平狄克微观经济学课后习题答案-第7-8章

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第7章附录 生产与成本理论——一种数学的处理方法课后练习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

1．在下列生产函数中，哪些显示出规模报酬递增、不变和递减？（1）()2F K L K L =，（2）()105F K L K L =+，（3）()()0.5F K L KL =，解：考查规模报酬时，可由()F aK aL ，与()aF K L ，之间的关系进行判断，其中常数1a >。

当()()F aK aL aF K L >，，，表明是规模报酬递增；当()()F aK aL aF K L =，，，表明是规模报酬不变；当()()F aK aL aF K L <，，，表明是规模报酬递减。

（1）()2F K L K L =，()()()()()2323F aK aL aK aL a K L a F K L aF K L ===>，，， 所以这个生产函数是规模报酬递增的。

（2）()105F K L K L =+，()()105F aK aL aK aL aF K L =+=，，所以这个生产函数是规模报酬不变的。

（3）()()0.5F K L KL =，()()()()0.50.5F aK aL aK aL a KL aF K L =⋅==，，所以这个生产函数是规模报酬不变的。

2．某产品的生产函数由100q KL =给出。

若资本价格为120美元/天，而劳动者的工资为30美元/天。

生产1000单位产出的最小成本是多少？解：根据已知条件，劳动的边际产品为100K ，资本的边际产品为100L 。

第一章复习题1．市场是通过相互作用决定一种或一系列产品价格的买卖双方的集合，因此可以把市场看作决定价格的场所。

行业是出售相同的或紧密相关的产品的厂商的集合，一个市场可以包括许多行业。

2．评价一个理论有两个步骤：首先，需要检验这个理论假设的合理性；第二，把该理论的预测和事实相比较以此来验证它。

如果一个理论无法被检验的话，它将不会被接受。

因此，它对我们理解现实情况没有任何帮助。

3．实证分析解释“是什么”的问题，而规范分析解释的是“应该是什么”的问题。

对供给的限制将改变市场的均衡。

A中包括两种分析，批评这是一种“失败的政策”——是规范分析，批评其破坏了市场的竞争性——是实证分析。

B向我们说明在燃油的配给制下总社会福利的被损坏——是实证分析。

4．由于两个市场在空间上是分离的，商品在两地间的运输是套利实现的条件。

如果运输成本为零，则可以在Oklahoma购买汽油，到New Jersey出售，赚取差价；如果这个差价无法弥补运输成本则不存在套利机会。

5．商品和服务的数量与价格由供求关系决定。

鸡蛋的实际价格从1970年至1985年的下降，一方面是由于人们健康意识的提高而导致鸡蛋需求的减少，同时也因为生产成本的降低。

在这两种因素下，鸡蛋的价格下降了。

大学教育的实际价格的升高，是由于越来越多的人倾向于获得大学教育而导致需求提高，同时教育的成本也在升高。

在这两方面因素作用下，大学教育费用提高了。

6．日圆相对美圆来说，价值升高，升值前相比，兑换同样数量的日圆需要付出更多的美圆。

由汇率的变化引起购买力的变化，在日本市场出售的美国汽车，由于美圆贬值日圆升值，持有日圆的消费者将较以前支付较底的价格；而在美国市场出售的日本汽车，由于日圆升值美圆贬值，持有美圆的消费者将面对较以前提高的价格。

第二章P 2 ，Q1增加至Q2.4.长期弹性和短期弹性区别在于消费者对价格变化的反映速度以及可获得的替代品。

对纸巾这样的非耐用品，价格上升，消费者在短期内的反映很小。

第七章复习题1.显性成本2.她自己做其他事时会得到的最高收入3.多用资本,少用工人4.完全竞争价格给定,即斜率不变5.不意味6.意味着递增7.AVC<AC MC递增 MC=AVC最低点 MC=AC最低点8.L形9.长期扩展线为把等产量线簇上斜率相同点连起来,此时它改变了斜率10.规模经济基础是内在经济,针对一种产品范围经济基础是同时生产高度相关的产品.练习题1.AVC=1000 AC=1000+1000/Q非常大,最后为10002.不对,除非工人只可以在这里找到工作3.见书后4.见书后5.见书后6.每个均衡点斜率更小7不同意,应按不同时段定价,如不可,则同意8.见书后9.TC=120000+3000(q/40)+2000AC=75+122000/QMC=75AC随Q减小2个劳动组,1600元1/4, 更大的生产能力11.190万元 53元 53元 19元第七章附录练习题1、我们考查规模报酬时可由F（aK，aL）与aF（K，L）之间的关系判断当F（aK，aL）>aF（K，L）,表明是规模报酬递增；当F（aK，aL）=aF（K，L）,表明是规模报酬不变；当F（aK，aL）<aF（K，L）,表明是规模报酬递减；（a）规模报酬递增；（b）规模报酬不变；（C）规模报酬递增。

2、根据已知条件，资本价格r=30，设劳动价格为w，则成本函数C=30K+ wL由拉格朗日函数可知，F(K,L,λ)=30K+wL-λ(100KL -1000)要使成本最小化则有:∂F(K,L, λ)/ ∂K=30-100λL =0 (1)∂F(K,L, λ)/ ∂L=w -100λK=0 (2)∂F(K,L, λ)/ ∂λ=100KL -1000 =0 (3)联立(1) ，(2)， (3)可得K=(w/3) 1/2 ,L=(300/w) 1/2 ,此时成本最小，代入成本函数C=30K+ wL，得C=2（300w）1/23、根据已知条件，资本价格为r=10，劳动价格为w=15，则成本函数C=10K+ 15L由拉格朗日函数可知，F(K,L,λ)=10K+15L-λ(KL2–Q)要使成本最小化则有:∂F(K,L, λ)/ ∂K=10-λL2 =0 (1)∂F(K,L, λ)/ ∂L=15-2λKL=0 (2)∂F(K,L, λ)/ ∂λ= KL2–Q=0 (3)联立(1) ，(2)， (3)可得K/L=3/4,此时成本最小，即生产既定产出的成本最小化的资本和劳动的组合为资本/劳动=3/4。

第8章利润最大化和竞争性供给8.1课后复习题详解1．为什么一个发生亏损的厂商选择继续进行生产而不是关闭？答：一个发生亏损的厂商选择继续进行生产而不是关闭的原因在于：此时的价格仍然大于平均可变成本，但小于平均成本。

具体来讲：（1）厂商发生亏损是指总收益TR小于总成本TC，此时，如果总收益TR仍然大于可变成本VC，厂商继续生产将会弥补VC，并且可以弥补一部分的固定成本FC，弥补量是 ，从而使损失最小化，因此在短期内，厂商不会关闭而是继续生产。

TR VC（2）停止营业点是指一个已经投入生产的企业，在生产中总有这样一点，当根据利润最大化原则确定的产量大于这一点所代表的产量时，仍可以继续生产，小于这一点所代表的产量时，就只好关闭。

一个已经投入生产的企业是否必须关闭的条件不在于它是否盈利，而在于它关闭后的亏损与生产时的亏损哪种情况更大。

如果关闭后的亏损比生产时的亏损更大，则应继续生产；如果生产时的亏损比关闭后的亏损更大，则必须关闭。

实际上关闭后也是有亏损的，其亏损就是固定成本。

因此，是否关闭就视生产时的亏损是否大于固定成本而定，若不大于，就可继续生产，若大于，就必须停止营业。

企业的停止营业点可用图8-1说明：图中N点即平均可变成本最低点就是企业停止营业点。

图8-1停止营业点（3）当市场决定的价格为P时，均衡产量为2Y，恰好等于N点所表示的产量。

这时，2总亏损为面积BFJN，即等于总固定成本。

此时，厂商的平均收益AR等于平均可变成本AVC，厂商可以继续生产，也可以不生产，也就是说，厂商生产或不生产的结果都是一样的。

这是因为，如果厂商生产的话，则全部收益只能弥补全部的可变成本，不变成本得不到任何弥补。

如果厂商不生产的话，厂商虽然不必支付可变成本，但是全部不变成本仍然存在。

由于在这一均衡点上，厂商处于关闭企业的临界点，所以，该均衡点也被称作停止营业点或关闭点。

2．解释为什么行业长期供给曲线不是行业长期边际成本曲线。

平狄克微观经济学(第7版)习题详解(第7篇生成成本)平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第7章生产成本课后复习题详解1．某公司支付给会计人员10000美元的年薪，这笔费用是一项经济成本吗？答：这笔费用是一项经济成本。

经济成本是显性成本和隐性成本之和。

显性成本指实际支出，所有涉及到货币交易行为的成本都属于显性成本。

隐性成本是一种经济成本，不涉及到货币交易行为，但涉及到生产中所使用的资源的成本。

当一个公司支付给会计人员10000美元年薪时，这是一笔货币交易，这笔费用是会计人员用劳动换来的收入。

因此，这笔费用属于经济成本中的显性成本。

2．某小零售店女店主自己做账，你将如何计算她工作的机会成本？答：该店主自己做账的机会成本是：她利用做账的时间和精力做其他事情时所能获得的最大收入。

根据机会成本的定义，如果该小零售店女店主不是自己做账，她可以在这段时间里做其他的事情，例如做小生意或者参加一些休闲活动。

那么，女店主自己做账的机会成本就是她用于做账的时间做其他事情时所能获得的最大收入。

3．解释以下说法正确与否：（1）如果一家企业的拥有者不给自己支付工资，则会计成本为零，而经济成本为正。

（2）会计利润为正的企业不一定经济利润也为正。

（3）企业雇佣了一些目前处于失业状态的工人，则其使用这些工人服务的机会成本为零。

答：（1）正确。

因为这里不存在货币交易，所以不存在会计成本（或显性成本）。

但是，因为企业的拥有者可以受雇于其他企业，因而存在经济成本。

经济成本为正，反映了此人工作时间的机会成本。

（2）正确。

会计利润仅考虑显性成本。

对于企业而言，可能还存在某些机会成本，这些机会成本没有像显性成本那样完全实现，所以对于会计利润为正的企业，有可能加进这些机会成本之后，经济利润为负。

这意味着企业没有最有效地利用其资源。

（3）错误。

机会成本衡量了这些工人的时间价值，因而不可能为零。

对于工人而言，尽管工人目前处于失业状态，但是他们仍掌握一定的技能，这些技能具有价值，进入某一企业工作意味着他们放弃了去另一家企业工作，或者利用时间在家照顾老人或孩子的机会，这些可能的选择使得雇佣工人的机会成本大于零。

目　录第1篇　导论：市场和价格第1章　绪　论第2章　供给和需求的基本原理第2篇　生产者、消费者与竞争性市场第3章　消费者行为第4章　个人需求和市场需求第5章　不确定性与消费者行为第6章　生　产第7章　生产成本第8章　利润最大化与竞争性供给第9章　竞争性市场分析第3篇　市场结构与竞争策略第10章　市场势力：垄断和买方垄断第11章　有市场势力的定价第12章　垄断竞争和寡头垄断第13章　博弈论与竞争策略第14章　投入要素市场第15章　投资、时间与资本市场第4篇　信息、市场失灵与政府的角色第16章　一般均衡与经济效率第17章　信息不对称的市场第18章　外部性和公共物品附　录　指定平狄克《微观经济学》教材为考研参考书目的院校列表第1篇　导论：市场和价格第1章　绪　论一、单项选择题1．经济学可以被定义为（ ）。

A ．政府对市场制度的干预B ．企业赚取利润的活动C ．研究稀缺资源如何有效配置的问题D ．个人的生财之道2．经济物品是指（ ）。

A ．有用的东西B ．稀缺的物品C ．要用钱购买的物品D ．有用且稀缺的物品C【答案】经济学是研究人们和社会如何做出选择，来使用可以有其他用途的稀缺的经济资源在现在或是将来生产各种物品，并把物品分配给社会的各个成员或集团以供消费之用的一门社会科学。

【解析】D【答案】现实世界中绝大多数的物品都是不能自由取得的，因为资【解析】3．一个经济体必须作出的基本选择是（ ）。

A ．生产什么B ．生产多少，何时生产C ．为谁生产D ．以上都是4．宏观经济学与微观经济学的关系是（ ）。

A ．相互独立的B ．两者建立在共同的理论基础上C ．两者既有联系又有矛盾D ．毫无联系源是稀缺的，要获得这些有限的物品就必须付出代价，这种物品就被称为“经济物品”。

D【答案】经济学所要解决的问题包括：①生产什么；②如何生产；③为谁生产；④何时生产。

【解析】C【答案】宏观经济学所研究的总量经济特征正是由经济体系中无数微观主体（家庭和厂商）的经济行为所决定的，因而微观经济主体的决策行为就构成了宏观经济分析的基础，宏观经济学需要构建自己的微观基础。

第2章供给和需求的基本原理一、单项选择题1．若需求曲线为直角双曲线，则商品价格的上升将引起消费者在该商品上的总花费（）。

A．增加B．下降C．不变D．以上均有可能【答案】C【解析】因为直角双曲线上点弹性处处相等且等于1，即处处为单位弹性。

单位弹性的商品降价或提高价格对厂商的销售收入都没有影响，因此消费者在该商品上的总花费不变。

2．下列说法中正确的是（）。

A．收入弹性取决于商品本身的属性B．不同商品在一定收入范围内具有相同的收入弹性C．同一商品在不同的收入范围内具有相同的收入弹性D．同一商品在不同的收入范围内具有不同的收入弹性【答案】D【解析】收入弹性取决于商品本身的属性和消费者的收入水平。

例如，对同一个消费者而言，任一收入水平下，都会有必需品和奢侈品，其收入弹性自然不同；同时，对同一个消费者而言，收入水平极低时，水果是奢侈品，收入弹性，但收入水平提高后，也许就成了必需品了，收入弹性。

因此，商品不同、收入水平不同，都会有不同的收入弹性。

3．需求价格弹性等于（ ）。

A ．需求曲线上两点间价格的变动量除以需求的变动量B ．需求曲线上需求的变动量除以价格的变动量C ．需求曲线上价格的变动比除以需求的变动比D ．需求曲线上需求的变动比除以价格的变动比【答案】D【解析】需求价格弹性表示商品需求量对自身价格变动的反应程度，即：。

4．商品是正常品，则当其价格下降时（ ）。

A ．商品的需求量会下降B ．商品的需求会下降C ．商品的需求量会上升D ．商品的需求会上升【答案】C【解析】需求变动是指价格之外的变量变化对消费者决策的影响，它与整个需求曲线的移动是对应的；需求量的变动则是价格变化对消费者均衡购买量的影响，它对应于一条需求曲线上点的移动。

因此当商品价格下降时，其需求量会上升。

1I E >1I E <//P Q Q E P P∆=∆x x x x x x5．如果某商品的价格下降5%后，消费者对此商品的货币支出增加了2%，则需求曲线在这一区域内的需求弹性为（ ）。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第8章 利润最大化和竞争性供给课后复习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

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1．为什么一个发生亏损的厂商选择继续进行生产而不是关闭？答：一个发生亏损的厂商选择继续进行生产而不是关闭的原因在于：此时的价格仍然大于平均可变成本，但小于平均成本。

具体来讲：（1）厂商发生亏损是指总收益TR 小于总成本TC ，此时，如果总收益TR 仍然大于可变成本VC ，厂商继续生产将会弥补VC ，并且可以弥补一部分的固定成本FC ，弥补量是TR VC ，从而使损失最小化，因此在短期内，厂商不会关闭而是继续生产。

（2）停止营业点是指一个已经投入生产的企业，在生产中总有这样一点，当根据利润最大化原则确定的产量大于这一点所代表的产量时，仍可以继续生产，小于这一点所代表的产量时，就只好关闭。

一个已经投入生产的企业是否必须关闭的条件不在于它是否盈利，而在于它关闭后的亏损与生产时的亏损哪种情况更大。

如果关闭后的亏损比生产时的亏损更大，则应继续生产；如果生产时的亏损比关闭后的亏损更大，则必须关闭。

实际上关闭后也是有亏损的，其亏损就是固定成本。

因此，是否关闭就视生产时的亏损是否大于固定成本而定，若不大于，就可继续生产，若大于，就必须停止营业。

企业的停止营业点可用图8-4说明：图中N 点即平均可变成本最低点就是企业停止营业点。

图8-4 停止营业点（3）当市场决定的价格为2P 时，均衡产量为2Y ，恰好等于N 点所表示的产量。

这时，总亏损为面积BFJN ，即等于总固定成本。

此时，厂商的平均收益AR 等于平均可变成本AVC ，厂商可以继续生产，也可以不生产，也就是说，厂商生产或不生产的结果都是一样的。

平狄克微观经济学课后习题答案(中文)第九版第一章经济学的研究对象和方法习题1-1答案：经济学的研究对象是人类的经济活动，包括生产、交换、分配和消费等方面。

经济学的研究方法主要包括观察、实证分析和理论分析等。

习题1-2答案：观察是经济学研究的基础，通过观察可以获得经济现象的真实情况。

实证分析是基于观察数据进行的定量分析，通过统计分析等方法来验证经济理论的有效性。

理论分析是通过构建模型和假设来研究和解释经济现象的原因和机制。

习题1-3答案：经济学的分类有宏观经济学和微观经济学两个主要方向。

宏观经济学研究整个经济体系的总体运行规律，涉及国民经济的总量问题；微观经济学研究个体经济单位（如个人、家庭、企业）的经济行为和决策，涉及资源配置和效率问题。

习题1-4答案：正式的经济学的定义是一个关于个体与群体选择的社会科学。

它研究人们如何利用有限的资源，以满足无限的欲望。

经济学通过分析经济行为的原理和规律，帮助人们做出更好的经济决策，实现资源的高效配置和社会福利的最大化。

第二章需求、供给与市场均衡习题2-1答案：需求是指个人或市场上愿意购买某种商品或服务的能力和意愿。

供给是指个人或企业愿意出售某种商品或服务的能力和意愿。

习题2-2答案：需求曲线是描述消费者对某种商品或服务需求量与价格之间关系的曲线。

供给曲线是描述生产者或企业对某种商品或服务供给量与价格之间关系的曲线。

习题2-3答案：当市场需求量大于市场供给量时，市场处于短缺状态，价格将上涨；当市场供给量大于市场需求量时，市场处于过剩状态，价格将下降。

只有当市场需求量等于市场供给量时，市场达到均衡状态，价格稳定。

习题2-4答案：市场需求量变化的因素包括消费者收入、商品价格、相关商品价格和个人偏好等。

市场供给量变化的因素包括生产成本、生产技术、生产要素价格和政府政策等。

第三章边际分析及其应用习题3-1答案：边际分析是指在某一决策过程中，考察增加或减少一单元该决策的收益或成本的变化量。

微观经济学课后习题答案第七章HEN system office room 【HEN16H-HENS2AHENS8Q8-HENH1688】第七章 复习思考题 参考答案1、为什么垄断厂商的需求曲线是向右下方倾斜的？并解释相应的TR 曲线、AR 曲线和MR 曲线的特征以及相互关系。

解答：垄断厂商所面临的需求曲线是向右下方倾斜的，其理由主要有两点：第一，垄断厂商所面临的需求曲线就是市场的需求曲线，而市场需求曲线一般是向右下方倾斜的，所以垄断厂商的需求量与价格成反方向的变化。

第二，假定厂商的销售量等于市场的需求量，那么，垄断厂商所面临的向右下方倾斜的需求曲线表示垄断厂商可以通过调整销售量来控制市场的价格，即垄断厂商可以通过减少商品的销售量来提高市场价格，也可以通过增加商品的销售量来降低市场价格。

关于垄断厂商的TR 曲线、AR 曲线和MR 曲线的特征以及相互关系，以图7-1加以说明：第一，平均收益AR 曲线与垄断厂商的向右下方倾斜的d 需求曲线重叠。

因为，在任何的销售量上，都是P=AR 。

第二，边际收益MR 曲线是向右下方倾斜的，且位置低于AR 曲线。

其原因在于AR 曲线是一条下降的曲线。

此外，在线性需求曲线的条件下，AR 曲线和MR 曲线的纵截距相同，而且MR 曲线的斜率的绝对值是AR 曲线的斜率的绝对值的两倍。

第三，由于MR 值是TR 曲线的斜率，即dQdTR MR =，所以，当MR>0时，TR 曲线是上升的；当MR ＜0时，TR 曲线是下降的；当MR=0时，TR 曲线达极大值。

图 7-1 垄断竞争厂商的AR 与TR 之间的关系2、根据图7-22中线性需求曲线d 和相应的边际收益曲线MR ，试求：（1）A 点所对应的MR 值；（2）B 点所对应的MR 值。

解答：（1）根据需求的价格点弹性的几何意义，可得A 点的需求的价格弹性为：25)515(=-=d e ， 或者，2)23(2=-=d e ，根据)11(d e P MR -=，则A 点的MR 值为：MR=2×（2×1/2）=1。

第八章利润最大化和竞争性供给教学笔记这一章确定了追求利润最大化的厂商的行为动机，揭示了这些厂商在竞争性市场的相互影响和作用。

这一章的每一节都很重要，它们构建了对竞争性市场供给一方的彻底完全的认识。

在学习这本教科书的第三部分之前，建立这样一个基础是非常必要的。

虽然这一章的材料都写得很清楚易懂，但是学生可能还是会对有些概念、思想感到很难理解，比如说那些有关厂商应该怎样选择最佳生产数量的思想、有关厂商怎样应用我们前面学习过的成本曲线的思想，等等。

这里有一个讲课的建议：花些时间研究与这一章的最后部分的习题中用到的表格相类似的表格。

研究一些与此类表格有关的例题对于学生理解不同类型的成本，以及相应的厂商的最佳产量是有帮助的。

8.1节确定了完全竞争市场的三个基本假设，8.2节对“厂商以利润最大化为经营目标”这一假设进行了讨论。

8.3节和8.5节对厂商的供给曲线进行了推导，8.1节和8.2节为8.3节、8.5节中供给曲线的推导打下了基础。

8.3节推导出一个一般性的结论：只要边际收入等于边际成本，厂商就应当生产。

这一节接下来确定了完全竞争（一个特殊的案例）的条件之一：价格等于边际收入，这个结论是8.1节中“接受价格”这个假设的直接的逻辑结果。

如果你的学生掌握微积分，那么通过对利润函数关于产量q求微分，可以导出边际成本与边际收入相等。

如果你的学生还没有掌握微积分，那么可以通过对数据表格的多加研究来理解当边际收入和边际成本相等时厂商能达到利润最大化目标这个结论。

这里有一点需要强调：完全竞争市场上，每个厂商只能通过产量的变化而不能通过价格的变化来取得最大利润。

为了正确理解完全竞争市场，我们在提出有关完全竞争市场的假设之前，也要对卖方垄断、寡头卖方垄断和垄断性竞争有一定的了解。

将讨论限定一个专门的范围，这个范围包括确定一个行业里有多少厂商、这个行业是否有进入壁垒、各个厂商的产品是否存在差异，以及行业里每个厂商对其他厂商对于其价格、数量方面的决策的反应做出的假设。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第7章生产成本课后复习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

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1．某公司支付给会计人员10000美元的年薪，这笔费用是一项经济成本吗？答：这笔费用是一项经济成本。

经济成本是显性成本和隐性成本之和。

显性成本指实际支出，所有涉及到货币交易行为的成本都属于显性成本。

隐性成本是一种经济成本，不涉及到货币交易行为，但涉及到生产中所使用的资源的成本。

当一个公司支付给会计人员10000美元年薪时，这是一笔货币交易，这笔费用是会计人员用劳动换来的收入。

因此，这笔费用属于经济成本中的显性成本。

2．某小零售店女店主自己做账，你将如何计算她工作的机会成本？答：该店主自己做账的机会成本是：她利用做账的时间和精力做其他事情时所能获得的最大收入。

根据机会成本的定义，如果该小零售店女店主不是自己做账，她可以在这段时间里做其他的事情，例如做小生意或者参加一些休闲活动。

那么，女店主自己做账的机会成本就是她用于做账的时间做其他事情时所能获得的最大收入。

3．解释以下说法正确与否：（1）如果一家企业的拥有者不给自己支付工资，则会计成本为零，而经济成本为正。

（2）会计利润为正的企业不一定经济利润也为正。

（3）企业雇佣了一些目前处于失业状态的工人，则其使用这些工人服务的机会成本为零。

答：（1）正确。

因为这里不存在货币交易，所以不存在会计成本（或显性成本）。

但是，因为企业的拥有者可以受雇于其他企业，因而存在经济成本。

经济成本为正，反映了此人工作时间的机会成本。

（2）正确。

会计利润仅考虑显性成本。

CHAPTER 7THE COST OF PRODUCTIONIn this chapter, it is easy for the students to concentrate too much on definitions and geometry and lose focus on the economics. Therefore, keep in mind the key concepts: opportunity cost, short-run average and marginal cost, cost minimization, and long-run average cost. These concepts can be illuminated with the supplementary material provided at the end of the chapter, which includes sections on economies of scope, learning curves, and estimating and predicting costs. The Appendix presents the calculus of constrained optimization, as applied to cost minimization. All exercises involve some algebra or geometry: Exercises (12) and (13) are time consuming, but rewarding.Opportunity cost is the conceptual base of this chapter. While most students think of costs in accounting terms, they must develop an understanding of the distinction between accounting, economic, and opportunity costs. One source of confusion is the opportunity cost of capital, i.e., why the rental rate on capital must be considered explicitly by economists. It is important, for example, to distinguish between the purchase price of capital equipment and the opportunity cost of using the equipment. The opportunity cost of a person’s tim e also leads to some confusion for students.Following the discussion of opportunity cost, the chapter diverges in two directions: one path introduces types of cost and cost curves, and the other focuses on cost minimization. Both directions converge with the discussion of long-run average cost.The geometry of total, fixed, variable, average, and marginal costs can prove to be tedious. An emphasis on the following issues helps students master this topic: 1) the relationship between the production function, diminishing returns in the short run, input prices, and the shapes of the various cost curves; 2) the distinction between total, average, and marginal; and 3) the reasonableness of the assumption of constant input prices (note that this assumption w ill be relaxed in Chapter 10’s discussion of monopsony). The determination of the cost-minimizing quantity is crucial to understanding Chapters 8 and 10. The concept of duality (minimizing cost subject to a given level of production) is equivalent to maximizing output subject to a given level of total cost) clarifies this concept for students.A clear understanding of short-run cost and cost minimization is necessary for the derivation of long-run average cost. With long-run costs, stress that firms are operating on short-run cost curves at each level of the fixed factor and that long-run costs do not exist separately from short-run costs. Exercise (6) illustrates the relationship between long-run cost and cost minimization, with an emphasis on the importance of the expansion path. Stress the connection between the shape of a long-run cost curve and returns to scale. While Section 7.7 is starred, it does not require calculus. Example 7.5 “Cost Functions for Electric Power,” gives students another vie w of long-run average cost and allows for discussion of minimum efficient scale, an important determinant of industry structure.1. A firms pays its accountant an annual retainer of $10,000. Is this an explicit or implicit cost?Explicit costs are actual outlays. They include all costs that involve a monetary transaction.An implicit cost is an economic cost that does not necessarily involve a monetary transaction, butstill involves the use of resources. When a firm pays an annual retainer of $10,000, there is amonetary transaction. The accountant trades his or her time in return for money. Therefore,an annual retainer is an explicit cost.2. The owner of a small retail store does her own accounting work. How would you measure the opportunity cost of her work?Opportunity costs are measured by comparing the use of a resource with its alternative uses.The opportunity cost of doing accounting work is the time not spent in other ways, i.e., time suchas running a small business or participating in leisure activity. The economic cost of doingaccounting work is measured by computing the monetary amount that the time would be worth inits next best use.3. Suppose a chair manufacturer finds that the marginal rate of technical substitution of capital for labor in his production process is substantially greater than the ratio of the rental rate on machinery to the wage rate for assembly-line labor. How should he alter his use of capital and labor to minimize the cost of production?To minimize cost, the manufacturer should use a combination of capital and labor so the rate atwhich he can trade capital for labor in his production process is the same as the rate at which hecan trade capital for labor in external markets. The manufacturer would be better off if heincreased his use of capital and decreased his use of labor, decreasing the marginal rate oftechnical substitution, MRTS. He should continue this substitution until his MRTS equals theratio of the rental rate to the wage rate.4. Why are isocost lines straight lines?The isocost line represents all possible combinations of labor and capital that may be purchasedfor a given total cost. The slope of the isocost line is the ratio of the input prices of labor andcapital. If input prices are fixed, then the ratio of these prices is clearly fixed and the isocost lineis straight. Only when the ratio or factor prices change as the quantities of inputs change is theisocost line not straight.5. If the marginal cost of production is increasing, does this tell you whether the average variable cost is increasing or decreasing? Explain.Marginal cost can be increasing while average variable cost is either increasing or decreasing. Ifmarginal cost is less (greater) than average variable cost, then each additional unit is adding less(more) to total cost than previous units added to the total cost, which implies that the AVCdeclines (increases). Therefore, we need to know whether marginal cost is greater than averagecost to determine whether the AVC is increasing or decreasing.6. If the marginal cost of production is greater than the average variable cost, does this tell you whether the average variable cost is increasing or decreasing? Explain.If the average variable cost is increasing (decreasing), then the last unit produced is adding more(less) to total variable cost than the previous units did, on average. Therefore, marginal cost isabove (below) average variable cost. If marginal cost is above average variable cost, averagevariable cost is also increasing.7. If the firm’s average cost curves are U-shaped, why does its average variable cost curve achieve its minimum at a lower level of output than the average total cost curve?Total cost is equal to fixed plus variable cost. Average total cost is equal to average fixed plusaverage variable cost. When graphed, the difference between the U-shaped total cost andaverage variable cost curves is the average fixed cost curve. If fixed cost is greater than zero, theminimum of average variable cost must be less than the minimum average total cost.8. If a firm enjoys increasing returns to scale up to a certain output level, and then constant returns to scale, what can you say about the shape of the firm’s long-run average cost curve?When the firm experiences increasing returns to scale, its long-run average cost curve isdownward sloping. When the firm experiences constant returns to scale, its long-run averagecost curve is horizontal. If the firm experiences increasing returns to scale, then constantreturns to scale, its long-run average cost curve falls, then becomes horizontal.9. How does a change in the price of one input change the firm’s long-run expansion path?The expansion path describes the combination of inputs for which the firm chooses to minimizecost for every output level. This combination depends on the ratio of input prices: if the price ofone input changes, the price ratio also changes. For example, if the price of an input increases,less of the input may be purchased for the same total cost. The intercept of the isocost line onthat input’s axis moves closer to the origin. Also, the slope of the isocost line, the price ratio,changes. As the price ratio changes, the firm substitutes away from the now more expensiveinput toward the cheaper input. Thus, the expansion path bends toward the axis of the nowcheaper input. See Exercise (7.6).10. Distinguish between economies of scale and economies of scope. Why can one be present without the other?Economies of scale refer to the production of one good and occur when proportionate increases inall inputs lead to a more-than-proportionate increase in output. Economies of scope refer to theproduction of more than one good and occur when joint output is less costly than the sum of thecosts of producing each good or service separately. There is no direct relationship betweenincreasing returns to scale and economies of scope, so production can exhibit one without theother. See Exercise (13) for a case with constant product-specific returns to scale andmultiproduct economies of scope.1. Assume a computer firm’s marginal costs of production are constant at $1,000 per computer. However, the fixed costs of production are equal to $10,000.a. Calculate the firm’s average variable cost and average total cost curves.The variable cost of producing an additional unit, marginal cost, is constant at $1,000, so theaverage variable cost is constant at $1,000, ()000,1$000,1$=QQ . Average fixed cost is $10,000Q. Average total cost is the sum of average variable cost and average fixed cost: ATC Q=+$1,$10,.000000 b. If the firm wanted to minimize the average total cost of production, would it choose to be verylarge or very small? Explain.The firm should choose a very large output because average total cost decreases with increase inQ . As Q becomes infinitely large, ATC will equal $1,000.2. If a firm hires a currently unemployed worker, the opportunity cost of utilizing t he worker’s service is zero. Is this true? Discuss.From the worker’s perspective, the opportunity cost of his or her time is the time not spent inother ways, including time spent in personal or leisure activities. Certainly, the opportunity costof hiring an unemployed mother of pre-school children is not zero! While it might be difficult toassign a monetary value to the time of an unemployed worker, we can not conclude that it is zero.From the perspective of the firm, the opportunity cost of hiring the worker is not zero, and thefirm could purchase a piece of machinery rather than hiring the worker.3.a. Suppose that a firm must pay an annual franchise fee, which is a fixed sum, independent of whether it produces any output. How does this tax aff ect the firm’s fixed, marginal, and average costs?Total cost, TC , is equal to fixed cost, FC , plus variable cost, VC . Fixed costs do not vary with thequantity of output. Because the franchise fee, FF , is a fixed sum, the firm’s fixed costs increaseby this fee. Thus, average cost, equal toFC VC Q +, and average fixed cost, equal to FC Q , increase by the average franchise fee FF Q. Note that the franchise fee does not affect average variable cost. Also, because marginal cost is the change in total cost with the production of anadditional unit and because the fee is constant, marginal cost is unchanged.3.b. Now suppose the firm is charged a tax that is proportional to the number of items it produces. Ag ain, how does this tax affect the firm’s fixed, marginal, and average costs?Let t equal the per unit tax. When a tax is imposed on each unit produced, variable costsincrease by tQ . Average variable costs increase by t , and because fixed costs are constant,average (total) costs also increase by t . Further, because total cost increases by t with eachadditional unit, marginal costs increase by t .4. A recent issue of Business Week reported the following:During the recent auto sales slump, GM, Ford, and Chrysler decidedit was cheaper to sell cars to rental companies at a loss than to lay offworkers. That’s because closing and reopening plants is expensive,partly because the auto makers’ current union contracts obligatethem to pay many wor kers even if they’re not working.When the article discusses selling cars “at a loss,” is it referring to accountingprofit or economic profit? How will the two differ in this case? Explainbriefly.When the article refers to the car companies selling at a loss, it is referring to accounting profit.The article is stating that the price obtained for the sale of the cars to the rental companies was less than their accounting cost. Economic profit would be measured by the difference of theprice with the opportunity cost of the cars. This opportunity cost represents the market valueof all the inputs used by the companies to produce the cars. The article mentions that the carcompanies must pay workers even if they are not working (and thus producing cars). Thisimplies that the wages paid to these workers are sunk and are thus not part of the opportunitycost of production. On the other hand, the wages would still be included in the accountingcosts. These accounting costs would then be higher than the opportunity costs and wouldmake the accounting profit lower than the economic profit.5. A chair manufacturer hires its assembly-line labor for $22 an hour and calculates that the rental cost of its machinery is $110 per hour. Suppose that a chair can be produced using 4 hours of labor or machinery in any combination. If the firm is currently using 3 hours of labor for each hour of machine time, is it minimizing its costs of production? If so, why? If not, how can it improve the situation?If the firm can produce one chair with either four hours of labor or four hours of capital,machinery, or any combination, then the isoquant is a straight line with a slope of -1 andintercept at K = 4 and L = 4, as depicted in Figure 7.5.The isocost line, TC = 22L + 110K has a slope of -=-2211002. when plotted with capital on the vertical axis and has intercepts at K TC =110 and L TC =22. The cost minimizing point is a corner solution, where L = 4 and K = 0. At that point, total cost is $88.6. Suppose the economy takes a downturn, and that labor costs fall by 50 percent and are expected to stay at that level for a long time. Show graphically how this change in the relative price of labor and capital affects the firm’s expansion path.Figure 7.6 shows a family of isoquants and two isocost curves. Units of capital are on the verticalaxis and units of labor are on the horizontal axis. (Note: In drawing this figure we have assumedthat the production function underlying the isoquants exhibits constant returns to scale, resultingin linear expansion paths. However, the results do not depend on this assumption.)If the price of labor decreases while the price of capital is constant, the isocost curve pivotsoutward around its intersection with the capital axis. Because the expansion path is the set ofpoints where the MRTS is equal to the ratio of prices, as the isocost curves pivot outward, theexpansion path pivots toward the labor axis. As the price of labor falls relative to capital, thefirm uses more labor as output increases.business when costs are cheaper and discourage off-peak business when costs are higher.Do you follow the consultant’s advice? Discuss.The consultant does not understand the definition of average cost. Encouraging ridership always decreases average costs, peak or off-peak. If ridership falls to 10, costs climb to $3.00 per rider. Further, during rush hour, the buses are full. How could more people get on? Instead, encourage passengers to switch from peak to off-peak times, for example, by charging higher prices during peak periods.MC 2 is the marginal cost of refining distillate up to the capacity constraint, Q 2. The shape of thetotal marginal cost curve is horizontal up to the lower capacity constraint. If the capacityconstraint of the distilling unit is lower than that of the hydrocracking unit, MC T is vertical at Q 1.If the capacity constraint of the hydrocracking unit is lower than that of the distilling unit, MC T isvertical at Q 2.9. You manage a plant that mass produces engines by teams of workers using assembly machines. The technology is summarized by the production function.Q 4 KLwhere Q is the number of engines per week, K is the number of assembly machines, and L is the number of labor teams. Each assembly machine rents for r = $12,000 per week and each team costs w = $3,000 per week. Engine costs are given by the cost of labor teams and machines, plus $2,000 per engine for raw materials. Your plant has a fixed installation of 10 assembly machines as part of its design.a. What is the cost function for your plant — namely, how much would it cost to produce Qengines? What are average and marginal costs for producing Q engines? How do average costs vary with output?K is fixed at 10. The short-run production function then becomes Q = 40 L. This implies that for any level of output Q, the number of labor teams hired will be L = Q / 40. The total cost function is thusgiven by the sum of the costs of capital, labor, and raw materials:TC(Q) = rK + wL + 2000Q = (12,000)(10) + (3,000)(Q/40) + 2,000 Q= 120,000 + 2,075QThe average cost function is then given by:AC(Q) = TC(Q)/Q = 120,000/Q + 2,075and the marginal cost function is given by:∂ TC(Q) / ∂ Q = 2,075Marginal costs are constant and average costs will decrease as quantity increases (due to the fixed cost of capital).b. How many teams are required to producing 80 engines? What is the average cost perengine?To produce Q = 80 engines we need L = Q/40 labor teams or L = 2. Average costs are given byAC(Q) = 120,000/Q + 2,075or AC = 3575 c. You are asked to make recommendations for the design of a new production facility. Whatwould you suggest? In particular, what capital/labor (K/L) ratio should the new plant accommodate? If lower average cost were your only criterion, should you suggest that the new plant have more production capacity or less production capacity that the plant you currently manage?We no longer assume that K is fixed at 10. We need to find the combination of K and L which minimizes costs at any level of output Q. The cost-minimization rule is given byMP r =MP w .KLTo find the marginal product of capital, observe that increasing K by 1 unit increases Q by 4L, so MP K = 4L. Similarly, observe that increasing L by 1 unit increases Q by 4K, so MP L = 4K. (Mathematically, MP K = ∆Q /∆K = 4L and MP L = ∆Q /∆L = 4K.) Using these formulas in the cost-minimization rule, we obtain:4L/r = 4K/w or K / L = w / r = 3,000 / 12,000 = 1/4The new plant should accommodate a capital to labor ratio of 1 to 4.The firm’s capital -labor ratio is currently 10/2 or 5. To reduce average cost, the firm should either use more labor and less capital to produce the same output or it should hire more labor and increase output.*10. A computer company’s cost function, which relates its average cost of product ion AC to its cumulative output in thousands of computers CQ and its plant size in terms of thousands of computers produced per year Q, within the production range of 10,000 to 50,000 computers is given byAC = 10 - 0.1CQ + 0.3Q.a. Is there a learning curve effect?The learning curve describes the relationship between the cumulative output and the inputsrequired to produce a unit of output. Average cost measures the input requirements per unit ofoutput. Learning curve effects exist if average cost falls with increases in cumulative output.Here, average cost decreases as cumulative output, CQ, increases. Therefore, there are learningcurve effects.b. Are there increasing or decreasing returns to scale?To measure scale economies, calculate the elasticity of total cost, TC, with respect to output, Q:ETCTCQQTCTCQMCACC ===∆∆∆∆.If this elasticity is greater (less) than one, then there are decreasing (increasing) returns to scale, because total costs are rising faster (slower) than output. From average cost we can calculate total and marginal cost:TC = Q(AC) = 10Q - (0.1)(CQ)(Q) + 0.3Q2, thereforeMCdTCdQCQ Q ==-+100106...Because marginal cost is greater than average cost (because 0.6Q > 0.3Q), the elasticity, EC, is greater than one; there are decreasing returns to scale. The production process exhibits a learningeffect and decreasing returns to scale.c. During its existence, the firm has produced a total of 40,000 computers and is producing 10,000computers this year. Next year it plans to increase its production to 12,000 computers. Will its average cost of production increase or decrease? Explain.First, calculate average cost this year:AC1= 10 - 0.1CQ + 0.3Q = 10 - (0.1)(40) + (0.3)(10) = 9.Second, calculate the average cost next year:AC2= 10 - (0.1)(50) + (0.3)(12) = 8.6.(Note: Cumulative output has increased from 40,000 to 50,000.) The average cost will decreasebecause of the learning effect.11. The short-run cost function of a company is given by the equation C = 190 + 53Q, where C is the total cost and Q is the total quantity of output, both measured in tens of thousands.a. What is the company’s fixed cost?When Q = 0, C = 190 (or $1,900,000). Therefore, fixed cost is equal to 190 (or $1,900,000).b. If the company produced 100,000 units of goods, what is its average variable cost?With 100,000 units, Q= 10. Variable cost is 53Q= (53)(10) = 530 (or $5,300,000). Averagevariable cost is TVCQ==$530$53.10c. What is its marginal cost per unit produced?With constant average variable cost, marginal cost is equal to average variable cost, $53.d. What is its average fixed cost?At Q = 10, average fixed cost is TFCQ==$190$1910.e. Suppose the company borrows money and expands its factory. Its fixed cost rises by $50,000,but its variable cost falls to $45,000 per 10,000 units. The cost of interest (I) also enters into the equation. Each one-point increase in the interest rate raises costs by $30,000. Write the new cost equation.Fixed cost changes from 190 to 195. Variable cost decreases from 53 to 45. Fixed cost alsoincludes interest charges: 3I . The cost equation isC = 195 + 45Q + 3I .*12. Suppose the long-run total cost function for an industry is given by the cubic equation TC = a + bQ + cQ 2 + dQ 3. Show (using calculus) that this total cost function is consistent with a U-shaped average cost curve for at least some values of a, b, c, d.To show that the cubic cost equation implies a U -shaped average cost curve, we use algebra,calculus, and economic reasoning to place sign restrictions on the parameters of the equation.These techniques are illustrated by the example below.First, if output is equal to zero, then TC = a , where a represents fixed costs. In the short run,fixed costs are positive, a > 0, but in the long run, where all inputs are variable a = 0. Therefore,we restrict a to be zero.Next, we know that average cost must be positive. Dividing TC by Q:AC = b + cQ + dQ 2.This equation is simply a quadratic function. When graphed, it has two basic shapes: a U shapeand a hill shape. We want the U shape, i.e., a curve with a minimum (minimum average cost),rather than a hill shape with a maximum.To the left of the minimum, the slope should be negative (downward sloping). At the minimum,the slope should be zero, and to the right of the minimum the slope should be positive (upwardsloping). The first derivative of the average cost curve with respect to Q must be equal to zero atthe minimum. For a U -shaped AC curve, the second derivative of the average cost curve must bepositive.The first derivative is c + 2dQ ; the second derivative is 2d . If the second derivative is to bepositive, then d > 0. If the first derivative is equal to zero, then solving for c as a function of Qand d yields: c = -2dQ . If d and Q are both positive, then c must be negative: c < 0.To restrict b , we know that at its minimum, average cost must be positive. The minimum occurswhen c + 2dQ = 0. We solve for Q as a function of c and d : Q c=->0. Next, substitutingthis value for Q into our expression for average cost, and simplifying the equation:2222⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-++=++=d c d c d c b dQ cQ b AC , orAC b b b c d cd cd c d c d =-=-+=->+2222223362660. implying b c d >26. Because c 2and d > 0, b must be positive.In summary, for U -shaped long-run average cost curves, a must be zero, b and d must be positive, cmust be negative, and 4db > c 2. However, the conditions do not insure that marginal cost is positive.To insure that marginal cost has a U shape and that its minimum is positive, using the sameprocedure, i.e., solving for Q at minimum marginal cost -c d /,3 and substituting into theexpression for marginal cost b + 2cQ + 3dQ 2, we find that c 2 must be less than 3bd . Notice thatparameter values that satisfy this condition also satisfy 4db > c 2, but not the reverse.where a, b, and c are positive. Is this total cost function consistent with the presence of economies or diseconomies of scale? With economies or diseconomies of scope?There are two types of scale economies to consider: multiproduct economies of scale and product-specific returns to scale. From Section 7.5 we know that multiproduct economies of scalefor the two-product case, S H,S , are()()()()()S H S H MC S MC H S H TC S +=, , where MC H is the marginal cost of producing hardware and MC S is the marginal cost of producingsoftware. The product-specific returns to scale are:()()()()H H MC H S TC S H TC S ,0 , -= and ()()()()S S MC S H TC S H TC S 0, , -= where TC (0,S ) implies no hardware production and TC (H ,0) implies no software production. Weknow that the marginal cost of an input is the slope of the total cost with respect to that input.Since()(),S cH b aH bS H cS a TC -+=+-=we have MC H = a - cS and MC S = b - cH .Substituting these expressions into our formulas for S H,S , S H , and S S :()()cH b S cS a H cHS bS aH S S H -+--+=, or S aH bS cHS H S ,=+-+->1, because cHS > 0. Also, ()()cS a H bS cHS bS aH S H ---+=, or()()()()1=--=--=cS a cS a cS a H cHS aH S H and similarly ()().1=---+=cH b S aH cHS bS aH S S There are multiproduct economies of scale, S H,S > 1, but constant product-specific returns to scale,S H = S C = 1.Economies of scope exist if S C > 0, where (from equation (7.8) in the text):()()()()S H TC S H TC S TC H TC S c , , ,0 0, -+=, or, ()()S H TC cHS bS aH bS aH S c , -+-+=, or ().0, >=S H TC cHS S c Because cHS and TC are both positive, there are economies of scope.CHAPTER 8PROFIT MAXIMIZATION AND COMPETITIVE SUPPLYAs the title implies, this chapter covers two interrelated topics: a consideration of the behavioral incentives of the profit-maximizing firm and an examination of the interaction of these firms in a competitive market. The chapter begins with a discussion of whether firms maximize profits and ends with a discussion of the criteria for a competitive market, including an introduction to contestable markets. Exercises (1), (2), and (4) rely on data discussed in the text, while Exercises (3), (6), and (7) focus on the determination of the firm’s profit -maximizing quantity. Exercises (5), (8), and (9) consider the influence of taxes on firms’ output in a competitive market.S ections 8.2 through 8.4 derive the firm’s supply curve. Although total revenue is easily understood, you will need to show why average revenue may be represented by the demand curve. Demand and average revenue will be used interchangeably in Chapters 10 and 11. When presented with a problem involving the derivation of marginal revenue, some students will substitute Q , instead of P , in the expression for total revenue. This leads to revenue as a function of price. Stress that when they are given a demand curve in these applications they should first solve for price as a function of quantity. The origin of this confusion could lie in the popular notion that the firm determines the profit-maximizing price instead of the profit-maximizing quantity. Emphasize the importance of quantity, for example, when discussing why deviations from the profit-maximizing quantity lead to a decrease in profit (see Figure 8.3). Using the solutions to the exercises, emphasize that, for a linear demand curve, the slope of the marginal revenue curve is twice the slope of the demand curve.Other sources of confusion arise during analysis of firms’ supply curves. Stress that, as a primary rule, the firm should choose a quantity such that marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost. In this chapter, we can simplify this rule: for a firm facing a perfectly elastic demand curve, price is equal to marginal revenue. Stress that the rule for the competitive firm is a special case. Although some students will understand references to second-order conditions, expect to be asked why q 0 in Figure 8.3 is not profit maximizing, although MR = MC . Two additional points warrant careful explanation: 1) why the firm would remain in business if the firm sustains a loss in the short run, and 2) that maximizing profit is the same as minimizing loss.Although the summation of firm supply curves into a market supply curve is easy, the analysis of long-run competitive equilibrium is difficult. Show that long-run equilibrium relies on profit maximization by firms. Accompanying the rule that price must be greater than average variable cost in the short run, there is the assumption of free entry and exit. This leads to the statement that price must equal long-run average cost, LAC, as no firm may make an economic profit. The rule that price must equal long-run marginal cost, LMC , is the second equilibrium condition. Therefore, because LAC = LMC at minimum LAC , price is equal to minimum LAC in the long-run equilibrium. This result will be reconsidered in Chapter 12 in the discussion of equilibrium for a monopolistically competitive firm. When discussing the attainment of equilibrium in constant, increasing, and。

第7章 课后练习答案一、基本概念 1、一般均衡：经济中所有经济单位及其市场同时处于均衡的一种状态。

2、帕累托最优条件：1）交换的帕累托最化条件:A B XY XYMRS MRS = ；2）生产的帕累托最优条件：C D LK LKMRTS MRTS = ；3）交换和生产的帕累托最优条件：XY XY MRS MRT = 3、帕累托改进：在资源既定的情况下，如果经济社会通过资源重新配置可以在不使得他人境况受到损害的条件下使得某些人的境况得到改善,则社会福利得到增进.二、分析简答1、什么是局部均衡和一般均衡，两者的区别和联系是什么？答：局部均衡是指：仅仅是某一种产品实现了均衡或某一种市场（例如，产品市场或要素市场)实现了均衡。

一般均衡是指经济中所有经济单位及其市场同时处于均衡的一种状态。

局部均衡把市场上其他商品和生产要素的数量与价格对这种商品或生产要素价格的影响忽略不计或视为不变,即假定这一商品或生产要素的价格只取决于它本身的供求状况，而不受其他商品的价格和供求状况的影响。

而在一般均衡分析中，不仅要分析影响该商品价格变动的供求关系，还要分析影响该商品生产的生产要素市场、消费者收入等多种因素的影响，即把经济中的所有经济单位和所有市场联系起来加以考虑和分析。

2、为什么完全竞争可以实现帕累托最优所需具备的三个条件？完全竞争经济在一定的假设条件下存在着一般均衡，即存在一组价格，在该组价格下市场中的供求平衡.假设该组价格为Px ，P Y ,…，P L ，P K ，…。

其中P X ，P Y ,…表示商品X ，Y ，…的均衡价格；P L ,P K ，…表示要素L ，K ，…的均衡价格。

在完全竞争条件下，每个消费者和生产者都是价格的接受者，消费者在既定价格下追求自身效用的最大化，生产者在既定价格下追求自身利润的最大化。

对于消费者而言,任意一个消费者在完全竞争经济中效用最大化的条件是任意两种商品的边际替代率等于两种商品的价格比率，对于消费者C ，有： /A XY X Y MRS P P = ；对于消费者B,有：/B XY X Y MRS P P =;将以上两式整理可得：A B XY XY MRS MRS =；此公式就是交换的帕累托最优条件。

成绩：A+一、判断题1、边际成本曲线在达到一定产量水平后趋于上升，是由边际收益递减规律所造成的。

( T )2、假如增加一单位产量所带来的边际成本大于产量增加前的平均可变成本，那么在产量增加后平均可变成本增加。

( T )3、长期平均成本曲线成为U形的原因与要素的边际生产率有关。

( F )4、在短期，不随产量变动而变动的成本是固定成本。

( T )5、在从原点出发的直线（射线）与TC曲线的切点上，AC是最小。

( T )6、随着产量的增加，平均固定成本在开始时下降，然后趋于上升。

( F )7、长期成本曲线上的每一点都与短期成本曲线上的某一点相对应，但短期成本曲线上并非每一点都与长期成本曲线上的某一点相对应。

( T )8、微观经济学成本理论中短期与长期的划分取决于是否可以调整产品价格。

( F )9、使用自由资金也应计算利息，这种利息从成本角度看是会计成本。

( F )10、当LAC曲线下降时，LAC曲线切于SAC曲线的最低点。

( F )二、选择题1、如果一个企业经历规模报酬不变阶段，则LAC曲线是( D )。

A.上升的；B.下降的；C.垂直的；D.水平的。

2、等成本线的斜率表示的是( D )。

A.在既定成本下所能生产的各种产量；B.生产既定产量的总成本；C.纵轴上的要素价格对横轴上要素价格的比率；D.横轴上要素价格对纵轴上要素价格的比率。

3、当AC达到最低点时，下列正确的是( B )A.AVC=FCB.MC=ACC.P=AVCD.P=MC4、当产出增加时LAC曲线下降，这是由于( B )。

A.规模的不经济性B.规模的经济性C.收益递减规律D.规模报酬不变5、短期平均成本曲线成为U形的原因与( C )A.规模报酬有关；B.外部经济与不经济有关；C.要素的边际生产率有关；D.固定成本与可变成本所占比重有关。

6、就短期边际成本和短期平均成本的关系来说( B )。

A．如果平均成本下降，则边际成本下降B．如果平均成本下降，则边际成本小于平均成本C．如果边际成本上升，则平均成本上升D．如果边际成本上升，则边际成本小于平均成本7、经济成本与经济利润具有以下特征(A )A.前者比会计成本大，后者比会计利润小B.前者比会计成本小，后者比会计利润大C.两者都比相应的会计成本和会计利润小D.两者都比相应的会计成本和会计利润大8、厂房设备投资的利息是( B )A.可变成本B.固定成本C.平均成本D.边际成本9、已知产量为99单位时，总成本等于995元，产量增加到100单位时，平均成本等于10元，由此可以判断边际成本为( B )。