平狄克微观经济学第七版第7-9章答案教学内容

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第7章附录 生产与成本理论——一种数学的处理方法课后练习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

1．在下列生产函数中，哪些显示出规模报酬递增、不变和递减？（1）()2F K L K L =，（2）()105F K L K L =+，（3）()()0.5F K L KL =，解：考查规模报酬时，可由()F aK aL ，与()aF K L ，之间的关系进行判断，其中常数1a >。

当()()F aK aL aF K L >，，，表明是规模报酬递增；当()()F aK aL aF K L =，，，表明是规模报酬不变；当()()F aK aL aF K L <，，，表明是规模报酬递减。

（1）()2F K L K L =，()()()()()2323F aK aL aK aL a K L a F K L aF K L ===>，，， 所以这个生产函数是规模报酬递增的。

（2）()105F K L K L =+，()()105F aK aL aK aL aF K L =+=，，所以这个生产函数是规模报酬不变的。

（3）()()0.5F K L KL =，()()()()0.50.5F aK aL aK aL a KL aF K L =⋅==，，所以这个生产函数是规模报酬不变的。

2．某产品的生产函数由100q KL =给出。

若资本价格为120美元/天，而劳动者的工资为30美元/天。

生产1000单位产出的最小成本是多少？解：根据已知条件，劳动的边际产品为100K ，资本的边际产品为100L 。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第7章生产成本课后复习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

1．某公司支付给会计人员10000美元的年薪，这笔费用是一项经济成本吗？答：这笔费用是一项经济成本。

经济成本是显性成本和隐性成本之和。

显性成本指实际支出，所有涉及到货币交易行为的成本都属于显性成本。

隐性成本是一种经济成本，不涉及到货币交易行为，但涉及到生产中所使用的资源的成本。

当一个公司支付给会计人员10000美元年薪时，这是一笔货币交易，这笔费用是会计人员用劳动换来的收入。

因此，这笔费用属于经济成本中的显性成本。

2．某小零售店女店主自己做账，你将如何计算她工作的机会成本？答：该店主自己做账的机会成本是：她利用做账的时间和精力做其他事情时所能获得的最大收入。

根据机会成本的定义，如果该小零售店女店主不是自己做账，她可以在这段时间里做其他的事情，例如做小生意或者参加一些休闲活动。

那么，女店主自己做账的机会成本就是她用于做账的时间做其他事情时所能获得的最大收入。

3．解释以下说法正确与否：（1）如果一家企业的拥有者不给自己支付工资，则会计成本为零，而经济成本为正。

（2）会计利润为正的企业不一定经济利润也为正。

（3）企业雇佣了一些目前处于失业状态的工人，则其使用这些工人服务的机会成本为零。

答：（1）正确。

因为这里不存在货币交易，所以不存在会计成本（或显性成本）。

但是，因为企业的拥有者可以受雇于其他企业，因而存在经济成本。

经济成本为正，反映了此人工作时间的机会成本。

（2）正确。

会计利润仅考虑显性成本。

第一章复习题1．市场是通过相互作用决定一种或一系列产品价格的买卖双方的集合，因此可以把市场看作决定价格的场所。

行业是出售相同的或紧密相关的产品的厂商的集合，一个市场可以包括许多行业。

2．评价一个理论有两个步骤：首先，需要检验这个理论假设的合理性；第二，把该理论的预测和事实相比较以此来验证它。

如果一个理论无法被检验的话，它将不会被接受。

因此，它对我们理解现实情况没有任何帮助。

3．实证分析解释“是什么”的问题，而规范分析解释的是“应该是什么”的问题。

对供给的限制将改变市场的均衡。

A中包括两种分析，批评这是一种“失败的政策”——是规范分析，批评其破坏了市场的竞争性——是实证分析。

B向我们说明在燃油的配给制下总社会福利的被损坏——是实证分析。

4．由于两个市场在空间上是分离的，商品在两地间的运输是套利实现的条件。

如果运输成本为零，则可以在Oklahoma购买汽油，到New Jersey出售，赚取差价；如果这个差价无法弥补运输成本则不存在套利机会。

5．商品和服务的数量与价格由供求关系决定。

鸡蛋的实际价格从1970年至1985年的下降，一方面是由于人们健康意识的提高而导致鸡蛋需求的减少，同时也因为生产成本的降低。

在这两种因素下，鸡蛋的价格下降了。

大学教育的实际价格的升高，是由于越来越多的人倾向于获得大学教育而导致需求提高，同时教育的成本也在升高。

在这两方面因素作用下，大学教育费用提高了。

6．日圆相对美圆来说，价值升高，升值前相比，兑换同样数量的日圆需要付出更多的美圆。

由汇率的变化引起购买力的变化，在日本市场出售的美国汽车，由于美圆贬值日圆升值，持有日圆的消费者将较以前支付较底的价格；而在美国市场出售的日本汽车，由于日圆升值美圆贬值，持有美圆的消费者将面对较以前提高的价格。

第二章复习题1.假设供给曲线固定，炎热天气通常会引起需求曲线右移，在当前价格上造成短期需求过剩。

消费者为获得冰激凌，愿意为每一单位冰激凌出价更高。

第8章利润最大化和竞争性供给8.1课后复习题详解1．为什么一个发生亏损的厂商选择继续进行生产而不是关闭？答：一个发生亏损的厂商选择继续进行生产而不是关闭的原因在于：此时的价格仍然大于平均可变成本，但小于平均成本。

具体来讲：（1）厂商发生亏损是指总收益TR小于总成本TC，此时，如果总收益TR仍然大于可变成本VC，厂商继续生产将会弥补VC，并且可以弥补一部分的固定成本FC，弥补量是 ，从而使损失最小化，因此在短期内，厂商不会关闭而是继续生产。

TR VC（2）停止营业点是指一个已经投入生产的企业，在生产中总有这样一点，当根据利润最大化原则确定的产量大于这一点所代表的产量时，仍可以继续生产，小于这一点所代表的产量时，就只好关闭。

一个已经投入生产的企业是否必须关闭的条件不在于它是否盈利，而在于它关闭后的亏损与生产时的亏损哪种情况更大。

如果关闭后的亏损比生产时的亏损更大，则应继续生产；如果生产时的亏损比关闭后的亏损更大，则必须关闭。

实际上关闭后也是有亏损的，其亏损就是固定成本。

因此，是否关闭就视生产时的亏损是否大于固定成本而定，若不大于，就可继续生产，若大于，就必须停止营业。

企业的停止营业点可用图8-1说明：图中N点即平均可变成本最低点就是企业停止营业点。

图8-1停止营业点（3）当市场决定的价格为P时，均衡产量为2Y，恰好等于N点所表示的产量。

这时，2总亏损为面积BFJN，即等于总固定成本。

此时，厂商的平均收益AR等于平均可变成本AVC，厂商可以继续生产，也可以不生产，也就是说，厂商生产或不生产的结果都是一样的。

这是因为，如果厂商生产的话，则全部收益只能弥补全部的可变成本，不变成本得不到任何弥补。

如果厂商不生产的话，厂商虽然不必支付可变成本，但是全部不变成本仍然存在。

由于在这一均衡点上，厂商处于关闭企业的临界点，所以，该均衡点也被称作停止营业点或关闭点。

2．解释为什么行业长期供给曲线不是行业长期边际成本曲线。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第2章供给和需求的基本原理课后复习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

1．假定异常炎热的天气会使冰淇淋的需求曲线向右移动，解释为什么冰淇淋价格会上升到一个新的市场出清水平。

答：如图2-3所示，假设短期内供给完全无弹性，则供给曲线是垂直的。

供给曲线S与初始的需求曲线D相交，确定均衡价格为1P，均衡数量为1Q。

异常炎热的天气会使冰淇淋1的需求曲线向右移动，在当前价格P上造成短期需求过剩，消费者为获得冰淇淋，愿意为1每一单位冰淇淋出价更高。

在需求压力下，冰淇淋价格将上升，直到供给与需求达到均衡。

图2-3 冰淇淋的供求分析2．请运用供给曲线和需求曲线来说明以下各事件会怎样影响黄油的价格、销售量及购买量：（1）人造黄油价格上升；（2）牛奶价格上升；（3）平均收入水平下降。

答：（1）人造黄油和黄油是一对替代品。

人造黄油价格上升将导致黄油消费量的上升，因此黄油的需求曲线将从1D 向右移动至2D ，均衡价格将从1P 上升至2P ，均衡数量将从1Q 增加至2Q ，如图2-4所示。

图2-4 人造黄油价格上升的影响（2）牛奶是黄油的主要原料。

牛奶价格上升将增加黄油制造成本。

黄油的供给曲线将从1S 向左移动至2S ，在更高的价格2P 实现均衡，同时供给量减少到2Q ，如图2-5所示。

图2-5 牛奶价格上升的影响（3）假设黄油是正常商品。

平均收入水平下降将导致需求曲线从1D 向左移动至2D ，结果价格降至2P ，需求量也下降至2Q ，如图2-6所示。

图2-6 平均收入下降的影响3．如果玉米片价格上升3%而使其需求量下降6%，那么玉米片的需求价格弹性是多少？ 解：需求价格弹性指某种商品需求量变化的百分率与价格变化的百分率之比，它用来测度商品需求量变动对于商品自身价格变动反应的敏感性程度。

第一章复习题1．市场是通过相互作用决定一种或一系列产品价格的买卖双方的集合，因此可以把市场看作决定价格的场所。

行业是出售相同的或紧密相关的产品的厂商的集合，一个市场可以包括许多行业。

2．评价一个理论有两个步骤：首先，需要检验这个理论假设的合理性；第二，把该理论的预测和事实相比较以此来验证它。

如果一个理论无法被检验的话，它将不会被接受。

因此，它对我们理解现实情况没有任何帮助。

3．实证分析解释“是什么”的问题，而规范分析解释的是“应该是什么”的问题。

对供给的限制将改变市场的均衡。

A中包括两种分析，批评这是一种“失败的政策”——是规范分析，批评其破坏了市场的竞争性——是实证分析。

B向我们说明在燃油的配给制下总社会福利的被损坏——是实证分析。

4．由于两个市场在空间上是分离的，商品在两地间的运输是套利实现的条件。

如果运输成本为零，则可以在Oklahoma购买汽油，到New Jersey出售，赚取差价；如果这个差价无法弥补运输成本则不存在套利机会。

5．商品和服务的数量与价格由供求关系决定。

鸡蛋的实际价格从1970年至1985年的下降，一方面是由于人们健康意识的提高而导致鸡蛋需求的减少，同时也因为生产成本的降低。

在这两种因素下，鸡蛋的价格下降了。

大学教育的实际价格的升高，是由于越来越多的人倾向于获得大学教育而导致需求提高，同时教育的成本也在升高。

在这两方面因素作用下，大学教育费用提高了。

6．日圆相对美圆来说，价值升高，升值前相比，兑换同样数量的日圆需要付出更多的美圆。

由汇率的变化引起购买力的变化，在日本市场出售的美国汽车，由于美圆贬值日圆升值，持有日圆的消费者将较以前支付较底的价格；而在美国市场出售的日本汽车，由于日圆升值美圆贬值，持有美圆的消费者将面对较以前提高的价格。

4.长期弹性和短期弹性区别在于消费者对价格变化的反映速度以及可获得的替代品。

对纸巾这样的非耐用品，价格上升，消费者在短期内的反映很小。

但在长期，对纸巾的需求将会变得富有弹性。

第9章　竞争性市场分析9.1　课后复习题详解1．无谓损失的含义是什么？为什么价格上限通常导致无谓损失？答：（1）无谓损失的含义无谓损失是指市场在非效率条件下运作时，生产者与（或）消费者的福利净损失，任何一方都无法获得的利益。

（2）价格上限通常导致无谓损失的原因政府的价格上限管制所导致的消费者和生产者剩余的变化如图9－1所示。

由于存在价格管制，生产和销售量从降为。

那些仍能买到商品的消费者现在支付的价格降低，获得的剩余增加，如图中的矩形区域。

然而，有些消费者不再能买到商品，他们的消费者剩余损失为深色阴影三角形区域。

因此，消费者剩余的净变化为。

图9－1 无谓损失那些仍留在市场上生产数量商品的生产者，现在只得接受较低的价格，他们失去了矩形代表的生产者剩余。

同时，总产量也下降了，导致生产者剩余的额外损失为三角形。

因此，生产者剩余的总变化为。

显然，价格控制使生产者遭受损失。

所以，剩余的总变化为，从图9－1中看，即两个三角形区域和。

2．假设某商品的供给曲线完全无弹性。

如果政府规定的最高价格低于市场出清价格，这会导致无谓损失吗？请加以解释。

答：不会导致无谓损失。

原因如下：（1）供给曲线完全无弹性，即，意味着该供给曲线是纵向供给曲线，不管价格如何改变，供给量都不变。

最高价格管制即政府对某一产品设定市场最高价格，显然这一设定的最高价格要小于市场出清的价格。

最高价格管制是否会导致无谓损失取决于供求曲线的弹性。

（2）如果供给曲线完全无弹性，实行低于市场出清价格的最高限价政策后，生产者剩余的减少量与消费者剩余的增加量相等，因此，将不会有无谓损失。

如图9－2所示，当实行最高限价后，价格由降低到，需求量由增加到，供给量保持不变。

消费者剩余增加为矩形A ，生产者剩余的减少也为A ，因此无谓损失是0。

图9－2 供给无弹性时最高限价的影响3．价格上限怎样改善消费者境况？在什么条件下它可能使消费者的处境变糟？答：（1）“价格上限”也称为“最高限价”，指政府在保持低收入阶层的人可以购买的限度内，规定某些特殊商品或服务的价格不准超越的价格。

第9章竞争性市场分析9.1 复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

1．政府政策的损益评价——消费者剩余和生产者剩余消费者剩余和生产者剩余被用来评价消费者和生产者的损益。

将此方法用于分析天然气价格控制、航空管制、小麦价格支持计划和食糖配额时，可以发现损益可能相当大。

（1）消费者剩余和生产者剩余在无管制的竞争市场上，消费者和生产者按现行市价买卖商品。

但是，对于某些消费者来说，商品价值超过市场价格，如若必需，他们愿意支付更高的价格。

消费者剩余是消费者获得的超过购买商品支付的总效益或总价值。

就消费者总体来看，消费者剩余等于需求曲线与市场价格之间的面积。

生产者剩余测度生产者的总利润加上要素投入品的租金，等于供给曲线与市场价格之间的面积。

总的来看，消费者剩余和生产者剩余测度竞争市场的福利效益。

（2）无谓损失价格控制导致总剩余的净损失，称之为无谓损失。

无谓损失是价格控制造成的低效率；无谓损失的形成是因为生产者剩余的损失超过了消费者剩余的增加，或者是消费者剩余的损失超过了生产者剩余的增加。

政府干预一般导致无谓损失，即使消费者的福利与生产者的福利同等重要，由于政府政策将福利从一方转移给另一方，从而发生净损失。

有些案例中，无谓损失较小，但有些案例，比如价格支持和进口配额，无谓损失较大。

这个无谓损失是一种经济低效率的形式，政府在设计和实施政策时必须加以考虑。

2．竞争性市场的效率（1）经济效率经济效率指利用经济资源的有效性。

高的经济效率表示对资源的充分利用或者能以最有效的生产方式进行生产；低的生产效率表示对资源的利用不充分或没有以最有效的方式进行生产。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）【教材精讲＋考研真题解析】讲义与视频课程【32小时高清视频】目录第一部分开篇导读[0.5小时高清视频讲解]第二部分辅导讲义[27小时高清视频讲解]第1章绪论第2章供给和需求的基本原理2.1 本章框架结构图2.2 重难点解读第3章消费者行为3.1 本章框架结构图3.2 重难点解读第4章个人需求和社会需求4.1 本章框架结构图4.2 重难点解读第5章不确定性与消费者行为5.1 本章框架结构图5.2 重难点解读第6章生产6.1 本章框架结构图6.2 重难点解读第7章成产成本7.1 本章框架结构图7.2 重难点解读第8章利润最大化和竞争性供给8.1 本章框架结构图8.2 重难点解读第9章竞争性市场分析9.1 本章框架结构图9.2 重难点解读第10章市场势力：垄断与买方垄断10.1 本章框架结构图10.2 重难点解读第11章有市场势力的定价11.1 本章框架结构图11.2 重难点解读第12章垄断竞争和寡头竞争12.1 本章框架结构图12.2 重难点解读第13章博弈论和竞争策略13.1 本章框架结构图13.2 重难点解读第14章投入要素市场14.1 本章框架结构图14.2 重难点解读第15章投资、时间及资本市场15.1 本章框架结构图15.2 重难点解读第16章一般均衡与经济效率16.1 本章框架结构图16.2 重难点解读第17章信息不对称市场17.1 本章框架结构图17.2 重难点解读第18章外部性和公共品18.1 本章框架结构图18.2 重难点解读第三部分名校考研真题名师精讲及点评[4.5小时高清视频讲解]一、名词解释二、简答题三、计算题四、论述题内容简介本书特别适用于参加研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为平狄克《微观经济学》的考生，也可供各大院校学习平狄克《微观经济学》的师生参考。

平狄克所著的《微观经济学》（中国人民大学出版社）被列为“十一五”国家重点图书出版规划项目，是我国众多高校采用的经济学优秀教材，也被众多高校（包括科研机构）指定为“经济类”专业考研参考书目。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第2章供给和需求的基本原理课后复习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

1．假定异常炎热的天气会使冰淇淋的需求曲线向右移动，解释为什么冰淇淋价格会上升到一个新的市场出清水平。

答：如图2-3所示，假设短期内供给完全无弹性，则供给曲线是垂直的。

供给曲线S与初始的需求曲线D相交，确定均衡价格为1P，均衡数量为1Q。

异常炎热的天气会使冰淇淋1的需求曲线向右移动，在当前价格P上造成短期需求过剩，消费者为获得冰淇淋，愿意为1每一单位冰淇淋出价更高。

在需求压力下，冰淇淋价格将上升，直到供给与需求达到均衡。

图2-3 冰淇淋的供求分析2．请运用供给曲线和需求曲线来说明以下各事件会怎样影响黄油的价格、销售量及购买量：（1）人造黄油价格上升；（2）牛奶价格上升；（3）平均收入水平下降。

答：（1）人造黄油和黄油是一对替代品。

人造黄油价格上升将导致黄油消费量的上升，因此黄油的需求曲线将从1D 向右移动至2D ，均衡价格将从1P 上升至2P ，均衡数量将从1Q 增加至2Q ，如图2-4所示。

图2-4 人造黄油价格上升的影响（2）牛奶是黄油的主要原料。

牛奶价格上升将增加黄油制造成本。

黄油的供给曲线将从1S 向左移动至2S ，在更高的价格2P 实现均衡，同时供给量减少到2Q ，如图2-5所示。

图2-5 牛奶价格上升的影响（3）假设黄油是正常商品。

平均收入水平下降将导致需求曲线从1D 向左移动至2D ，结果价格降至2P ，需求量也下降至2Q ，如图2-6所示。

图2-6 平均收入下降的影响3．如果玉米片价格上升3%而使其需求量下降6%，那么玉米片的需求价格弹性是多少？ 解：需求价格弹性指某种商品需求量变化的百分率与价格变化的百分率之比，它用来测度商品需求量变动对于商品自身价格变动反应的敏感性程度。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第7章生产成本课后复习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

1．某公司支付给会计人员10000美元的年薪，这笔费用是一项经济成本吗？答：这笔费用是一项经济成本。

经济成本是显性成本和隐性成本之和。

显性成本指实际支出，所有涉及到货币交易行为的成本都属于显性成本。

隐性成本是一种经济成本，不涉及到货币交易行为，但涉及到生产中所使用的资源的成本。

当一个公司支付给会计人员10000美元年薪时，这是一笔货币交易，这笔费用是会计人员用劳动换来的收入。

因此，这笔费用属于经济成本中的显性成本。

2．某小零售店女店主自己做账，你将如何计算她工作的机会成本？答：该店主自己做账的机会成本是：她利用做账的时间和精力做其他事情时所能获得的最大收入。

根据机会成本的定义，如果该小零售店女店主不是自己做账，她可以在这段时间里做其他的事情，例如做小生意或者参加一些休闲活动。

那么，女店主自己做账的机会成本就是她用于做账的时间做其他事情时所能获得的最大收入。

3．解释以下说法正确与否：（1）如果一家企业的拥有者不给自己支付工资，则会计成本为零，而经济成本为正。

（2）会计利润为正的企业不一定经济利润也为正。

（3）企业雇佣了一些目前处于失业状态的工人，则其使用这些工人服务的机会成本为零。

答：（1）正确。

因为这里不存在货币交易，所以不存在会计成本（或显性成本）。

但是，因为企业的拥有者可以受雇于其他企业，因而存在经济成本。

经济成本为正，反映了此人工作时间的机会成本。

（2）正确。

会计利润仅考虑显性成本。

CHAPTER 7THE COST OF PRODUCTIONIn this chapter, it is easy for the students to concentrate too much on definitions and geometry and lose focus on the economics. Therefore, keep in mind the key concepts: opportunity cost, short-run average and marginal cost, cost minimization, and long-run average cost. These concepts can be illuminated with the supplementary material provided at the end of the chapter, which includes sections on economies of scope, learning curves, and estimating and predicting costs. The Appendix presents the calculus of constrained optimization, as applied to cost minimization. All exercises involve some algebra or geometry: Exercises (12) and (13) are time consuming, but rewarding.Opportunity cost is the conceptual base of this chapter. While most students think of costs in accounting terms, they must develop an understanding of the distinction between accounting, economic, and opportunity costs. One source of confusion is the opportunity cost of capital, i.e., why the rental rate on capital must be considered explicitly by economists. It is important, for example, to distinguish between the purchase price of capital equipment and the opportunity cost of using the equipment. The opportunity cost of a person’s tim e also leads to some confusion for students.Following the discussion of opportunity cost, the chapter diverges in two directions: one path introduces types of cost and cost curves, and the other focuses on cost minimization. Both directions converge with the discussion of long-run average cost.The geometry of total, fixed, variable, average, and marginal costs can prove to be tedious. An emphasis on the following issues helps students master this topic: 1) the relationship between the production function, diminishing returns in the short run, input prices, and the shapes of the various cost curves; 2) the distinction between total, average, and marginal; and 3) the reasonableness of the assumption of constant input prices (note that this assumption w ill be relaxed in Chapter 10’s discussion of monopsony). The determination of the cost-minimizing quantity is crucial to understanding Chapters 8 and 10. The concept of duality (minimizing cost subject to a given level of production) is equivalent to maximizing output subject to a given level of total cost) clarifies this concept for students.A clear understanding of short-run cost and cost minimization is necessary for the derivation of long-run average cost. With long-run costs, stress that firms are operating on short-run cost curves at each level of the fixed factor and that long-run costs do not exist separately from short-run costs. Exercise (6) illustrates the relationship between long-run cost and cost minimization, with an emphasis on the importance of the expansion path. Stress the connection between the shape of a long-run cost curve and returns to scale. While Section 7.7 is starred, it does not require calculus. Example 7.5 “Cost Functions for Electric Power,” gives students another vie w of long-run average cost and allows for discussion of minimum efficient scale, an important determinant of industry structure.1. A firms pays its accountant an annual retainer of $10,000. Is this an explicit or implicit cost?Explicit costs are actual outlays. They include all costs that involve a monetary transaction.An implicit cost is an economic cost that does not necessarily involve a monetary transaction, butstill involves the use of resources. When a firm pays an annual retainer of $10,000, there is amonetary transaction. The accountant trades his or her time in return for money. Therefore,an annual retainer is an explicit cost.2. The owner of a small retail store does her own accounting work. How would you measure the opportunity cost of her work?Opportunity costs are measured by comparing the use of a resource with its alternative uses.The opportunity cost of doing accounting work is the time not spent in other ways, i.e., time suchas running a small business or participating in leisure activity. The economic cost of doingaccounting work is measured by computing the monetary amount that the time would be worth inits next best use.3. Suppose a chair manufacturer finds that the marginal rate of technical substitution of capital for labor in his production process is substantially greater than the ratio of the rental rate on machinery to the wage rate for assembly-line labor. How should he alter his use of capital and labor to minimize the cost of production?To minimize cost, the manufacturer should use a combination of capital and labor so the rate atwhich he can trade capital for labor in his production process is the same as the rate at which hecan trade capital for labor in external markets. The manufacturer would be better off if heincreased his use of capital and decreased his use of labor, decreasing the marginal rate oftechnical substitution, MRTS. He should continue this substitution until his MRTS equals theratio of the rental rate to the wage rate.4. Why are isocost lines straight lines?The isocost line represents all possible combinations of labor and capital that may be purchasedfor a given total cost. The slope of the isocost line is the ratio of the input prices of labor andcapital. If input prices are fixed, then the ratio of these prices is clearly fixed and the isocost lineis straight. Only when the ratio or factor prices change as the quantities of inputs change is theisocost line not straight.5. If the marginal cost of production is increasing, does this tell you whether the average variable cost is increasing or decreasing? Explain.Marginal cost can be increasing while average variable cost is either increasing or decreasing. Ifmarginal cost is less (greater) than average variable cost, then each additional unit is adding less(more) to total cost than previous units added to the total cost, which implies that the AVCdeclines (increases). Therefore, we need to know whether marginal cost is greater than averagecost to determine whether the AVC is increasing or decreasing.6. If the marginal cost of production is greater than the average variable cost, does this tell you whether the average variable cost is increasing or decreasing? Explain.If the average variable cost is increasing (decreasing), then the last unit produced is adding more(less) to total variable cost than the previous units did, on average. Therefore, marginal cost isabove (below) average variable cost. If marginal cost is above average variable cost, averagevariable cost is also increasing.7. If the firm’s average cost curves are U-shaped, why does its average variable cost curve achieve its minimum at a lower level of output than the average total cost curve?Total cost is equal to fixed plus variable cost. Average total cost is equal to average fixed plusaverage variable cost. When graphed, the difference between the U-shaped total cost andaverage variable cost curves is the average fixed cost curve. If fixed cost is greater than zero, theminimum of average variable cost must be less than the minimum average total cost.8. If a firm enjoys increasing returns to scale up to a certain output level, and then constant returns to scale, what can you say about the shape of the firm’s long-run average cost curve?When the firm experiences increasing returns to scale, its long-run average cost curve isdownward sloping. When the firm experiences constant returns to scale, its long-run averagecost curve is horizontal. If the firm experiences increasing returns to scale, then constantreturns to scale, its long-run average cost curve falls, then becomes horizontal.9. How does a change in the price of one input change the firm’s long-run expansion path?The expansion path describes the combination of inputs for which the firm chooses to minimizecost for every output level. This combination depends on the ratio of input prices: if the price ofone input changes, the price ratio also changes. For example, if the price of an input increases,less of the input may be purchased for the same total cost. The intercept of the isocost line onthat input’s axis moves closer to the origin. Also, the slope of the isocost line, the price ratio,changes. As the price ratio changes, the firm substitutes away from the now more expensiveinput toward the cheaper input. Thus, the expansion path bends toward the axis of the nowcheaper input. See Exercise (7.6).10. Distinguish between economies of scale and economies of scope. Why can one be present without the other?Economies of scale refer to the production of one good and occur when proportionate increases inall inputs lead to a more-than-proportionate increase in output. Economies of scope refer to theproduction of more than one good and occur when joint output is less costly than the sum of thecosts of producing each good or service separately. There is no direct relationship betweenincreasing returns to scale and economies of scope, so production can exhibit one without theother. See Exercise (13) for a case with constant product-specific returns to scale andmultiproduct economies of scope.1. Assume a computer firm’s marginal costs of production are constant at $1,000 per computer. However, the fixed costs of production are equal to $10,000.a. Calculate the firm’s average variable cost and average total cost curves.The variable cost of producing an additional unit, marginal cost, is constant at $1,000, so theaverage variable cost is constant at $1,000, ()000,1$000,1$=QQ . Average fixed cost is $10,000Q. Average total cost is the sum of average variable cost and average fixed cost: ATC Q=+$1,$10,.000000 b. If the firm wanted to minimize the average total cost of production, would it choose to be verylarge or very small? Explain.The firm should choose a very large output because average total cost decreases with increase inQ . As Q becomes infinitely large, ATC will equal $1,000.2. If a firm hires a currently unemployed worker, the opportunity cost of utilizing t he worker’s service is zero. Is this true? Discuss.From the worker’s perspective, the opportunity cost of his or her time is the time not spent inother ways, including time spent in personal or leisure activities. Certainly, the opportunity costof hiring an unemployed mother of pre-school children is not zero! While it might be difficult toassign a monetary value to the time of an unemployed worker, we can not conclude that it is zero.From the perspective of the firm, the opportunity cost of hiring the worker is not zero, and thefirm could purchase a piece of machinery rather than hiring the worker.3.a. Suppose that a firm must pay an annual franchise fee, which is a fixed sum, independent of whether it produces any output. How does this tax aff ect the firm’s fixed, marginal, and average costs?Total cost, TC , is equal to fixed cost, FC , plus variable cost, VC . Fixed costs do not vary with thequantity of output. Because the franchise fee, FF , is a fixed sum, the firm’s fixed costs increaseby this fee. Thus, average cost, equal toFC VC Q +, and average fixed cost, equal to FC Q , increase by the average franchise fee FF Q. Note that the franchise fee does not affect average variable cost. Also, because marginal cost is the change in total cost with the production of anadditional unit and because the fee is constant, marginal cost is unchanged.3.b. Now suppose the firm is charged a tax that is proportional to the number of items it produces. Ag ain, how does this tax affect the firm’s fixed, marginal, and average costs?Let t equal the per unit tax. When a tax is imposed on each unit produced, variable costsincrease by tQ . Average variable costs increase by t , and because fixed costs are constant,average (total) costs also increase by t . Further, because total cost increases by t with eachadditional unit, marginal costs increase by t .4. A recent issue of Business Week reported the following:During the recent auto sales slump, GM, Ford, and Chrysler decidedit was cheaper to sell cars to rental companies at a loss than to lay offworkers. That’s because closing and reopening plants is expensive,partly because the auto makers’ current union contracts obligatethem to pay many wor kers even if they’re not working.When the article discusses selling cars “at a loss,” is it referring to accountingprofit or economic profit? How will the two differ in this case? Explainbriefly.When the article refers to the car companies selling at a loss, it is referring to accounting profit.The article is stating that the price obtained for the sale of the cars to the rental companies was less than their accounting cost. Economic profit would be measured by the difference of theprice with the opportunity cost of the cars. This opportunity cost represents the market valueof all the inputs used by the companies to produce the cars. The article mentions that the carcompanies must pay workers even if they are not working (and thus producing cars). Thisimplies that the wages paid to these workers are sunk and are thus not part of the opportunitycost of production. On the other hand, the wages would still be included in the accountingcosts. These accounting costs would then be higher than the opportunity costs and wouldmake the accounting profit lower than the economic profit.5. A chair manufacturer hires its assembly-line labor for $22 an hour and calculates that the rental cost of its machinery is $110 per hour. Suppose that a chair can be produced using 4 hours of labor or machinery in any combination. If the firm is currently using 3 hours of labor for each hour of machine time, is it minimizing its costs of production? If so, why? If not, how can it improve the situation?If the firm can produce one chair with either four hours of labor or four hours of capital,machinery, or any combination, then the isoquant is a straight line with a slope of -1 andintercept at K = 4 and L = 4, as depicted in Figure 7.5.The isocost line, TC = 22L + 110K has a slope of -=-2211002. when plotted with capital on the vertical axis and has intercepts at K TC =110 and L TC =22. The cost minimizing point is a corner solution, where L = 4 and K = 0. At that point, total cost is $88.6. Suppose the economy takes a downturn, and that labor costs fall by 50 percent and are expected to stay at that level for a long time. Show graphically how this change in the relative price of labor and capital affects the firm’s expansion path.Figure 7.6 shows a family of isoquants and two isocost curves. Units of capital are on the verticalaxis and units of labor are on the horizontal axis. (Note: In drawing this figure we have assumedthat the production function underlying the isoquants exhibits constant returns to scale, resultingin linear expansion paths. However, the results do not depend on this assumption.)If the price of labor decreases while the price of capital is constant, the isocost curve pivotsoutward around its intersection with the capital axis. Because the expansion path is the set ofpoints where the MRTS is equal to the ratio of prices, as the isocost curves pivot outward, theexpansion path pivots toward the labor axis. As the price of labor falls relative to capital, thefirm uses more labor as output increases.business when costs are cheaper and discourage off-peak business when costs are higher.Do you follow the consultant’s advice? Discuss.The consultant does not understand the definition of average cost. Encouraging ridership always decreases average costs, peak or off-peak. If ridership falls to 10, costs climb to $3.00 per rider. Further, during rush hour, the buses are full. How could more people get on? Instead, encourage passengers to switch from peak to off-peak times, for example, by charging higher prices during peak periods.MC 2 is the marginal cost of refining distillate up to the capacity constraint, Q 2. The shape of thetotal marginal cost curve is horizontal up to the lower capacity constraint. If the capacityconstraint of the distilling unit is lower than that of the hydrocracking unit, MC T is vertical at Q 1.If the capacity constraint of the hydrocracking unit is lower than that of the distilling unit, MC T isvertical at Q 2.9. You manage a plant that mass produces engines by teams of workers using assembly machines. The technology is summarized by the production function.Q 4 KLwhere Q is the number of engines per week, K is the number of assembly machines, and L is the number of labor teams. Each assembly machine rents for r = $12,000 per week and each team costs w = $3,000 per week. Engine costs are given by the cost of labor teams and machines, plus $2,000 per engine for raw materials. Your plant has a fixed installation of 10 assembly machines as part of its design.a. What is the cost function for your plant — namely, how much would it cost to produce Qengines? What are average and marginal costs for producing Q engines? How do average costs vary with output?K is fixed at 10. The short-run production function then becomes Q = 40 L. This implies that for any level of output Q, the number of labor teams hired will be L = Q / 40. The total cost function is thusgiven by the sum of the costs of capital, labor, and raw materials:TC(Q) = rK + wL + 2000Q = (12,000)(10) + (3,000)(Q/40) + 2,000 Q= 120,000 + 2,075QThe average cost function is then given by:AC(Q) = TC(Q)/Q = 120,000/Q + 2,075and the marginal cost function is given by:∂ TC(Q) / ∂ Q = 2,075Marginal costs are constant and average costs will decrease as quantity increases (due to the fixed cost of capital).b. How many teams are required to producing 80 engines? What is the average cost perengine?To produce Q = 80 engines we need L = Q/40 labor teams or L = 2. Average costs are given byAC(Q) = 120,000/Q + 2,075or AC = 3575 c. You are asked to make recommendations for the design of a new production facility. Whatwould you suggest? In particular, what capital/labor (K/L) ratio should the new plant accommodate? If lower average cost were your only criterion, should you suggest that the new plant have more production capacity or less production capacity that the plant you currently manage?We no longer assume that K is fixed at 10. We need to find the combination of K and L which minimizes costs at any level of output Q. The cost-minimization rule is given byMP r =MP w .KLTo find the marginal product of capital, observe that increasing K by 1 unit increases Q by 4L, so MP K = 4L. Similarly, observe that increasing L by 1 unit increases Q by 4K, so MP L = 4K. (Mathematically, MP K = ∆Q /∆K = 4L and MP L = ∆Q /∆L = 4K.) Using these formulas in the cost-minimization rule, we obtain:4L/r = 4K/w or K / L = w / r = 3,000 / 12,000 = 1/4The new plant should accommodate a capital to labor ratio of 1 to 4.The firm’s capital -labor ratio is currently 10/2 or 5. To reduce average cost, the firm should either use more labor and less capital to produce the same output or it should hire more labor and increase output.*10. A computer company’s cost function, which relates its average cost of product ion AC to its cumulative output in thousands of computers CQ and its plant size in terms of thousands of computers produced per year Q, within the production range of 10,000 to 50,000 computers is given byAC = 10 - 0.1CQ + 0.3Q.a. Is there a learning curve effect?The learning curve describes the relationship between the cumulative output and the inputsrequired to produce a unit of output. Average cost measures the input requirements per unit ofoutput. Learning curve effects exist if average cost falls with increases in cumulative output.Here, average cost decreases as cumulative output, CQ, increases. Therefore, there are learningcurve effects.b. Are there increasing or decreasing returns to scale?To measure scale economies, calculate the elasticity of total cost, TC, with respect to output, Q:ETCTCQQTCTCQMCACC ===∆∆∆∆.If this elasticity is greater (less) than one, then there are decreasing (increasing) returns to scale, because total costs are rising faster (slower) than output. From average cost we can calculate total and marginal cost:TC = Q(AC) = 10Q - (0.1)(CQ)(Q) + 0.3Q2, thereforeMCdTCdQCQ Q ==-+100106...Because marginal cost is greater than average cost (because 0.6Q > 0.3Q), the elasticity, EC, is greater than one; there are decreasing returns to scale. The production process exhibits a learningeffect and decreasing returns to scale.c. During its existence, the firm has produced a total of 40,000 computers and is producing 10,000computers this year. Next year it plans to increase its production to 12,000 computers. Will its average cost of production increase or decrease? Explain.First, calculate average cost this year:AC1= 10 - 0.1CQ + 0.3Q = 10 - (0.1)(40) + (0.3)(10) = 9.Second, calculate the average cost next year:AC2= 10 - (0.1)(50) + (0.3)(12) = 8.6.(Note: Cumulative output has increased from 40,000 to 50,000.) The average cost will decreasebecause of the learning effect.11. The short-run cost function of a company is given by the equation C = 190 + 53Q, where C is the total cost and Q is the total quantity of output, both measured in tens of thousands.a. What is the company’s fixed cost?When Q = 0, C = 190 (or $1,900,000). Therefore, fixed cost is equal to 190 (or $1,900,000).b. If the company produced 100,000 units of goods, what is its average variable cost?With 100,000 units, Q= 10. Variable cost is 53Q= (53)(10) = 530 (or $5,300,000). Averagevariable cost is TVCQ==$530$53.10c. What is its marginal cost per unit produced?With constant average variable cost, marginal cost is equal to average variable cost, $53.d. What is its average fixed cost?At Q = 10, average fixed cost is TFCQ==$190$1910.e. Suppose the company borrows money and expands its factory. Its fixed cost rises by $50,000,but its variable cost falls to $45,000 per 10,000 units. The cost of interest (I) also enters into the equation. Each one-point increase in the interest rate raises costs by $30,000. Write the new cost equation.Fixed cost changes from 190 to 195. Variable cost decreases from 53 to 45. Fixed cost alsoincludes interest charges: 3I . The cost equation isC = 195 + 45Q + 3I .*12. Suppose the long-run total cost function for an industry is given by the cubic equation TC = a + bQ + cQ 2 + dQ 3. Show (using calculus) that this total cost function is consistent with a U-shaped average cost curve for at least some values of a, b, c, d.To show that the cubic cost equation implies a U -shaped average cost curve, we use algebra,calculus, and economic reasoning to place sign restrictions on the parameters of the equation.These techniques are illustrated by the example below.First, if output is equal to zero, then TC = a , where a represents fixed costs. In the short run,fixed costs are positive, a > 0, but in the long run, where all inputs are variable a = 0. Therefore,we restrict a to be zero.Next, we know that average cost must be positive. Dividing TC by Q:AC = b + cQ + dQ 2.This equation is simply a quadratic function. When graphed, it has two basic shapes: a U shapeand a hill shape. We want the U shape, i.e., a curve with a minimum (minimum average cost),rather than a hill shape with a maximum.To the left of the minimum, the slope should be negative (downward sloping). At the minimum,the slope should be zero, and to the right of the minimum the slope should be positive (upwardsloping). The first derivative of the average cost curve with respect to Q must be equal to zero atthe minimum. For a U -shaped AC curve, the second derivative of the average cost curve must bepositive.The first derivative is c + 2dQ ; the second derivative is 2d . If the second derivative is to bepositive, then d > 0. If the first derivative is equal to zero, then solving for c as a function of Qand d yields: c = -2dQ . If d and Q are both positive, then c must be negative: c < 0.To restrict b , we know that at its minimum, average cost must be positive. The minimum occurswhen c + 2dQ = 0. We solve for Q as a function of c and d : Q c=->0. Next, substitutingthis value for Q into our expression for average cost, and simplifying the equation:2222⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-++=++=d c d c d c b dQ cQ b AC , orAC b b b c d cd cd c d c d =-=-+=->+2222223362660. implying b c d >26. Because c 2and d > 0, b must be positive.In summary, for U -shaped long-run average cost curves, a must be zero, b and d must be positive, cmust be negative, and 4db > c 2. However, the conditions do not insure that marginal cost is positive.To insure that marginal cost has a U shape and that its minimum is positive, using the sameprocedure, i.e., solving for Q at minimum marginal cost -c d /,3 and substituting into theexpression for marginal cost b + 2cQ + 3dQ 2, we find that c 2 must be less than 3bd . Notice thatparameter values that satisfy this condition also satisfy 4db > c 2, but not the reverse.where a, b, and c are positive. Is this total cost function consistent with the presence of economies or diseconomies of scale? With economies or diseconomies of scope?There are two types of scale economies to consider: multiproduct economies of scale and product-specific returns to scale. From Section 7.5 we know that multiproduct economies of scalefor the two-product case, S H,S , are()()()()()S H S H MC S MC H S H TC S +=, , where MC H is the marginal cost of producing hardware and MC S is the marginal cost of producingsoftware. The product-specific returns to scale are:()()()()H H MC H S TC S H TC S ,0 , -= and ()()()()S S MC S H TC S H TC S 0, , -= where TC (0,S ) implies no hardware production and TC (H ,0) implies no software production. Weknow that the marginal cost of an input is the slope of the total cost with respect to that input.Since()(),S cH b aH bS H cS a TC -+=+-=we have MC H = a - cS and MC S = b - cH .Substituting these expressions into our formulas for S H,S , S H , and S S :()()cH b S cS a H cHS bS aH S S H -+--+=, or S aH bS cHS H S ,=+-+->1, because cHS > 0. Also, ()()cS a H bS cHS bS aH S H ---+=, or()()()()1=--=--=cS a cS a cS a H cHS aH S H and similarly ()().1=---+=cH b S aH cHS bS aH S S There are multiproduct economies of scale, S H,S > 1, but constant product-specific returns to scale,S H = S C = 1.Economies of scope exist if S C > 0, where (from equation (7.8) in the text):()()()()S H TC S H TC S TC H TC S c , , ,0 0, -+=, or, ()()S H TC cHS bS aH bS aH S c , -+-+=, or ().0, >=S H TC cHS S c Because cHS and TC are both positive, there are economies of scope.CHAPTER 8PROFIT MAXIMIZATION AND COMPETITIVE SUPPLYAs the title implies, this chapter covers two interrelated topics: a consideration of the behavioral incentives of the profit-maximizing firm and an examination of the interaction of these firms in a competitive market. The chapter begins with a discussion of whether firms maximize profits and ends with a discussion of the criteria for a competitive market, including an introduction to contestable markets. Exercises (1), (2), and (4) rely on data discussed in the text, while Exercises (3), (6), and (7) focus on the determination of the firm’s profit -maximizing quantity. Exercises (5), (8), and (9) consider the influence of taxes on firms’ output in a competitive market.S ections 8.2 through 8.4 derive the firm’s supply curve. Although total revenue is easily understood, you will need to show why average revenue may be represented by the demand curve. Demand and average revenue will be used interchangeably in Chapters 10 and 11. When presented with a problem involving the derivation of marginal revenue, some students will substitute Q , instead of P , in the expression for total revenue. This leads to revenue as a function of price. Stress that when they are given a demand curve in these applications they should first solve for price as a function of quantity. The origin of this confusion could lie in the popular notion that the firm determines the profit-maximizing price instead of the profit-maximizing quantity. Emphasize the importance of quantity, for example, when discussing why deviations from the profit-maximizing quantity lead to a decrease in profit (see Figure 8.3). Using the solutions to the exercises, emphasize that, for a linear demand curve, the slope of the marginal revenue curve is twice the slope of the demand curve.Other sources of confusion arise during analysis of firms’ supply curves. Stress that, as a primary rule, the firm should choose a quantity such that marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost. In this chapter, we can simplify this rule: for a firm facing a perfectly elastic demand curve, price is equal to marginal revenue. Stress that the rule for the competitive firm is a special case. Although some students will understand references to second-order conditions, expect to be asked why q 0 in Figure 8.3 is not profit maximizing, although MR = MC . Two additional points warrant careful explanation: 1) why the firm would remain in business if the firm sustains a loss in the short run, and 2) that maximizing profit is the same as minimizing loss.Although the summation of firm supply curves into a market supply curve is easy, the analysis of long-run competitive equilibrium is difficult. Show that long-run equilibrium relies on profit maximization by firms. Accompanying the rule that price must be greater than average variable cost in the short run, there is the assumption of free entry and exit. This leads to the statement that price must equal long-run average cost, LAC, as no firm may make an economic profit. The rule that price must equal long-run marginal cost, LMC , is the second equilibrium condition. Therefore, because LAC = LMC at minimum LAC , price is equal to minimum LAC in the long-run equilibrium. This result will be reconsidered in Chapter 12 in the discussion of equilibrium for a monopolistically competitive firm. When discussing the attainment of equilibrium in constant, increasing, and。

第1章绪论1.1 复习笔记1．微观经济学的主题（1）微观经济学的研究对象微观经济学研究的是单个经济个体（如消费者、工人、投资者、资源所有者和厂商）的行为，也研究构成市场与行业的消费者和厂商的相互影响。

微观经济学的核心内容是论证亚当·斯密的“看不见的手”原理。

（2）经济模型经济模型是现代经济理论的一种主要分析方法，也称为经济数学模型，指用数学形式所表述的经济过程或经济理论结构。

现实世界的情况是由各种主要变量和次要变量构成的，因而非常复杂，只有把次要因素排除在外，才能对经济运行进行严格的分析。

运用经济模型，事先做出某些假设，可以排除掉许多次要因素，从而建立起一定的模型，然后通过运用这一模型，可以对错综复杂的现实世界作出简单的描述。

（3）经济理论的局限性在经济学中，理论的有用性和合理性取决于它是否对其试图解释和预测的一系列现象成功地做出了解释和预测。

比如说，厂商并不总是追求其利润的最大化的，因此，厂商理论只在解释厂商某些行为（如资本投资决策的时机）时才获得了有限的成功。

尽管如此，这一理论确实解释了有关厂商和行业的行为、成长和演变方面的大量现象，所以它已经成为决策者手中一个重要的工具。

2．实证分析和规范分析（1）微观经济学的分析方法微观经济学既研究实证问题，也研究规范问题。

实证问题主要涉及解释和预测，规范问题则研究应该如何。

实证分析和规范分析都是重要的经济学分析方法。

（2）实证分析和规范分析的含义实证分析是进行经济分析的一种重要方法，特点是它对有关命题的逻辑分析，旨在理解经济过程实际是什么、将会是什么、为什么，而不涉及对结果好坏和是否公平的评价，其中不包含任何价值判断。

实证分析既有定性分析，也有定量分析。

规范分析也是经济学分析经济问题的一种方法，它以一定的价值判断作为出发点，提出行为的标准，并研究如何才能符合这些标准。

它力求说明“应该是什么”的问题，或者说，它回答这样的问题：为什么要做出这种选择，而不做出另一种选择？（3）实证分析和规范分析的关系实证分析和规范分析既有联系又有区别。

目　录第1篇　导论：市场和价格第1章　绪　论1.1　课后复习题详解1.2　课后练习题详解第2章　供给和需求的基本原理2.1　课后复习题详解2.2　课后练习题详解第2篇　生产者、消费者以及竞争性市场第3章　消费者行为3.1　课后复习题详解3.2　课后练习题详解第4章　个人需求和市场需求4.1　课后复习题详解4.2　课后练习题详解第4章附录　需求理论——一种数学的处理方法课后练习题详解第5章　不确定性与消费者行为5.1　课后复习题详解5.2　课后练习题详解第6章　生　产6.1　课后复习题详解6.2　课后练习题详解第7章　生产成本7.1　课后复习题详解7.2　课后练习题详解第7章附录　生产与成本理论——一种数学的处理方法课后练习题详解第8章　利润最大化和竞争性供给8.1　课后复习题详解8.2　课后练习题详解第9章　竞争性市场分析9.1　课后复习题详解9.2　课后练习题详解第3篇　市场结构和竞争策略第10章　市场势力：垄断与买方垄断10.1　课后复习题详解10.2　课后练习题详解第11章　有市场势力的定价11.1　课后复习题详解11.2　课后练习题详解第11章附录　联合厂商的内部转移定价课后练习题详解第12章　垄断竞争和寡头垄断12.1　课后复习题详解12.2　课后练习题详解第13章　博弈论和竞争策略13.1　课后复习题详解13.2　课后练习题详解第14章　投入要素市场14.1　课后复习题详解14.2　课后练习题详解第15章　投资、时间及资本市场15.1　课后复习题详解15.2　课后练习题详解第4篇　信息、市场失灵以及政府的角色第16章　一般均衡与经济效率16.1　课后复习题详解16.2　课后练习题详解第17章　信息不对称市场17.1　课后复习题详解17.2　课后练习题详解第18章　外部性与公共品18.1　课后复习题详解18.2　课后练习题详解附录：指定平狄克《微观经济学》教材为考研参考书目的院校列表第1篇　导论：市场和价格第1章　绪　论1.1　课后复习题详解1．人们常说，一个好的理论是可以用经验研究和实证研究来加以证伪的。

成绩：A+一、判断题1、边际成本曲线在达到一定产量水平后趋于上升，是由边际收益递减规律所造成的。

( T )2、假如增加一单位产量所带来的边际成本大于产量增加前的平均可变成本，那么在产量增加后平均可变成本增加。

( T )3、长期平均成本曲线成为U形的原因与要素的边际生产率有关。

( F )4、在短期，不随产量变动而变动的成本是固定成本。

( T )5、在从原点出发的直线（射线）与TC曲线的切点上，AC是最小。

( T )6、随着产量的增加，平均固定成本在开始时下降，然后趋于上升。

( F )7、长期成本曲线上的每一点都与短期成本曲线上的某一点相对应，但短期成本曲线上并非每一点都与长期成本曲线上的某一点相对应。

( T )8、微观经济学成本理论中短期与长期的划分取决于是否可以调整产品价格。

( F )9、使用自由资金也应计算利息，这种利息从成本角度看是会计成本。

( F )10、当LAC曲线下降时，LAC曲线切于SAC曲线的最低点。

( F )二、选择题1、如果一个企业经历规模报酬不变阶段，则LAC曲线是( D )。

A.上升的；B.下降的；C.垂直的；D.水平的。

2、等成本线的斜率表示的是( D )。

A.在既定成本下所能生产的各种产量；B.生产既定产量的总成本；C.纵轴上的要素价格对横轴上要素价格的比率；D.横轴上要素价格对纵轴上要素价格的比率。

3、当AC达到最低点时，下列正确的是( B )A.AVC=FCB.MC=ACC.P=AVCD.P=MC4、当产出增加时LAC曲线下降，这是由于( B )。

A.规模的不经济性B.规模的经济性C.收益递减规律D.规模报酬不变5、短期平均成本曲线成为U形的原因与( C )A.规模报酬有关；B.外部经济与不经济有关；C.要素的边际生产率有关；D.固定成本与可变成本所占比重有关。

6、就短期边际成本和短期平均成本的关系来说( B )。

A．如果平均成本下降，则边际成本下降B．如果平均成本下降，则边际成本小于平均成本C．如果边际成本上升，则平均成本上升D．如果边际成本上升，则边际成本小于平均成本7、经济成本与经济利润具有以下特征(A )A.前者比会计成本大，后者比会计利润小B.前者比会计成本小，后者比会计利润大C.两者都比相应的会计成本和会计利润小D.两者都比相应的会计成本和会计利润大8、厂房设备投资的利息是( B )A.可变成本B.固定成本C.平均成本D.边际成本9、已知产量为99单位时，总成本等于995元，产量增加到100单位时，平均成本等于10元，由此可以判断边际成本为( B )。