language. Through the careful use of terminology, the crafting of analogies, and the exploration of the relationships within the Godhead, we can strive tograsp the essence of this profound theological truth. As we continue to grapple with the mysteries of the divine, the English language serves as a valuable tool in our quest to comprehend the depths of the Triune God.。
A Cognitive Comparison of Metaphor and MetonymyAllan FangContentsu introductionu the nature of metaphor and metonymy u metaphor and metonymy under Grice's theoryu interaction of metaphor and metonymy u conclusionChapter 1: Introduction1.1 Traditional view of metaphor and metonymy•From traditional perspective, metaphor and metonymy have been regarded as figures of speech.•People speak and write metaphorically or metonymically in order to achieve some artistic and rhetorical effects.•In a word, they each belong to a matter of language.1.1.1 traditional view of metaphor•There are three major views of metaphor in terms of traditional linguistic approach: The Comparison view, the Substitution view and the Interaction View.•The Comparison View:dating back to Aristotle.•Aristotle regarded metaphors as implicit comparison between a metaphorical expression and a literal paraphrase based on underlying analogy or similarity. However, he insisted that metaphor should be restricted to poetry only. He gave rise to the distinction between poetic diction and everyday language.1.1.1 traditional view of metaphor•The substitution view holds that a metaphor is where a metaphorical expression is used in place of some equivalent literal expression. For example, "John is a fox." "fox" is substituting for "sly".•The metaphor-as-interaction view derives from LA.Richards. Richards believed "when we use a metaphor, we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or a phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction".1.1.2 traditional view of metonymy•Aristotle subsumed metonymy and synecdoche under metaphor( Panther&Radden, 1999:1).•The first real definition of metonymy was found in the Rhetorica ad Herennium. In this book, metonymy was seen as a figure of speech which involved change of a word to a closely related or neighbouring one. •Many standard definitions are in accordance with the one given in Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (1977:724) which describes metonymy as "a figure of speech consisting of the use of the name of one thing for that of another of which it is associated."1.2 cognitive view of metaphor and metonymy •After the publication of Metaphors We Live By in 1980,a cognitive view of metaphor and metonymy wasproposed as the result of the development of cognitive science and linguistics.•In the boo k Metaphors We Live By, Lakoff pointed out metaphor and metonymy have deep connections with the shaping of human cognitive system. "Humanconceptual systems are pervasively structured bymetaphor, metonymy and other kinds of imaginativestructure" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:158).1.2.1 cognitive view of metaphor•From the cognitive perspective, metaphor is not only a figure of speech or a rhetoric device or a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive process.•Metaphor is the cognitive mechanism whereby one experiential domain is partially "mapped".•That is to say, because of limitation of thinking capacity and lack of ready words or expressions, human beings have to talk of one thing in terms of another, which results in metaphor.• E.g. Her heart swelled with pride.• E.g. His good performance filled him with pride.1.2.1 cognitive view of metaphor•Through metaphor, "We can conceptualize the lessclearly delineated in terms of the more clearlydelineated"(Lakoff& Johnson 1980:59) so that we get an insight into the nature of the concepts that structure oureveryday activities.•Metaphor provides a way of expressing ideas that would be difficult to convey by using literal language.•From above, we can see the focus of metaphor is not inlanguage at all, but in the way we conceptualize one mental domain in terms of another. Linguistic metaphor is theresult of and the tool for human metaphoric cognition.1.2.2 cognitive view of metonymy•The cognitive comprehension of metonymy is different from the traditional views, which has strongly beeninfluenced by centuries of rhetorical and literary studies. •Lakoff and Johnson (1980:39) first described metonymy in cognitive terms as a process which allows us toconceptualize one thing by means of its relation tosomething else.•In a more refined account, Lakoff and Turner(1989)describes metonymy as a conceptual mapping within a single domain which involves a "stand for" relationship and has mainly a referential function.Chapter 2: the nature of metaphor and metonymy2.1 conceptual nature of metaphor and metonymy2.1.1 conceptual metaphor•In recent years, important pioneering works by cognitivelinguists such as Lakoff&Johnson (1980), have demonstrated that metaphor is, in fact, a fundamental property of theeveryday use of language.•Lakoff and Johnson found out there were metaphoricalconcepts lying beneath metaphors used every day, such as "ARGUMENT IS WAR", "TIME IS MONEY", which are components of the whole cognitive system of people in acommunity.2.1.1 conceptual metaphor•Let us take ARGUMENT IS WAR for example: Your claims are indefensible.He attacked every weak point in my argument. His criticisms were right on target.I demolished his argument.I've never won an argument with him.You disagree? Okay, shoot!If you use that strategy, he'll wipe you out.He shot down all of my arguments.2.1.1 conceptual metaphor•From above, we can see the essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.•Arguments and wars are different kinds of things---verbal discourse and armed conflict---and the actions performed are different kinds of actions. But ARGUMENT is partially structured, understood, performed, and talked about in terms of WAR. The concept is metaphorically structured, the activity is metaphorically structured, and, consequently, the language is metaphorically structured.2.1.2 conceptual metonymy•In cognitive linguistics, metonymy is claimed to be not just a matter of names of things, but essentially a conceptual phenomenon.•Metonymy is a case that we use one entity to refer to another that is related to it.E.g.He likes to read Earnest Hemingway. (= the writings of this author)The Times hasn't arrived at the press conference yet.(= the reporter from the Times)2.1.2 conceptual metonymy•Here is a special case of metonymy, where the part stands for the whole, as in the following:E.g. We need a couple of strong bodies for our team.(= strong people)"There are a lot of good heads in the university.(= intelligent people)We need some new blood in the organization.(= new people)2.2 classification of metaphor and metonymy 2.2.1 classification of metaphor•Lakoff and Johnson have distinguished ontological(本体隐喻), orientational（空间隐喻）, and structural metaphors（结构隐喻）.•Ontological metaphors, like people are animals, highlight a quintessential feature of the source domain that is then attributed to the target. For example, in the metaphorical utterance Achilles is a lion we take a culturally attributed quintessential feature of lions (their courage)and ascribe this feature to Achilles.2.2.1 classification of metaphor•Orientational metaphors have to do with spatial orientations like up-down, in-out, central-peripheral, etc. and are grounded in our physical and cultural front-back, on-off, experience.•Thus, the fact that humans and many animals sleep lying down and stand up when they awaken provides the experiential grounding for the metaphors CONCIOUS IS UP, UNCONCIOUS IS DOWN .•Structural metaphors refer to metaphors in which one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. For example, LIFE IS JOURNEY,TIME IS MONEY.2.2.2 classification of metonymy•According to Panther and Thornburg，there are three groups of metonymy: referential, predicative and illocutionary.•In referential metonymies, a single concept stands for another. For example, "The piano is in bad mood ". In this sentence, "piano" stands for "the piano player".•In predicative metonymies, a statement is used to refer to a different statement. For example, "I'll be brief" stands for "I'll speak briefly”.•In illocutionary metonymies, one illocutionary type stands for another. For example, the assertion“I don't know the bus stop is" stands for the question "where is the bus stop?"Chapter 3: metaphor and metonymy under Grice's theory•3.1 Grice's theory reviewed•Grice holds that communication is more than the encoding and the decoding of linguistic signals. Recognizing thatlanguage is heavily influenced by contextual factors, Grice (1975) proposes his conversational implicature theory. He is the first to systematically study cases in which speakermeaning differs from sentence meaning.•Grice proposes four basic maxims of conversationunderlying the efficient co-operative use of language,which is called the Cooperative Principle.3.1 Grice's theory reviewed•They are(i) the maxim of quality (ii) the maxim of quantity (iii) the maxim of relevance (iv) the maxim of manner.•When a maxim is flouted, Grice shows us that this normally is taken to mean that the speaker might have something more in mind that meets the conversational demand than simply what was said.•Suppose that A and B are talking about a mutual friend C, who is now working in a bank. A asks B how C is getting on in his job, and B replies, "Oh quite well, I think; he likes his colleagues, and he hasn't been to prison yet.”3.1 Grice's theory reviewed•Grice notes that B's answer might be understood to mean something different from, or in addition to, what B actually, literally, said. He believes that this answer might imply that C is the kind of person who could be tempted by the idea of stealing money from the bank, or is prone to get into trouble.•This inference is based on the presupposition that both interlocutors abide by Cooperative Principle. A is asking B about C's level of success with his job, it is expected that B's answer will be related to that topic and based on conventional standards of assessment.•In that case, since the fact of not being in prison is normally not considered to be an acceptable reason for being called successful, this might mean that C is actually not a "normal person" and that his success is relative.3.2 Illustration of metaphor and metonymy under Grice's theory•Grice says that metaphor and metonymy can be partially explained by the Cooperative Principle since metaphor and metonymy are often literally and patently false.•He claims that metaphor and metonymy result from the deliberate violation of the maxim of quality: "Do not say what you believe to be false."• E.g. John is a pig. (metaphor)• E.g. The ham sandwich is waiting for his check. (metonymy)3.2 Illustration of metaphor and metonymy under Grice's theory•Grice's account of metaphor and metonymy may be seen as attempting to offer a more satisfactory explanation developed within a pragmatic framework.•However, it over-simplifies the problem of interpreting metaphor and metonymy, and does not discover the nature of metaphor and metonymy at all.•There is a problem how the hearer derives the implicated proposition by the metonymy and metaphor.•Grice just offers some account of how a metaphoric or metonymic interpretation is triggered but it contributes little to understanding how metaphors and metonymies are interpreted or why they are used.Chapter 4: Interaction of Metaphor and Metonymy•It must be emphasized that the main similarities betweenmetonymy and metaphor investigated by cognitive linguists should not be overlooked.•Both are seen as being conceptual in nature.•Both can be conventionalized.•Both can be used by speakers and understood by hearersautomatically, unconsciously, effortlessly.•Both are means of extending the resources of a language.•Both can be explained mapping processes. However, there are some confusing phenomena in the description of therelationship between metaphor and metonymy.4.1 Conceptual Interaction•According to Barcelona, there are two main subtypes of metaphor-metonymy interaction at this level: The metonymic conceptual motivation of metaphor and the metaphorical conceptual motivation of metonymy.•It has long been noticed that a great many metaphors are motivated conceptually by a metonymy, which is closer to their experiential basis. The metaphor ANGER IS THE HEAT OF A FLUID is conceptually motivated by the metonymy.• E.g. I had reached boiling point.E.g. She got all steamed up.E.g.When I told him, he just exploded.4.2 Contextual Interaction•The second general type of interaction is the purely textual co-instantiation of a metaphor and a metonymy by the same linguistic expression.•See the following sentence:• E.g. The ham sandwich started snarling.•The metaphor in this example is a special version of the people are animals metaphor.The special version is angry behaviour is aggressive animal behaviour.This sentence would refer, in a restaurant situation, to the angry behaviour of the customer who bought the ham sandwich. The metonymy is,consumed goods for customer.4.2 Contextual Interaction•The metaphor and metonymy in the sentence are compatible with each other because both have people as target. But they are conceptually independent from each other.•It is easy to see this fact, as the metonymy can occur without the metaphor.•As for metaphor, it is enough to replace the subject to realize that the metaphor does not depend conceptually on this metonymy for we can say John started snarling.Chapter 5: Conclusion•In cognitive linguistics Although metaphor and metonymyare different cognitive processes, they have much in common.They each have a conceptual basis and function as acognitive process.•Metaphor is the cognitive mechanism whereby oneexperiential domain is partially mapped or projected onto a different experiential domain, so that the second domain ispartially understood in terms of the first one.•Metonymy is a conceptual projection whereby onedomain(the target) is partially understood in terms ofanother experiential domain (the source) included in the same common experiential domain.Chapter 5: Conclusion•In cognitive pragmatics, metaphor and metonymy areseen as results from the deliberate violation of the maxim of quality: "Do not say what you believe to be false." Insuch a framework, metaphor and metonymy involve adeliberate violation of the maxim of truthfulness, because the proposition expressed by the utterance is not identical to the belief of the speaker and the comprehension ofmetaphorical or metonymical utterance depends on thehearer finding the utterance to be false.•All in all, metaphor and metonymy have much incommon although they are different cognitive processes.Thank You!!。
