1 The Content of Stylistics

Stylistics 11.What is stylistics?(1)D. Crystal:Linguistics is the academic discipline that studies language scientifically, and stylistics, as a part of this discipline, studies certain aspects of language variation.Investigating English Style(2) G. N. Leech: Stylistics is a linguistic approach to literature, explaining the relation between language and artistic function, with motivating questions such as ―why‖ and ―how‖ more than ―what‖.Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry(3)W. V. Peer:Stylistics is developed from Russian Formalism via Prague Structuralism, following the concept of ―estrangement‖ -- ―deviation from normal usages‖.Stylistics and Psychology(4)Halliday:Linguistics is not and will never be the whole of literary analysis, and only the literary analyst -- not the linguist -- can determine the place of linguistics in literary studies. But if a text is to be described at all, then it should be described properly, by the theories and methods developed in linguistics, whose task is precisely to show how language works.Descriptive Linguistics in Literary Studies(5)H. G. Widdowson:Stylistics involves both literary criticism and linguistics, as its morphological making suggests: the ―style‖ component relating it to the former and the ―istics‖ component to the latter. Stylistics is a means of relating disciplines and subjects, as shown in the following diagram:Disciplines: linguistics literary criticism↖↗StylisticsSubjects: ↙↘(English) language (English) literatureStyle and the Teaching of literature(6)H. H. Zhang: Stylistics is an intensive study of literary text on an advanced level, by making out the particular effect of the particular choice of language in communication2. What is style?According to Thomas S. Kane in Writing Prose: Style is a pattern of linguistic features distinguishing one piece of writing from another, or one category of writings from another. Therefore,1)Style includes the writer‘s way of thinking about his subject and his characteristic way of presenting it for a particular reader and purpose.2)Style results from l inguistic choices, which effectively express the writer‘s unique thought and feeling.3)Style is a means of discovery for both writer and reader.4)Style sharpens expressive meaning as well as referential meaning, intensifying the tone of writing, making prose more persuasive.5)Style is not mere ornament; rather it conveys important subtleties of meaning and evaluation, which define the nature of the writer, his basic attitudes, his presuppositions, his moral stance, and his relation to his subject and his reader.According to David Crystal in Investigating English Style:There are four commonly occurring senses of the term STYLE:1)the language habits of one person: Shakespeare‘s style, James Joyce‘s style, Hemingway‘s style, UNIQUENESS.2) the language habits shared by a group at one time: the Augustan poets, the Old English ‗heroic‘ poetry.3) saying the right thing in the most effective way—good manners: ‗clear‘ or ‗refined‘ style.4)evaluation and description of literature in literary criticism or appreciation: ‗good‘‗effective‘ ‗beautiful‘ writing.According to G. N. Leech in Style in Fiction,There are some controversial views of style:1).Dualism: between form and meaning ―style as choices of Manner rather than Matter, of Expression rather than Content‖; as a ―way of writing‖ or a ―mode of expression‖ originated from Aristotle‘s literary theory.Style as the ―dress of thought‖, claimed by Renaissance and rationalism, makes it some kind of ―adornment‖ of thought or meaning. The Aesthetics of form(parallelism, alliteration…) tends to attract the reader‘s attention more than the meaning does, as seen in poetic lines.⏹Style as ―manner of expression‖, as Richard Ohman put it, ―A style is a way of writing‖ in which ―the words on the page might have be en different, or differently arranged, without a corresponding difference in substance.‖2).Monism:―It is like body and soul: form and content to me are one‖ (Flaubert, said on Dec. 12,1857, originated from Plato‘s literary theory).⏹As argued by David Lodge, in Language of Fiction (1966), it is impossible⏹to paraphrase literary writing;⏹to translate a literary work;⏹to divorce the general appreciation of a literary work from the appreciation of its style, for the inevitable loss of the hidden, metaphorical meaning.3).Pluralism:analyzing style in terms of functions, characterized by Halliday‘s three major functions of ―ideational‖, ―interpersonal‖ and ―textual‖……………………………….3.What is the main purpose of stylistics?⏹1) to analyze language habits--to identify, from the general mass, those features restricted to certain kinds of social context⏹2) to explain why such features have been used as opposed to othersThe organization of written language into graphic units is rather similar. The contrast between (6a) and (6b) can be captured in writing by the use of an extra punctuation mark:(6a) Next week, I‘m starting a job in London.(6b)Next week, I‘m starting a job—in London.But because graphic units tend to be longer than tone units, (6b) seems unusually emphatic, and perhaps the normal written rendering would have no internal punctuation at all:6c)Next week I‘m starting a job in London.2)the significance of sentence length---force/weight3)periodic structure---producing tension and suspense(1)The truth is that they have suffered through negligence.(2)That they have suffered through negligence is the truth.(3)Sophia sailed into the room with her eyes ablaze.(4)With her eyes ablaze, Sophia sailed into the room.Parenthetical dependent constituents belong to the anticipatory category:(5)Sophia, with her eyes ablaze, sailed into the room.4)loose structure---producing relaxation and comfort(1)This morning I was troubled with my Lord Hinchingbroke‘s sending to borrow $200 of me; but I did answer that I had none, nor could borrow any; for I am resolved I will not be undone for any body, though I would do much for my lord Sandwich, for it is to answer a bill of exchange of his; and I perceive he has made use of all other means in the world to do it, but I am resolved to serve him, but not ruin myself.To sum up, periodic structure and loose structure are two poles between which styles of sentence structure can vary. Looking back over the history of English prose, we can say that the most neutral style of writing is one that combines both anticipatory and trailing elements, and thus achieves a balance between ‗art‘ and ‗nature‘.5)the last is the most important for written language---end-focus/climax principle: Governed by end-weight principle, we will preferIt is advisable for us to be able to telldocumentary English from spoken English.to To be able to tell documentary Englishfrom spoken English is advisable for us.Instead ofThat he was prepared to go to suchlengths astounded me.we choose to writeI was astounded that he wasprepared to go to such lengths.Governed by end-focus principle, the nuclear tone‘s neutral position is at the end of the to ne unit, especially on the last lexical item, or ‗content word‘:(1a) She completely DENIED it.(1b) She denied it COMPLETEL Y.(2a) He‘s gradually IMPROVING.(2b) He‘s improving GRADUALL Y.The difference this makes is brought out if we imagine (1a) and (1b) as answers to the following questions respectively:(3a) Did Joan admit the offence? No, She completely DENIED it.(3b) Did Joan deny the offence? Yes, She denied it COMPLETELY.End-focus has important implications in syntax, where the ordering of the elements of the message is largely determined. It can, for example, influence the choice between active andpassive sentences:(4a) John wrote the whole BOOK.(4b) The whole book was written by JOHN.In other words, the reader naturally looks for new information at the end of the graphic unit.This conclusion can be tried out on the following:(5a) Instead of morphine, the patient was given opium.(5b) Instead of morphine, opium was given to the patient.The principle of end-foc us predicts that the reader will find (5a) a ‗happier‘ sentence than (5b)6) the first is the most important for spoken languageA speaker is rarely able to plan the whole of his utterance in advance, so he tends to begin with the thing which is upperm ost in his mind. This ‗first is most important‘ principle accounts for some syntactic inversions and dislocations characteristic of ordinary speech:‗That dinner you cooked last night—I really enjoyed it‘;‗Got a cold have you?‘;‗Relaxation you call it!‘The same factor accounts for frequent disregard in spoken English of the end-focus principle: for example, the last sentence quoted would be pronounced:↘RELAXATION you call it!7)simple and complex sentencesWe can make the general point that complex sentences are to be preferred if the aim of the writer is to present us with a complex structure of ideas, a complex reading experience.‗The complex form gives and withholds information, subordinates some ideas to other more important, coordinates those of equal weight, and ties into a neat package as many suggestions, modifiers, and asides as the mind can attend to in one stretch.A succession of simple sentences, on the other hand, leaves only sequence to play with. Compare the following:(1a) Jim threw the ball. The ball broke a window. The noise attracted the owner‘s attention. The owner scolded Jim.(1b) Throwing the ball, Jim broke a window. The noise attracted the attention of the owner, who scolded him.(1c) When Jim threw the ball and broke the window, he was scolded by the owner, whose attention was attracted by the noise.Obviously, (1a) represents a naïve narrative style with no indication of the relationship between events, or their relative importance.There are occasions, however, where simple sentences are just what is needed:(2a) She saw there an object. That object was the gallows. She was afraid of the gallows. (Joseph Conrad, The Secret Agent, Ch 12)These three sentences occur at the climactic point in the novel where Mrs. Verloc realizes the full consequence of her action in murdering her husband. The dramatic force of this step-by-step revelation would be dissipated in a complex sentence such as :(2b)‗She saw there an object she was afraid of—the gallows‘ or ‗The object she saw there—the gallows—frightened her‘Contrast the very different effect of:(3) The tireless resilient voice that had just lobbed this singular remark over the Bella Vista bar window-sil into the square was, though its owner remained unseen, unmistakable and achingly familiar as the spacious flower-boxed balconied hotel itself, and as unreal, Yvonne thought.(Malcolm Lowry, Under the Volcano, Ch 2)Here we are presented with a more difficult and adventurous reading experience than the three simple sentences of (2a). We also have a sequence of impressions, but they are integrated in a single complex awareness of a number of things which must be going on in the mind of Yvonne, beginning with the voice (the immediate object of perception), moving on to the attendant circumstances of that perception (expressed in subordinate clauses), then to the impression the voice made (‗unmistakable…familiar…unreal‘), and finally to the perceiver herself, Yvonne. The two passages contrast in ordering:(2a) working from the person (‗She‘) to the percept (‗the gallows‘),and(3) working from the percept (‗the…voice‘) to person (‗Yvonne‘).But this is incidental to the contrast between simplicity and complexity: the difference between experiencing events one by one, and experiencing them as an articulate and complex whole.8) coordination and subordinationThe major devices for linking ideas together into a complex sentence are coordination and subordination. Coordination gives clauses (and other units) equal syntactic status, whereas subordination places one clause in a dependent status, as part of the main clause. Subordination is thus a syntactic form of salience, since the effect of making a clause subordinate is to background it:to demote the phenomenon it describes into a ‗subservient circumstance‘ which cannot be understood except in terms of its part in the main clause. Often a subordinate clause is less salient in the sense of expressing information which is at least partially known or presupposed in advance. In the following sentence, for instance,When Jim threw the ball and broke the window, he was scolded by the owner, whose attention was attracted by the noise.The effect of placi ng two events in a subordinate clause (‗When Jim threw the ball and broke the window‘) is to imply that the hearer already knows something about them. A similar effect would be created by the relative clause ‗The ball which Jim threw‘. We thus may enunciat e a general principle of subordination (which is not without its exceptions):If A is subordinate to B, then A is the circumstantial background against which B is highlighted.It is one of the more routine virtues of prose-writing that a writer brings about, by coordination and subordination, an appropriate salience and back-grounding of parts of the sentence. But as with other rhetorical principles, this principle of subordination may be violated: Curley‘s fist was swinging when Lennie reached for i t.(John Steinbeck, Of Mice and Men, Ch 3)On the face of it, Steinbeck would have done better to write something like:As Curley‘s fist was swinging, Lennie reached for it.But what he did write fits in very well with his overall strategy in the novel, that of absolving Lennie of responsibility for his actions. By downgrading Lennie‘s part in the fight, he makes it seem an inadvertent and blameless reaction to Curley‘s onslaught.A more complex example of a similar kind is this:The system worked just fine for everybody, especially for Doc. Daneeka, who found himself with all the time he needed to watch old Major—de Coverley pitching horseshoes in his private horseshoe-pitching pit, still wearing the transparent eye patch Doc. Daneeka had fashioned for him from the strip of celluloid stolen from Major‘s orderly room window months before when major—de Coverley had returned from Rome with an injured cornea after renting two apartments there for the officers and enlisted men to use on their rest leaves. (Joseph Heller, Catch 22) There seems to be something rather perverse about the structure of this sentence: the elements which we feel deserve to be in the foreground are subordinated, and therefore backgrounded. The sentence begins with the subject, verb and complement of the main clause, and then nose-dives into a chain-like structure of subordinate clauses (especially non-finite clauses), each dependent on its predecessor.The syntactic chaining expresses a chain of bizarre relationships between one character and another, in keeping with the eccentric design of this novel, in which characters and events are linked through apparently irrational peculiarities of behavior.Stylistics 2Language Function1)Good morning, Mr Liu.A nice day, isn‘t it?Hi !Language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact (2)Shut the door!Pass the salt, please.You ought to finish it in time.I advise you not to do it.You should leave right now.If I were you I would take it.Language used to get the hearer to do something3)The sun rises in the east.Water freezes at 0 degree Centigrade.What he said cannot be true.Language used to give information about facts or to reason things out4)When does teaching practice begin?What is it like?How do you feel now?Cf. Isn‘t this beautiful !Language used to get information from others5)Good heavens!My God!I‘m extremely sorry that you suffered such a great loss.Thank you very much indeed.You have done a very nice job.Language used to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker(to appraise, to evaluate, to assert)6)An elderly Russian, tired of lining up outside a vodka store in St. Petersburg, said, ‖ That‘s the limit. Eight hours‘ wait for a small vodka. I‘m going to Moscow to finish off Yeltsin.‖He left for Moscow but was soon back again. Asked why, he said, ‖ The line for that is even longer.‖Use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer – to amuse, or startle, or anger, or soothe, or worry, or please7)I declare the meeting open.I declare war against Japan.I sentence you to ten years of hard labor.Language used to do things, to perform actions (The speaker has to be authorized)An utterance may well have more than one function:Is your father better now?Buhler 1934Put forward a threefold classification based on what are seen as the essential elements of addresser, addressee and sign:to express the speaker‘s feelings etc – expressive function;to appeal to or influence the addressee – appellative or conative function;and to represent the real world – descriptive or referential functionJakobson 1960Added three other functions:The phatic function – to maintain and establish contact between participants;The metalingual function – to focus on language itself;And the poetic function – to correspond to the Prague School aesthetic functionHalliday 1973, 1985Put forward a tripartite system of so-called macro- or meta-function：The ideational function –to express the speaker/writer‘s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his/her own consciousness.The interpersonal function –to establish and maintain social relations, for the expression of social roles, and also for getting things done by means of interaction between one person and another.The textual function – to provide means for making links within the text itself and with features of its immediate situation.StyleA definition of style should make operationally concrete stylistic analyses –based on those linguistic features that each student, at his or her particular level of progress, can verify on his/her own.1) Style is the very thought itself.2) Style involves saying the right thing in the most effective way.3) Style is a dress of thought or expression ( an addition to a central core of thought )4) Style is the choice between alternative expressions ( items that mean roughly the same )5) Style is a set of individual characteristics (Buffon: Style, the man.)6) Style is deviation from a norm7) Style is a set of collective characteristics8) Style is those relations among linguistic entities that are stateable in terms of wider spans of text than the sentence9) Style is the aggregate of frequencies of linguistic items of different levels10)Style is concerned with frequencies of linguistic items in a given context compared with the corresponding features of another text or corpus which is regarded as a norm.Style as manner of speaking or writing•Style as variation in language use•Style as the set or sum of linguistic features that seem to be characteristic whether of a register, a genre, or a periodStyle as choice: the selection of linguistic features particularly determined by the demands of a genre, a form, or themeStyle as deviation from the linguistic norms1)Style includes the writer‘s way of thinking about his subject and his characteristic way of presenting it for a particular reader and purpose.2)Style results from linguistic choices, which effectively express the writer‘s unique thought and feeling.3)Style is a means of discovery for both writer and reader.4)Style sharpens expressive meaning as well as referential meaning, intensifying the tone of writing, making prose more persuasive.5)Style is not mere ornament; rather it conveys important subtleties of meaning and evaluation, which define the nature of the writer, his basic attitudes, his presuppositions, his moral stance, and his relation to his subject and his reader.According to David Crystal in Investigating English Style:There are four commonly occurring senses of the term STYLE:1)the language habits of one person: Shakespeare‘s style, James Joyce‘s style, Hemingway‘s style, UNIQUENESS.2) the language habits shared by a group at one time: the Augustan poets, the Old English ‗heroic‘ poetry.3) saying the right thing in the most effective way—good manners: ‗clear‘ or ‗refined‘ style.4) evaluation and description of literature in literary criticism or appreciation: ‗good‘‗effective‘ ‗beautiful‘ writing.Stylistics 3Varieties of LanguageWhen language is used，it is always used in a context. What gets said and how it gets said is always dictated by a variety of situation s. Some situations seem to depend on some regular sets of language features, so that some distinctive varieties of language occur.As a study of the linguistic features that characterize the main varieties of a language, stylistics needs to define its variety categories to help isolate these consistent relationships between particular features of language on the one hand, and the particular situations in which they might possibly occur.There are two main groups of varieties: varieties according to user, i.e. varieties in the sensethat each speaker uses one variety and uses it all the time – a dialect; and varieties according to use, i.e. varieties in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties, and chooses between them at different times – a register.In one dimension, which variety of a language one uses is determined by who he/she is, or in other words, by where he/she comes from. In most language communities it is the region of origin which determines which dialectal variety of the language a speaker uses.Along another dimension, there are varieties of a language distinguished according to use: language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations – called registers.When we observe speech events in the various contexts in which they take place, we find differences in the types of language selected as appropriate to different types of situations.It is not the event or state of affairs being talked about that determines the choice, but the convention that a certain kind of language is appropriate to a certain use.Different types of linguistic features are correlated with different types of situational factors.For dialects we have the following types:(1) A specific person will display his/her own features of speech or writing habits: particular voice quality, pitch and stress patterns, favorable lexical items, and even grammatical structures. These traits of speech or writing lead to Individual Dialect.⏹Ah‘m jes a mountaineering jedge.⏹Don‘t nobody never help me do my work.(2) Language changes over time, and so description of the language at a given point of time is likely give rise to a historical variety. A variety which correlates with the various periods of the development of language is called Temporal Dialect.⏹Ic hit eom (= I it am).⏹Hit am I (= It am I).⏹It is me.(3) Language varies from region to region. Owing to the physical boundaries of oceans and mountains, people who live in different places tend to develop different speech patterns. A variety like this is called Regional Dialect.⏹BrE AmE⏹In graphology⏹honour honor⏹centre center⏹dialogue dialog⏹traveller traveler⏹6/12/12 12/6/12⏹In vocabulary⏹tin can⏹autumn fall⏹footpath trail⏹sweets candy⏹pavement sidewalk⏹lorry truck⏹petrol gas(oline)In grammar⏹BrE⏹Have you eaten yet?⏹He has just gone home.⏹One should remember one‘s duty.⏹On Sundays we don‘t work.⏹AmE⏹Did you eat yet?⏹He just went home.One should remember his duty.Sundays we don‘t work.(4)Just as oceans and mountains separate people and can lead eventually to distinct language habits, so social and political boundaries separate people and can be instrumental in promoting different speechways. A variety associated with certain social groups is referred to as Social Dialect. As there are different socioeconomic, ethnic, gender, and age groups in a society, so there are socioeconomic status varieties, ethnic varieties, gender varieties, and age varieties.The r-fulness in the pronunciation of words like car, fourth, beer, park in New York City, -- New Yorkers sometimes pronounce /r/ and sometimes drop it in words with an r following a vowel -- is anything but random and anything but meaningless. It typically reflects the subtle differences in social stratification.⏹Black English⏹Simplification of consonant clusters:⏹des for desk, wile for wild⏹Deletion of the final stop consonants:⏹borrow for borrowed, sigh for sideUse of verb be -- omission of’s, use of be to express a habitual state of affairs, or to show habitual actions:⏹That my book.⏹The coffee cold.⏹The coffee be cold there.⏹Do they be playing all day?⏹Yeah, the boys do be messin‘ around a lot.Use of …it is‟ in place of …there is‟:⏹Is it a Miss Jones in the office?Use of multiple-negative construction:⏹Don‘t nobody never help me do my work.On the part of female speakers, there is use of feminine-sounding words like lovely, darling, cute; and use of extra politeness in their speech by leaving a decision open rather than imposing their claims on others.⏹I‘m afraid that …⏹I‘m not sure, but …⏹The film is awfully interesting, isn‘t it?⏹Do come and have a look.Registers may be distinguished according to field of discourse, mode of discourse and tenorof discourse.(1) I n our daily lives we play different roles: a teacher lecturing to a group of students, a lawyer advising a client, a father/mother or a husband/wife at home. These roles take us through a succession of activities requiring the use of language. The activities are diverse and, whatever dialect we speak, have specific features associated with them. Field of discourse shows what the language we use is about, what is going on in the speech event.Some roles – teacher, lawyer, sergeant, scientist, and informed enthusiast related to specialist fields:⏹On fours, fall in!⏹Attention!⏹Eyes right!⏹Ready front!⏹Shoulder arms!⏹Right face!⏹Forward march!⏹Pioneers in self-drive car hire⏹Development Plan for Harlem Fought⏹without let or hindrance⏹the message or dwelling house⏹the last will and testament⏹You can rectify this fault if you insert a wedge.⏹Rectify this fault by inserting a wedge.⏹Rectification of this fault is achieved by insertion of a wedge.⏹free kick⏹probe⏹cleanse⏹Cf. mix well⏹mixes well⏹…we give thee humble thanks for this thy special bounty, beseeching thee to continue thy love-kindness unto us …⏹In this line, what can we see that determines the occurrence of thou/thee/thy/thine and unto?⏹Evidently the religious environment determines their occurrence.Some fields are non-specialist in nature which are likely to be related to topics like weather, health, news, gossip, personal letter etc for establishing personal contact or phatic communion.⏹Jeff: Mornin‘, Stan.⏹Stan: Hi. How‘s it going?⏹Jeff: Oh, can‘t explain, I guess. Ready for the meeting this afternoon?⏹Stan: Well, I can‘t have much choice.（2) Just as we switch roles through the day, so we continuously change the medium we use for communication. Mode of discourse shows what medium we are using in our communication, written or spoken.⏹an early announcement is expected⏹we ought to hear soon。

南京艺术学院第二册英语课文翻译（1~10）第一单元你去过古玩店吗？如果你能像买家那样博学，你就有可能买到不同凡响但又很便宜的东西。

幸运的发现古玩店对许多人来说有一种特殊的魅力。

高档一点的古玩店为了防尘，把文物漂亮地陈列在玻璃柜子里，那里往往令人望而却步。

而对不太装腔作势的古玩店，无论是谁都不用壮着胆子才敢往里进。

人们还常常有希望在发霉，阴暗，杂乱无章，迷宫般的店堂里，从杂乱地摆放在地面上的，一堆堆各式各样的破烂货里找到一件稀世珍品。

无论是谁都不会一下子就发现一件珍品。

一个到处找便宜货买的人必须具有耐心，而且最重要的是看到珍品时要有鉴别珍品的能力。

要做到这一点，他至少要像古董商一样懂行。

他必须像一个专心致志进行探索的科学家一样抱有这样的希望，即终有一天，他的努力会取得丰硕的成果。

我的老朋友弗兰克哈利戴正是这样一个人。

他多次向我详细讲他如何只花50英镑便买到一位名家的杰作。

一个星期六的上午，弗兰克去了我家附近的一家古玩店。

由于他从未去过那儿，结果他发现了许多有趣的东西。

上午很快过去了，弗兰克正准备离去，突然看见地板上放着一只体积很大的货箱。

古董商告诉他那只货箱刚到不久，但他嫌麻烦不想把它打开。

经弗兰克恳求，古董商才勉强把货箱撬开了。

箱内东西令人失望。

除了一柄式样别致、雕有花纹的匕首外，货箱内装满了陶器，而且大部分都已破碎。

弗兰克轻轻地把陶器拿出箱子，突然发现在箱底有一幅微型画，画面构图与线条使他想起了一幅他所熟悉的意大利画，于是他决定将画买下来。

古董商漫不经心看了一眼那幅画，告诉弗兰克那画值50英镑。

弗兰克几乎无法掩饰自己兴奋的心情，因为他明白自己发现了一件珍品。

那幅不大的画原来是柯勒乔的一幅未被发现的杰作，价值几十万英镑。

第二单元无论是男人、女人还是儿童，都可以从他们的衣着和外表的其他方面感受到时尚的影响。

时装流行的原理时尚一直在变化和发展。

时尚的五条基本原理是识别时尚及其流行趋势的基础。

这些时尚原理保持不变。

The development of StylisticsIn the WestThe word “stylistics”first appeared in 1882,and the first book on stylistics was written by French scholar Charles Bally,student of the famous modern linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in 1902 and was published in1909,entitled Traite de Stylistique Francaise .This book is often considered as a landmark of modern stylistics.The subject of study in Bally’s time was oral discourse.Bally considered that apart from the denotative meaning expressed by the speaker,there was usually an “overtune”which indicated different “feelings”,and the tasks of stylistics was to find out the linguistic devices indicating these feelings.Later,the German scholar L.Spitzer,began to analyze literary works from a stylistic point of view,and therefore,Spitzer is often considered as the “father of literary stylistics”.From the beginning of 1930s to the end of the 1950s stylistics was developing slowly and was only confined to European continent.During this period,the Russian formalists,the Prague School and the French Structuralists all contributed to the development of stylistics. There emerged some well-known stylisticians,such as E.Auerbach, J.Marouzeau, M.Cressot, R.Jakobson.From the end of the 1950s to the present time,modern stylistics has reached its prosperity.This can be further divided into roughly fourperiods:The first period is from the end of the 1950s to the end of the 1960s,in which,Formalist Stylistics was the prevailing trend.The second period is the 1970s,in which Functionlist Stylistics predominated.The third period is the 1980s,in which Discourse Stylistics flourished.While in the fourth period, the1990s,the Socio-Historical/Socio-Cultural Stylistics or Contextualized Stylistics developed quickly.In the new century,stylistics has developed further.In the departments and institutes of language,literature and linguistics around many universities in the world,stylistics has been one of main courses or subjects of research.Monographs and textbooks on stylistics are published,and research papers on stylistics increasingly appear in the academic journals all over the world.The trend is interdisciplinary study,and narrative stylistics,cognitive stylistics,feminist stylistics,etc.In ChinaChinese stylistics can be traced back to work of literary criticism-The Carving of the Literary Mind by Liu Xie(465-532)in the Southern Dynasty ter there were the generic classification of the Tang poetry,Song prose poems,the Y uan verse poems,and the Ming and Qing novels.The beginning of modern Chinese stylistics is marked by Chen Wangdao’s Principle of Rhetoric(1932)In China,the modern study of stylistics can be divided into two periods.The first period is from the founding of the People’s Republic ofChina to the year 1976,which is the fundamental stage for the development of modern stylistics.Some scholars,such as Wang Zuoliang,Xu Guozhang,Xu yanmou,Yangrenjing,et al.,began to study stylistics in its modern sense.And later some other articles on stylistics got published.But generally speaking,in this period of 28 years,there is no more than 30 articles concerning stylistics got published in China .What is more,there were almost no academic studies during the 10-year “Culture Revolution”(1966-1976)(王守元，et al.,2004)The second period is from 1977 up to the present time.Professor Wang Zuoliang took the lead in this research of modern stylistics.In this period,appear many academic works and textbooks and a large number of articles on stylistics also got published and the number increased with each passing year.And in the new century,stylistics developing even faster.The founding of the Chinese Association of Rhetoric in 1980 marked the new era of Chinese stylistics research,while the founding of China Stylistics Association in 2004 in Henan University during the 4th National Symposium on Stylistics marked the era of studies of Western stylistics in China.The international Stylistics Conference held in Tsinghua University in June 2006 further indicated the development and achievements of stylistics in China.The Scope of StudyThe study of modern stylistics can be divided into three main aspects:General Stylistics,Literary Stylistics and Theoretical Stylistics.Now I introduce it one by one ,which mainly gives your a frame impression about their scopes of study.General StylisticsGeneral stylistics studies different varieties of language.For example,according to field of discourse,with the related functions of language used in different genres,there are varieties such as news reports,advertisement,publish speeches,novels,poetry,scientific treatises,and legal documents.According to attitude ,there are different degrees of formality used on different occasions,such as formal language and informal language.According to medium of communication(mode of discourse),there are spoken language,written language,and e-discourse.According to regions,there are British English,American English and other regional dialects.According to social groups,there are standard language and non-standard language,language used by people of different classes,different sexes,and so on.According to time,there are Old English,Middle English,Modern English,Contemporary English.Literary StylisticsLiterary stylistics studies literary significance as well as linguistic choices in literary texts and also the different styles of individual authors and their works,as well as period styles.Broadly speaking,it study variations characteristic of different literary genres-poetry,prose,novels,drama,etc.,with the purpose of promoting literary texts as communicative acts. Theoretical StylisticsTheoretical stylistics researches the theories,the origin,the trend,and the historical development of stylistics as well as characteristics of different branches of stylistics.It also studies the relationships between stylistics and other branches of learning.。

English StylisticsFrom the contents of our book on English stylistics，we can easily find that it is divided into four parts: The Potential Stylistic Features, Practical Style, Literary Style and The Theory of Stylistics. Each part consists of several chapters. After ten weeks of learning this course, we get to know stylistics gradually. In chapter one, we know style is important both in writing and speech and find it interesting to sense the differences between utterances of different style. Different styles result in saying different contexts, what the speakers’backgrounds are and different functions of different texts. To achieve particular styles, a lot of linguistic devices, including sound features, spelling, words, grammar, meaning are used. In chapter two,the book focus on lexicology. Two ways to achieve stylistic effects are morphemic devices and lexical devices. About the former one, it tells us the types of morphemes first, which include root, prefix and suffix. Stylistic effects are achieved by qualitatives deviation and quantitative deviation .In terms of morphology, stylistic effects can be obtained by adding morphemes to roots to make new words,or by creating new morphemes to make up meaningless words, or by making a certain morpheme occur in unexpected high frequency. The lexical devices include selection of words, classification of words and rhetorical series, word implications as well as rhetorical devices. Among them, the last one consist of meaning transference ,meaning extension and contraction, contradiction in logic, meaning conversion and play on homonymy.In the next chapter, it comes to grammar, as the core of grammar, syntax is used to achieve a particular style by syntactic deflection and syntactic incongruity. In chapter four, the author talks about phonology andgraphology.we have learned the first part, which includes syntactic deflection(the unexpected high frequency of occurrence, long sentences and short sentence),the overregular use of certain patterns or models. Some figures of speech are parallelism, antithesis and repetitions of various kinds and syntactics incongruity. And syntactic incongruity includes using sentences of unusual structure and breaking the rule of grammar.。

Stylistics summarystylisticsThe scope of chapter 1What is stylistics? Stylistics is a subject that teaches us how touse language and how to apply different styles of language.Stylistics specifically refers to the stylistic feature, refer to apply to the concept of modern linguistics and its skills, learning a language style used in a discipline, including general stylistics and literary stylistics.What is language, different people's definition of language, the development of time, the definition of language is constantly changing and improving. Language is essentially a social activity.Philosophic view holds that language system is the function and activity of language in society.Words are compared to languages. The word code usually refers to a series of symbols, symbolizing the transmission of information. Thesmall amount of information is the process of translating a series of words into a voice and allowing the receiver to receive the information.The use of speech in speech. Language is constantly used in human social activities, and in the speech is determined by three bad circumstances: the normative, the size and the type of the activity.Language variations and functions: the use of language is influenced by the use of the occasion, and different languages must be used indifferent contexts. Different scenes, different people, different times, different places, different media, different social situations use different languages.Language in this ancient, script and spoken English, have a conceptof function and functional points (a service for expression of speaker, a service) for writing the real world.Style is the key to distinguishing between different language habits. Each person has their own language style. For example, "the salsa style." A style is a person's language habit and a group language.The study of style: the study of stylistics is called style, and the study of stylistics is very early in the west. And stylistics as an independent language specification we need to have a full understanding to him, stylistic study of learning style tend to be more standardized, theoretical, make a linguistic description of the more strict specification.The learning of stylistics is the essence of modern science. It hasto do with literature; She is the continuation and development of rhetoric; He approaches critical literature with a new image andprovides a point of support for it.The second chapter is necessary to study the stylisticsThe study of stylistics helps us to develop a correct sense oflanguage.Language is not a unifying phenomenon. He is a broad collection.Only in different situations can people communicate properly withdifferent correct languages. Therefore, it is necessary to cultivate a good sense of language that makes it easier for us to communicate.The study of stylistics makes it easier to understand and appreciate the work of literature.In critical literature, there are three stages: the descriptive stage, the interpretation stage and the evaluation stage. In literary creation, the author will continue to make the choice and judgment of language, including the choice of words and sentence structure. When we interrupt the regular use of a new language structure, we call it "variation." This is called "repetition" when we overuse a structure. This departure from the reader's mind is a psychological one.In addition to the prospect,Some authors also for some special effect, a large number of imitation, some of great lethality is because they are significant difference between the novel and drama opened the way you talk, use a lot of dialect makes the language more vivid, close to life.Study of stylistics helps us gains in terms of translation, the role of language in different function in a different language series, each kind of display is the same rule of language features, the translation is not enough to simply express the original meaning of a sentence. The translation must conformto the meaning of the language, which should be combined with the structure of the sentence and the analysis of the style, which makes the translation of the language more perfect. In translation, it isnecessary to put our energy in the same height, the same level, as the sentence.Chapter 3: variations of languageIncludes the dialect variant and the language domain variantDifferent characteristics of speech in different bad circumstances make the language different. The learning of language features has evolved, and modern linguistics has been divided into a series of divisions.Dialect variants are divided according to the user's differences; The language domain variant is determined by the use of bad situations.Dialects can be divided into individual dialects, time dialects, regional dialects, social dialects, and standard dialects. Social dialects can be subdivided into socioeconomic status variations, ethnic variations, gender variations, age variations.The language domain includes: the range of discourse, the way of discourse, the concept of the tone of the discourse.Most of our work has to do with our work, which is to use different languages for our different jobs. Discourse means the tools that language users use when communicating. The tone ofthe speech is about the relationship between the individual and the speaker/writer, listener/reader. A series of actions spoken by language speakers for speech purposes are called functional language.The presence of a variation in the language domain helps us get alot of information about a person, such as who we can judge from aperson's accent.The language domain and the dialect are interdependent. Language variants are of great social significanceThe purpose of language description in literature. In this relationship, it is to prove the theoretical analysis. At the level, language can be divided into: vocabulary, grammar, phonetics/handwriting.The grammar level can be divided into grammar and syntax; Grammar is the key of linguistics. In the study of lexical learning, the choice of special terms, the analysis of linguistic level.Stylistic feature mainly appear in semantics, grammar and vocabulary phonetics graphology, in the first level in stylistic feature, semantic features are: the segmental features (onomatopoeia, phonetic symbols, sound assimilation, alliteration/half harmonics), super sound characteristics (melody). A feature (rereading, rhythm, intonation,pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/sound).The second level of stylistic features: grammatical featuresshould be considered in terms of words. The types of sentences are: statements, questions, imperative sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences,sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences Clause/sentence types are: independent, non-independent, non-finite, and sentence elements.Phrases (nouns, pronouns, numerals, non-qualifier and noun structure (noun pre/post phrases); Verb phrase (verb, prepositional verb), passive and abbreviative.The word types have (roots, prefixes, suffixes) the high frequency compound words, composite words, mixtures, temporary words, conversions and pun.The general tendency is to notice six "no matter" and connotation, denotation, jargon, new words, and slang. Notice the combination of words.Stylistics third level: the semantic unit, linguistic connection [word cohesion should pay attention to the turning point ofwords/phrases, grammar structure of ellipsis, substitution, refers to each other on the (refers to, refer to below), vocabulary reuse three aspects], segmentation, discourse/textual patterns, rhetoric (metaphor meaning [metaphor, metonymy], ridiculous words and deeds cheat)/rhetoric/escape situation, semantic role.Note the four steps, the actual description and the analysis of the linguistic description.Chapter v the comparison of formal language of formal languageThe interpersonal function of language, the function that surrounds language, the interpersonal function that speaks language. Further theformal degree of language, functional language and formal degree. There are five levels of classification: informal, formal, z...The formal and phonetic characteristics of the language: the formal and informal language of the language depends on our words, the relationship to phonology, syntax rules, semantics.To establish a similar characteristic, the formal and informal language of the language depends on the vocabulary, phonology morphology, syntactic semantics. The article finally explains the difference between the content of the intervention and the informal language.Chapter 6 comparisons of spoken and written languagesProminent differences: different listening/readers, different linguistic, and different preparation statesThe difference of stylistics: speaking and writing are different in grammar, and different in terms of vocabulary, but also inphonetics/handwriting. After telling the difference between the two, there are plenty of examples to compare thetwo.The more subtle difference between the way of discourse: the difference in lifestyle, the way in which it is written,It includes: style, tone, rangeChapter 7 English conversationThe text tells the necessity of learning how to speak, the necessity of learning the conversation.Learning content of the session: economy, politics, theinternational situation, culture, education, science, sports, entertainment, news, family, children, the friendship, the weather, andso on.Adapt to the way the session is copied. The text lists many examplesof informal conversationsGeneral characteristics of English conversation:In terms of language levels of stylistic feature: grammatical features, preference for short and loose sentence, often adapt toelliptical sentence and incomplete sentences, often adapt to questions, using a simple noun and verb phrase structure; Vocabularycharacteristics, like to use short words and inaccurate expression, high frequency of acronyms, idioms, and a lot of phrasal verbs, use exaggerated words and slang. In phonetic features, the frequent use of some basic metrical features, the rhythmic variation in the tones, andtheemergence of the sublinguistic effects of freedom; A series of viewson semantic characteristics,Rough synonyms, even using illogical languages.Summary: the conversation sometimes relies heavily on the bad background knowledge of the time.Other session types include: discussion, telephone conversation, etc.。