跨⽂化期末复习⼤纲Chapter 1 Introduction to Intercultural Communication 1.Definition of Intercultural Communication1.1Definition of Intercultural CommunicationICC is the term first used by Edward Hall in 1959 andis simply defined as interpersonal communication between members of different cultures.1.2According to Rich, ICC can be classified into five forms:(1)Intercultural communication(2)International communication(3)Interracial communication(4)Interethnic of minority communication(5)Contracultural communication1.3Gudykunst and Hammer(1987) classified ICC by using interactive-comparative and mediated-interpersonal dimensions to divide the realm of the inquiry intofour categories:(1)Intercultural communication(2)Cross-cultural communication(3)International communication(4)Comparative communication1.4As a phenomenon, ICC has the following features:(1)Universal phenomenon(2)Long history(3)Daily Occurrence2.Development of ICC2.1The History of ICC Studies in America2.1.1The Burgeoning PeriodUS government in 1946 passed the ForeignService Act and established Foreign Service Institute.2.1.2From 1960 to 1970Books: Oliver’s Culture and Communication(1962) and Smith’s Communication andCulture (1966)The first ICC training actually started in the 1960s with Peace Corps members.The first college class in this field was in 1966 at the University of Pittsburgh.2.1.3From 1971 to 19801970 and 1971 ICA & NCA1975 SIETAR-International (the International Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research)1977 International Journal of Intercultural Relations-Dan Landis2.1.4From 1981 to the Present Time1960s scholars began to make their contribution to ICC in 1980sHart (1996) summarized, the study of ICC gained acceptance through training and testing practice in the 1960s and 1970s, formed its basic framework in the late 1970s and has made great achievements in theory and practice ever since the 1980s both inside and outside the US.2.2The History of ICC Studies in China Professor Hu Wenzhong (1999)(1)The Germinating Period:1980-1990(2)The Establishing Period:1991-2000(3)The Expanding Period:2001-present3.Reasons for Studying ICC3.1Global Demographics(全球⼈⼝统计)3.2Global Economy3.3Technological Development3.4Effective Outcomes3.5Peace and Conflicts3.6Ethical Imperative4.Challenges in Studying ICC4.1Potential Problems in Learning ICC4.1.1Avoidance of the unfamiliar4.1.2Uncertainty4.1.3Withdrawal(退缩)4.1.4Stereotype(刻板印象)4.1.5Prejudice4.1.6Racism4.1.7Ethnocentrism(民族优越感)4.1.8Cultural shock(⽂化冲击)4.2Cultural Shocks and Cross-cultural Adaption3 cross-cultural interactions(1)short-term travelers(2)sojourners(3)immigrantsThe typical pattern of cultural adjustment often consists of distinct phases.(1)Honeymoon(2)Crisis(3)Recovery(4)Adjustment((5) Re-entry Shock-going home)“w-curve” figureHoneymoon-Crisis-Recovery-Adjustment-Honeymoon at home- Crisis at home (reentry shock)-Recovery at home-Adjustment at homeChapter 2 Communication and Culture1.Basics of Communication1.1Definition of CommunicationThe act and process of sending and receiving messages among people.1.2Functions of Communication(1)Practical functions(2)Social functions(3)Decision making functions(4)Personal growth functions1.3Types of CommunicationBased on the channels used for communication(1)Verbal communication(2)Nonverbal communicationBased on the style of communication(1)Formal communication(2)Informal communicationBased on the social levels(1)Intrapersonal communication(2)Interpersonal communication(3)Organizational communication(4)Mass communication1.4Components of Communicationmessage, sender, receiver, channel,noise(disturbances along the communication process), feedback, encoding, decoding1.5Communication Models1.5.1Lasswell’s 5W Linear Model1.5.2Wilbur Schramm’s Ring Model1.5.3The Contextualized Model1.6Characteristics of Communication Communication is dynamic, symbolic, contextual, self-reflective, interactive, learned.2.Basics of Culture2.1Definition of CultureThe total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values behaviors, institutions and communication patternsthat are shared, learned, passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people. (Hall) Little culture is concerned with spiritual product such as language, literature, and art.Big culture refers to the sum total of human-made material product and non-material product. Dominant culture includes the cultural components common to most members of society, including the views of politics, conceptions of self and others, basic roles, standard forms of speech and general norms. E.g. Han culture in ChinaSubcultures can be ethnic, regional, occupational, social, economical, religious or gender-related in nature. E.g. northern and southern culture in China 2.2Functions of CultureDressler and Carns (1969):Culture enables us to communicate with others through a language that we have learned and that we share in common.Culture makes it possible to anticipate how others in our society are likely to respond to our actions. Culture gives us standard for distinguishing between what is considered right or wrong, beautiful and ugly, reasonable and unreasonable, tragic and humorous, safe and dangerous.Culture provides the knowledge and skill necessary for meeting sustenance needs.Culture enables us to identify with – that is, include ourselves in the same category with – other people of similar background.2.3Components of CultureCommunication aspect: language and symbols. Environment aspect: geography, climate ad places in the country.Science and technology aspect: math, physics,inventions, roads, bridges, railways.Economic system: money, finance, trade.Spiritual aspect: religion, mythology.Cognitive aspect: values, belief.Artistic aspect: art, literature, architecture.Behavioral aspect: laws, rituals(仪式惯例), mores(习俗)Daily life aspect: family, education, entertainment,dress, food, transportation, house.Social structure: social classes, ethnicityCulture consists of two levels:A level of values (invisible)A level of resultant behavior or artifacts of someform (visible)2.4Characteristics of CultureLearned, transmitted, selective, ethnocentric(民族中⼼主义的), dynamic(动态的), integrated(综合的)2.5Metaphor of Culture2.5.12.5.22.5.32.5.43.Relationship between Communication and CultureOn the one hand, culture is largely created, shaped, shared and learned through communication.Communication is the very medium of human interaction through which created and shared. Culture is considered more as a natural by-product of human communication and interaction than an intentional creation of human beings. In a sense, culture is the “residue(剩余)” of communication. Without communication, culture cannot be passed on and reinforced from generation to generation. Owing to the communication medium and other factors, culture is experiencing constant change.On the other hand, communication is also created, shaped, and transmitted by culture. When people communicate within an intercultural context, they take with them different cultural backgrounds, experiences, values and ways of thinking. Inevitably, human beings communicate with the imprint or mark of their own cultures.!!Chapter 3 Cultural Value Orientation Values are matters of preferences.Behavior Effectiveness) Study(1) Society an Hierarchy in China (2) Role of Family and Family Life (3) Politeness (4) Face(5) Guanxi (Interpersonal relationship) (6) Reciprocity(互惠) (7) HarmonyDeveloping&changing!!Chapter 4 Culture and Verbal Communication1.The Relationship between Language and Culture1.1Language Reflects the EnvironmentWe (only) label the things that are around us.1.2Language Reflects Cultural ValuesE.g. The kinship structure shows a complex butorderly communication system in which a clearterminology describes each positional role. There isan elaborate system of kinship terms, becauseChinese families used to be very big and highlyhierarchical.1.3Language Affects People’s Way of ThinkingLanguage determinism(语⽤决定论) is based on thehypothesis that the language people speakdetermines the way they perceive the world anddetermines culture.(Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)2.Culture-loaded WordsIt is said in Chapter 2 that the fundamental general communication principle is that symbols the sender uses to communicate must have essentially the same meaning in BOTH the sender’s and the receiver’s minds.(Misunderstanding occurs when the sender and the receiver attribute different meanings to the same word or use different words to express the same meaning.)2.1Denotational(指称)meanings refer to definitionmeaning depending upon our choice of wordselection.2.2Connotational(隐含) meanings refer to extendedmeanings or associated meanings.As busy as a beeAs cunning as a foxAs strong as a horseAs slippery as an eel(鳝鱼)As blind as a batAs meek as a lamb(温顺)As happy as a kingAs foolish as a donkeyAs stubborn as a muleAs wise as an owlAs majestic as a lion(庄严宏伟的)As stupid as a goose3.Culture Rules of SpeakingPragmatic transfer(语⽤迁移) is the use of rules of speaking from one’s own native speech community when interacting with members of the host speech community or simply when speaking in a second language.3.1Addressing(1) A proper Chinese name is arranged in the orderof surname plus given name(s).A proper Englishname is arranged in reverse order.(2)Some Chinese kinship term(亲属⽤语) are notonly used within one’s own family, but also onknown or unknown people to show one’spoliteness, respectfulness and friendliness.(3)Most occupational titles(⼯作职称) can be usedas addressing terms(称谓语) in Chinese, buttheir English equivalents are not necessarilyused in the same manner.3.2Greeting and Leave-taking3.2.1GreetingChinese often start with asking personalinformation to show warmth and to shortensocial distance.Native English prefer impersonal questionslike weather.3.2.2Leave-takingChinese: others-orientedWesterner: self-orientedIn English, informal offers are often performed by interrogative sentences(疑问句).Chinese offers may sound a little bit commanding.3.5Invitation and ResponseIn China, a successful inviting-transaction often takes several talk exchanges or preferred pairs, which an American may think the host is imposing and aggressive and the guest is hypocritical(虚伪).3.6Compliment and ResponseChinese regard compliments as virtues, as Americansaccept them as a kind of recognition of theirindividual efforts.3.7ApologiesFor the Chinese, apology most often occurs betweenpeople of unequal social status, and it is usually theperson with less power apologizes to the peosonwith more power.But for the native English speakers, an apology isnecessary whenever inconvenience or offense ismake with little consideration of the status or socialpower of the people concerned.4.Verbal Styles4.14.25 key aspects of Chinese verbal style(1)implicit communication （含蓄）(2)listening centeredness （听话）(3)politeness （客⽓）(4) a focus on insiders （⾃⼰⼈）(5)face-directed communication strategies （⾯⼦）4.38 Chinese and North Americans clash(冲突) ineveryday interactions:(1)What is not said vs. What is said(2)The use of We vs. I(3)Polite vs. Impolite talk(4)Indirect vs. Direct talk(5)Hesitant vs. Assertive speech(6)Self-effacing(谦逊的) vs. Self-enhancing talk(7)Private vs. Public personal questions(8)Reticent(沉默的) vs. Expressive speech!!Chapter 5 Culture and Nonverbal communication 1.The Nature of Nonverbal Communication1.1Definition of Nonverbal Communication Edward Hall: nonverbal communication is metacommunication(元信息传递), paralinguistic(副语⾔如⼿势等，超语⾔如叹息声等), second-order messages, the silent language, and the hidden dimension of communication.Judee Burgoon defined nonverbal communication as all those messages that people exchange beyond the words themselves.We may simply say that nonverbal communication is communication without the use of words contrary to verbal communication.1.2The Importance of Nonverbal communication Research shows: less than 35% of communication is verbal. 65% of communication takes place nonverbally.1.3Functions of Nonverbal Communication(1)Replacing means that using body language and other gestures to replace verbal communication. (2)Contradicting means that our nonverbal being opposite from the literal meaning.(3)Repeating signifies(表⽰) using body languageto add to the verbal meaning.(4)Conveying means using gestures and expressions to express the emotions and attitudes.(5)Modifying is using expressions, body language and other nonverbal means to correct the verbal meaning.(6)Regulating means using nonverbal gestures to guide the order of speaking.(7)Complementing is adding to the verbal meaning.1.4Similarities and Differences between Verbal andNonverbal communications (Characteristics of Nonverbal communication) 1.4.1Similarities(1)Use symbols(2)Are products of an individual(3)Require that someone attach meaningto these symbols(4)Are coding systems that we learn andpass on as part of the culturalexperience1.4.2Differences(1)Clear vs. ambiguous(2)Conscious vs. unconscious(3)Acquired and controllable vs. Naturaland uncontrollable(4)Nonverbal communication is moreuniversal than verbal communication.1.5Classification of Nonverbal Communication(1)Body movement(Kinesics)⾝势语(2)Eye contact(Oculesic)眼神学(3)Touching(Haptic)接触(4)Spatial language(Proxemics)空间语⾔(5)Chronemics(temporal language)时间语⾔(6)Paralanguage副语⾔学2.Nonverbal Communications in Different cultures 2.1Body Movement2.1.1PostureStanding-northern Europeans (slouch ×)Sitting-Japanese (sit on legs, cross legs ×) Bowing-AsiansSquating-northern and northwesternfarmers in China and Mexicans(less sophisticated)2.1.2GestureVictory,Peace: U.SOffensive Gesture: Britain; South Africa2.1.3Head Movement@Bulgaria no=nod2.1.4Facial expressionsOn the whole, Asian cultures tend to restrictthe range of facial expressions by Western standards.Reasons: People who have rich facial expressions in Asia would be considered as shallow persons (浅薄的⼈). People shouldhide our real feelings2.2Eye ContactVery direct: Middle Easterners, some Latin American groups, FrenchModerate: Mainstream Americans, Northern Europeans, BritishMinimal: East Asians, Southeast Asians, East Indians, Native Americans2.3Body touchTouch: Arabs, Southern and Western Europeans, Jews and Latins.Non-touch: Americans, Northern Europeans, Orientals.2.4Spatial LanguageAccording to Edward Hall, people from high-context cultures tend to stand close when talking to someone. Low-context cultures prefer a greater amount of interpersonal space.2.5.1Monochromic(单时制):Things scheduledonce at a time. @Germany, America2.5.2Polychronic(多时制) different things with2.6.1refers to nonverbal voice qualities, such astone, rate, pitch, accents, laughing, cryingand shouting2.6.2nonword noises “un-huh” in English, “hai” inJapanese2.6.3silence has different interpretations indifferent culturesChapter 6 Thought Patterns and Language1.Culture, Thought Patterns and Language1.1 The Relationships among Culture, Thought and LanguageLanguage is an instrument used in the communication of thought. Thought is influenced by language.Each of them influences and shapes others.They are seen as three parts of a whole.1.2Different Ways of Thinking between Chinese and Westerners1.2.1Cognitive Differences in language learningbetween East Asian and Western cultures:(1)Science and Mathematics(2)Attention and Perception(洞察⼒)(3)Casual Inference(4)Organization of Knowledge(5)Reasoning1.2.2Conceptual differences between Chineseand Western Thinking(1)Chinese traditional way of thinkingemphasizes on the morality andharmony of the society, and promotesthe collectivism, responsibility,devotion and so on.(2)The western way of thinkingemphasizes on logic and science,individual achievement or competition,and so on./doc/3517372007.htmlparing Thought Patterns between Chinese andWesterners2.1Synthetic(综合的) Thinking Mode vs. TheAnalytic(分析的) Thinking Mode(1) Chinese philosophy emphasizes unity of heavenand man, harmony”, t he blending of objects and man.(2) Westerners: man and objects should beseparated from each other, emphasize the formcoherence, logical deduction.2.1.1Holistic(整体论的) Thinking Mode vs.Analytic Thinking ModeChinese: Holistic (整体论的) Thinking:Orientation to the context as a whole, rely on experience-based knowledge Westerners: Analytic Thinking ModeDetachment of the object from its context,Tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories2.1.2Dialectical(辩证的)-focus Thinking Mode vs.Formal Logical-focus Thinking ModeChinese: Dialectical-focus Thinking ModeRecognition of contradiction, ”middle way”(中庸之道)Westerners: Formal Logical-focus ThinkingModeAvoidance of contradiction, black of white 2.2The Curvilinear(曲线的) Thinking Mode vs. The Linear(直线) Thinking ModeRobert Kaplan (1966)line”represents the Oriental languagegroup, including Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, and so on.2.3The Image Thinking Mode vs. The Abstract Thinking Mode(1)Chinese itself is the imagery language.Chinese characters are the mimicry (模仿) ofnatural phenomenon. Chinese people expressabstract things through concrete images.(2)English is a kind of alphabetic writing, man-made regulated signals.Determine the meaning by the soundcombinationWestern people prefer using the abstract notionto express the concrete objects.2.4The Ontological(本体论) Thinking Mode vs. The Objective Thinking Mode(1)The Chinese people regard man as the center to observe, analyze, deduce and study the objects.(2)The English-speaking people take the objectiveworld as the center.Chapter 7 Culture and Interpersonal Relationship1.The Nature of Interpersonal Relationship1.1Types of Interpersonal Relationship(1)Kinship and Family Relations(2)Friends(3)Comradeship(同事关系)(4)Soul mates1.2Principles for Establishing Good Interpersonal RelationshipsMutual attractions to both sides(2)Credit principle(诚信原则)Treat others with trust and sincerity(3)Respect principleMaintain equal positions of each party(4)Tolerance PrincipleSeek for common grounds while putting asidedifferences(5)Moderation principleTime, distance, frequency for communicationshall be moderate. The degree of closenessshould be properly maintained.2.Cultural Differences in Interpersonal RelationshipsIn the US, people tend to use four dimensions to distinguish among different types of relationships(1)Cooperative-friendly to competitive-hostile(2)Equal to unequal(3)Intense to superficial(4)Socio-emotional(社会情感性的)-informal to task-oriented-formalIn Japan,(1)In-group(2)Those whose background is fairly well known(3)Out-group/stranger2.1Intercultural FriendshipsGenerally, friendships are closer in collectivistcultures than in individualistic cultures.2.2Intercultural Romantic RelationshipsGenerally speaking, in high power distance cultures,romantic relationships are expected to take placewithin your cultural class. In low power distancecultures, a person is expected to select romanticpartners on the basis of individual factors such aspersonality and appearance.In Western cultures, marriage is seen as the union ofmarriage is seen as the alliance between two families.2.3Intercultural MarriageSubmission(顺从), compromise, obliteration(忘却),consensus(⼀致)(best)2.4Internet Friendship and Love3.Challenges to Intercultural Personal Relationships3.1Possible stumbling block(绊脚⽯) for interculturalrelationships(1)Cultural differences(2)Prejudice and discrimination(3)Historical relationships(4)Different perceptions(认知,观念) ofcommunication competence3.2A key to having a successful intercultural relationshipis establishing an effective relational culture(确⽴相互关系的⽂化).In essence, relational partners develop their ownculture –a mix of both of their larger culturalbackgrounds and their idiosyncratic(有⽓质的)behaviors and personalities.3.3Effective relational cultures are based on(1)Positive affect toward the partner(2)Perception of positive motives (assuming yourpartner is supporting you)(3) A perception of the relationship(4)As a benefit to each other (e.g. I am better offwith my partner than without her.)Chapter 8 Culture and Business Etiquette1.The Basis of Business EtiquetteEtiquette is a set of practices and forms which are followed in a wide variety of situations. Carl Nelson’s eight common protocol element areNamesRank and titleTimeCommunicationsGift givingFood and drink2.Creating a Powerful First Impression2.1Introducing yourself and othersRule 1: show respect for the most important person in the setting by mentioning his/her name first.Rule 2: try to include a brief comment about each person being introduced so that they have some basic knowledge about each other.2.1.1Introducing yourselfTell the name and information about the circumstance2.1.2Introducing othersSay the “more respected” person’s namefirst2.2Greeting peopleUS: first name, middle name, last nameFrench: Monsieur/MadameGermany: last name basisItaly: titles and surnamesBritish: use of first names is prevalent(普遍的)Latin America: add mother’s maiden name to their surnameChina: surname first, often titles are used2.3Card ExchangingBilingual cards: name, job title, company name, address, telephone number, facsimile number, e-mail address2.4Business DressComfortable, tasteful and stylishA reflection of your social status and relative success3.Business Scheduling3.1Appointing MakingMake appointments in advance. E.g. Germans3.2Recognizing Rules and CustomsThe first thing you should know is their typical hoursof work, lunch, and break time so as to makeappointments at a proper time.4.Social Entertaining 4.1Dining Practices4.1.1SeatingBritish method:4.1.2Table setting4.1.3Eating StylesAsians: chopsticksMiddle Easterners: Eat with your fingers, if the host does. But use the right hand only4.1.4Table MannersDo not point or gesticulate with your knife(or any other implement for that manner)while engaged in conversation at table.4.1.5FoodFrance: You may ask for more water, but notwine. You are supposed to wait for your hostto serve you.4.2Drinking ProtocolIn Russia and South Korea, in northern Europe,theability to consume a great quantity of alcohol isconsidered a measurement of an individual'smanhood.Toast:The first toast is offered before eating and serves towelcome the guests.A toast to the guest of honor is made after thedessert course when the wine glasses have been4.3Tipping ProtocolChina, Japan, Australia, New Zealand are some of thenon-tipping countries.A tip of 15% considered generousA tip of 20% when service is excellent5.Gift-giving EtiquetteU.S.Presenting a gift is a thoughtful gesture, but not expected.Business gifts are often presented after the deal is over.In most situations, gifts are opened immediately and shown to all present.For your business associates, you can choose gifts such as useful office items, liquor, wine, or something that comes from your country.JapanGift giving is an important part of business protocol.Business culture emphasizes on the ritual of gift-giving, rather than the gift itself.It is a good policy to prepare enough gifts for your trip.“this is only a small gift or it is a dull thing”Gifts should not be opened in the presence of the giver.Favorite gifts for the Japanese are imported liquor, designer-made also musical tapes and CDs.6.Digital Etiquette6.1Telephone EtiquetteDon’t be distracted by other work or chew gum whileon the phone.This lack of respect is transferred to the other end of the conversation, even though the person can’t see you.If you need to find information for a caller while he or she is on the line, put the caller on hold; offer to phone the caller back if you need to place him or her on hold for more than a minute.Always try to smile when you speak; your warmth and sincerity will come through the person with whom you are speaking.6.2Email EtiquetteBusiness email may involve more traditional use of capitalization and spelling.For external emails, use the recipient’s formal title.Add headings, lists, or numbers that will make your email easier to skim.Use jokes, slang, emotional punctuations, and emotions with care.Chapter 13 Intercultural Communication Competence1.The Challenges in the Setting of Glocalization1.1The Concept of Glocalizationthe local considerations.“Think globally and act locally.”全球化视⾓本⼟化⾏动1.2Facing the Challenges of Glocalization1.2.1The ethics of intercultural competenceThree dilemmas(1)How much do you think we should giveup of ourselves to become “Romans”?(2)Should belief, value, norm or socialpractice be judged by your ownknowledge and value system?(3)Should all intercultural contacts be encouraged?Is ICC always positive?1.2.2Appropriateness and EffectivenessThey are two primary criteria of Intercultural Communication CompetenceAppropriateness means that the valuedrules, cultures, norms and expectances ofthe relationships are not violatedsignificantly.Effectiveness is the achievements of thegoals.2.Becoming a Competent Intercultural Communicator 2.1The Components of Intercultural Communication Competence2.1.1Cross-cultural Attitude ModelThis approach pays more attention tocultural knowledge and affective aspect ofthe communicator.2.1.2Behavioral-skill ModelIncorporate the different approachesThey believe that the most ideal condition ofICC competence occurs when an individual possesses high degrees of interculturalknowledge, motivation and skills.2.1.3Young Yun Kim’s ICC Competence ModelCognitive components (knowledge ofcommunication codes/rules, culturalunderstanding, cognitive complexity)Affective components ( adaptationmotivation, identity flexibility, emotionalcoorientation成对取向).[inward components] in one’s mindOperational components (technicalcompetence, synchrony⼀致性,resourcefulness善于随机应变)[outward components] behavior The three facts are inseparable in reality.⼗⼩时泣⾎之作T T2013-1-9 0:42:56加油！！灰⾊背景为2013.1.9的问答框架Case analysis 是到中国来教外语的mark和中国同事的相处⽭盾判断和选择要求对知识点感性认识，注意重点细节问答注意那种不太长⼤概涉及四五个知识点的内容，还要举个栗⼦=w=Case analysis要扯术语，上课好好听Ps知识点整理和考试题回忆都不是重点，上课要好好听考前好好复习！！⾄少两个下午⼀个晚上吧学姐只能帮你到这了T T2013-1-9 13:21:25。
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