跨文化商务沟通复习资料第一章一．文化适应的四个维度P9Dimensions of AcculturationIntegration - persons become an integral part of the new culture while maintaining their cultural integritySeparation - individuals keep their culture and stay independent of the new culture Assimilation - persons are absorbed into their new culture and withdraw from their old cultureDeculturation - individuals lose their original culture and do not accept the new culture第二章不作为考试重点第三章一．不同文化的人们对待女性，道德标准以及工作的态度不同P47~P56①Attitudes Toward Women：Influenced by cultural roots;U.S. women are supposed to have the same rights as men;Kenya women are considered subordinate to men;Gender differences in the U.S. workplace are de-emphasized - women are accepted at higher levels in government and in many companies；U.S. women have taken two-thirds of new jobs created; they are starting new businesses at twice the rate of men;In France, one-fifth of small businesses are owned by women; in Canada, the rate is one-third；The U.S. and Canada lead the world in the number of women in executive positions; Northern and Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand also have high numbers of women managers.Percentage of Women in Top Management Positions:The Russian Federation 42%，European Union 30%,Australia 23%,United Kingdom 21%,United States 20%,Japan 7%.②Cultural Attitudes Toward Work:Work ethic - hard work is applauded and rewarded; not working is viewed negatively. U.S. persons value work; executives work-56 hours per week.-take 14 days of vacation a year.European persons work-36 to 41 hours per week.-take 4 to 6 weeks of vacation a year.Europeans:Relaxed;Vacation during month of August;Do not work weekends or holidays (The French take longer vacations than people of any other country.) Australians:Value free time; Value short work weekJapanese :Work Monday through Friday, often 18 hours a day;Work until their boss leaves③Attitudes Toward Ethics:Ethical behavior means acting with integrity, honesty, competence, respect, fairness, trust, courage, and responsibility.Ethical standards are guidelines established to convey what is perceived to be corrector incorrect behavior by most people in a society.Ethics: The Four-Way Test:Is it the truth?Is it fair to all concerned?Will it build goodwill and better friendships?Will it be beneficial to all concerned?二．个人主义和集体主义P57Individualism - attitude of valuing ourselves as separate individuals with responsibility for our own destinies and actions.Collectivism - emphasizes common interests, conformity, cooperation, and interdependence.第四章一．文化冲击的阶段P69Stages of Cultural Shock:Stage 1: Excitement and fascination with the new culture; the "honeymoon" stage. Stage 2: Crisis or disenchantment period; excitement has turned to disappointment. Stage 3: Adjustment phase; you begin to accept the new culture, try new foods, see the h umor in situations.Stage 4: Acceptance or adaptation phase; feel at home in the new culture and become involved in activities of the culture.Stage 5: Reentry shock; follows the stages identified earlier: initial euphoria, crisis or disenchantment, adjustment, and adaptation.二．如何缓解文化冲击P71~P74To alleviate cultural shock, try to see the environment from the perspective of the host nationals.①慎重挑选外派人员Alleviating Cultural Shock by Careful Selection of Overseas Personnel(Sensitive, cooperative, able to compromise;Open to others' opinions;Reaction to new situations; appreciation of cultural differences;Understanding of own values and aware-ness of values in other cultures;Reaction to criticism;Understanding governmentsystem;Ability to develop contacts in new culture;Patience and resiliency.)②提供出国前培训Intellectual or classroom model - involves giving facts about the host country using a variety of instructional methods;Area training or simulation model - emphasizes affective goals, culture specific content, and experiential processes;Self-awareness or human relations model - based on the assumption that the trainee with self-understanding will be more effective in the overseas assignment;Cultural awareness model - emphasizes cultural insight and stresses affective goals and an experiential process;Interaction approach - participants interact with people in the host country; Multidimensional approach - attempts to combine cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of training;③提供反馈和奖励Reward systems include special allowances for housing, hardship, home leave, medical, taxes, etc.Appraisal and reward system must reflect the purpose and expectations of theassignment (profit or building a presence in the country).Reward system must compensate for what persons are leaving behind and must be based on the idea of equity④发挥员工的最大潜力Developing Employees to Their Potential:Plan for repatriation, including reasons for the assignment and how the employee will contribute to the company upon his/her return.Allow adequate time for readjustment before employee reports to work.Provide appropriate compensation for transition expenses.Assist in locating proper housing.Show appreciation to family for their contributions.第五章一．高语境和低语境的语言P86High-Context Language 特点：Low-Context Language 特点：二．线性语言和非线性的语言P90Linear Language:Has a beginning and an end;Is logical;Is object oriented;Linear languages look at time on a continuum of present, past, and future (English).Nonlinear Language:Is circular;Is tradition oriented;Is subjective;Nonlinear languages view time asLow Context -Get down to business first -Value expertise and performance -Agreement by specific, legalistic -contract -Negotiates as efficiently as possible High Context -Establish social trust first -Value personal relations and goodwill -Agreement by general trust -Negotiations slow and ritualistic -Nonverbal; cultural aspects are important-Language transmits little of explicit messageExample: Japanese language Chinese language-Restricted code - speech coding system of high-context languages; spoken statement reflects the social relationship-Message is explicit-May be given in more than one way to assure understanding-Very direct and verbalExample: U.S. English (high-context language viewed as a waste of time) Example: Spanish language-Elaborated code - speech coding system of low-context languages; verbal elaboration is necessary due to few shared assumptionscyclical and seasons as ever-repeating pattern (Chinese and Japanese).三．寓言和谚语P92四．语言的性质P94How Languages Differ①②①Syntactic Rules – arrangement of words in a sentence. Subject, verb, object can be combined in six possible ways. English follows mainly a subject-verb-object order (as do French and Spanish). Japanese and Korean have the preferred order of subject-object-verb. Hebrew and Welsh follow verb-subject-object. The object does not come first in any language.②Meanings - Denotative (Japanese Spider Crab), Connotative (Alaskan King Crab), and Figurative (kicking the bucket)Variations in Verbal Style①②③④⑤⑥（了解）①Japanese Verbal Style:The Japanese converse without responding to what the other person says. Emphasis is on nonverbal communication so they do not listen.They prefer less talkative persons and value silence.The Japanese prefer a person say something in as few words as possible.They make excuses at the beginning of a talk for what they are about to say. They do not want apologies for was already said.They use “yes” to mean many different things.②Mexican Verbal Style:The Mexican style seems overly dramatic and emotional by U.S. persons.Mexicans rise above fact; they embellish facts; eloquence is admired.They like to use diminutives, making the world smaller and more intimate.They add suffixes to words to shrink problems. Mexicans come across as less than truthful.Their rationale involves two types of reality - objective and interpersonal. Mexicans want to keep people happy for the moment. When asked directions, if they do not know the answer, they will make up something to appear to be helpful.③Chinese Verbal Style:The Chinese understate or convey meanings indirectly. They use vague terms and double negatives. Even criticism is indirect.Harmony is very important. During negotiations, the Chinese state their position in such a way that seems repetitious.They do not change their point of view without discussing it with the group.They speak humbly and speak negatively of their supposedly meager skills and those of their subordinates and their family.④Verbal Styles in the Arab World:The Arabs encourage eloquence and “flowery” prose. They are verbose, repetitious, and shout when excited.For dramatic effect, they punctuate remarks with pounding the table and making threatening gestures.Arabs view swearing, cursing, and the use of obscenities as offensive.They like to talk about religion and politics but avoid talking about death, illness, and disasters. Emotional issues are avoided.The first name is used immediately upon meeting but may be preceded by the title “Mr.” or “Miss.”⑤German Verbal Style:In the German language, the verb often comes at the end of the sentence. In oral communication, Germans do not get to the point right away.Germans are honest and direct; they stick to the facts. They are a low-context people; everything is spelled out.Germans usually do not use first names unless they are close friends (of which they have few).They do not engage in small talk; their conversations are serious on a wide variety of topics. Avoid conversations related totheir private lives.⑥Language Variations in the U.S.Age - some word s are specific to an age group (“cool”).Gender - men speak more, they repeat more, and more often than women; women are more emotional and use such terms as “sweet,” “darling,” and “dreadful.”Race - Black English includes such terms as rapping (a narration to a musical beat). Regional Variations - distinctive language patterns exist between various parts of the United States.五．语言和文化的相互影响 P102Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis - The main idea is that language functions as a way of shaping a person’s experience, not just a device for reporting that experience. Both structural and semantic aspects of a language are involved.Linguistic determinism is the assumption that a person’s view of reality stems mainly from his or her language. Ex: The absence of the word snow in Inuit, the language of the Eskimo people. The language does, however, have numerous words for types of snow, while other languages do not have the equivalent of flaky snow or crusty snow.Bernstein Hypothesis - explains how social structure affects language and is an extension of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. Bernstein considers culture, subculture, social context, and social system to be part of social structure. Speech emerges in one of two codes - restricted or elaborated. Channels used in the restricted code would be oral, nonverbal, and paralinguistic. Restricted codes would include highly predictable messages. Elaborated codes are used with strangers; involve messages that are low in predictability. Give very explicit information. The verbal channel is important in elaborated codes, while restricted codes make use of nonverbal and paralinguistic cues.第六章看案例第七章不考第八章一．电子通讯礼仪P157Electronic Communication EtiquetteWhen communicating by telephone, the initial impression is formed more on vocal quality than on words spoken.Good telephone manners include answering the phone promptly, identifying yourself properly, and being courteous at all times.When using voice mail, be brief but complete when leaving a message.When using e-mail, avoid negative or personal information.Proper netiquette avoids the following:shouting - typing the message in all capital lettersdissing - speaking ill of someoneflaming - sending vicious, insulting messagesspamming - mass mailings of commercial advertisements or material cross-posted to numerous newsgroups.二．小费文化P160Tipping:People communicate nonverbally by their tipping practices; those who are basically stingy and those who are basically generous will reveal these traits by their tipping behavior.“Insult tipping” (leaving a few coins) shows a lack of breeding and is always inappropriate.Although a tip of 15 percent of the bill used to be considered a generous tip in fine restaurants, 20 percent is now closer to the norm when the service is excellent.第九章特色食品和饮食禁忌P187Unusual Foods:特色U.S. - corn-on-the-cob, grits, popcorn, marshmallows, crawfishSouth Korea - dog meatSaudi Arabia - sheep's eyeballsMexico - chicken's feet in chicken soupChina - duck's feetRussia - Danish pastry stuffed with raw cabbageSome African countries - gorillaConsumption Taboos:禁忌U.S. - horse meat and dog meatStrict Muslims - pork and alcoholOrthodox Jews - pork, shellfish, meat, and milk togetherHindus - beef。
