土木工程毕业设计外文文献翻译

土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献及翻译Here are two examples of foreign literature related to graduation design in the field of civil engineering, along with their Chinese translations:1. Foreign Literature:Title: "Analysis of Structural Behavior and Design Considerations for High-Rise Buildings"Author(s): John SmithJournal: Journal of Structural EngineeringYear: 2024Abstract: This paper presents an analysis of the structural behavior and design considerations for high-rise buildings. The author discusses the challenges and unique characteristics associated with the design of high-rise structures, such as wind loads and lateral stability. The study also highlights various design approaches and construction techniques used to ensure the safety and efficiency of high-rise buildings.Chinese Translation:标题：《高层建筑的结构行为分析与设计考虑因素》期刊：结构工程学报年份：2024年2. Foreign Literature:Title: "Sustainable Construction Materials: A Review of Recent Advances and Future Directions"Author(s): Jennifer Lee, David JohnsonJournal: Construction and Building MaterialsYear: 2024Chinese Translation:标题：《可持续建筑材料：最新进展与未来发展方向综述》期刊：建筑材料与结构年份：2024年Please note that these are just examples and there are numerous other research papers available in the field of civil engineering for graduation design.。

土木工程英文文献及翻译-英语论文土木工程英文文献及翻译in Nanjing, ChinaZhou Jin, Wu Yezheng *, Yan GangDepartment of Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiao Tong University,Xi’an , PR ChinaReceived 4 April 2005; accepted 2 October 2005Available online 1 December 2005AbstractThe bin method, as one of the well known and simple steady state methods used to predict heating and cooling energyconsumption of buildings, requires reliable and detailed bin data. Since the long term hourly temperature records are notavailable in China, there is a lack of bin weather data for study and use. In order to keep the bin method practical in China,a stochastic model using only the daily maximum and minimum temperatures to generate bin weather data was establishedand tested by applying one year of measured hourly ambient temperature data in Nanjing, China. By comparison with themeasured values, the bin weather data generated by the model shows adequate accuracy. This stochastic model can be usedto estimate the bin weather data in areas, especially in China, where the long term hourly temperature records are missingor not available.Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Energy analysis; Stochastic method; Bin data; China1. IntroductionIn the sense of minimizing the life cycle cost of a building, energy analysis plays an important role in devel-oping an optimum and cost effective design of a heating or an air conditioning system for a building. Severalmodels are available for estimating energy use in buildings. These models range from simple steady state mod-els to comprehensive dynamic simulation procedures.Today, several computer programs, in which the influence of many parameters that are mainly functionsof time are taken into consideration, are available for simulating both buildings and systems and performinghour by hour energy calculations using hourly weather data. DOE-2, BLAST and TRNSYS are such* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 29 8266 8738; fax: +86 29 8266 8725.E-mail address: yzwu@ (W. Yezheng).0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/NomenclatureZ. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–1850number of daysfrequency of normalized hourly ambient temperatureMAPE mean absolute percentage error (%)number of subintervals into which the interval [0, 1] was equally dividednumber of normalized temperatures that fall in subintervalprobability densityhourly ambient temperature (°C)normalized hourly ambient temperature (dimensionless)weighting factorSubscriptscalculated valuemeasured valuemax daily maximummin daily minimumprograms that have gained widespread acceptance as reliable estimation tools. Unfortunately, along withthe increased sophistication of these models, they have also become very complex and tedious touse [1].The steady state methods, which are also called single measure methods, require less data and provideadequate results for simple systems and applications. These methods are appropriate if the utilization ofthe building can be considered constant. Among these methods are the degree day and bin data methods.The degree-day methods are the best known and the simplest methods among the steady state models.Traditionally, the degree-day method is based on the assumption that on a long term average, the solarand internal gains will offset the heat loss when the mean daily outdoor temperature is 18.3 °C and thatthe energy consumption will be proportional to the difference between 18.3 °C and the mean daily tempera-ture. The degree-day method can estimate energy consumption very accurately if the building use and theefficiency of the HVAC equipment are sufficiently constant. However, for many applications, at least oneof the above parameters varies with time. For instance, the efficiency of a heat pump system and HVAC equip-ment may be affected directly or indirectly by outdoor temperature. In such cases, the bin method can yieldgood results for the annual energy consumption if different temperature intervals and time periods areevaluated separately. In the bin method, the energy consumption is calculated for several values of the outdoortemperature and multiplied by the number of hours in the temperature interval (bin) centered around thattemperature. Bin data is defined as the number of hours that the ambient temperature was in each of a setof equally sized intervals of ambient temperature.In the United States, the necessary bin weather data are available in the literature [2,3]. Some researchers[4–8] have developed bin weather data for other regions of the world. However, there is a lack of informationin the ASHRAE handbooks concerning the bin weather data required to perform energy calculations in build-ings in China. The practice of analysis of weather data for the design of HVAC systems and energy consump-tion predictions in China is quite new. For a long time, only the daily value of meteorological elements, such asdaily maximum, minimum and average temperature, was recorded and available in most meteorologicalobservations in China, but what was needed to obtain the bin weather data, such as temperature bin data,were the long term hourly values of air temperature. The study of bin weather data is very limited in China.Only a few attempts [9,10] in which bin weather data for several cities was given have been found in China.Obviously, this cannot meet the need for actual use and research. So, there is an urgent need for developing binweather data in China. The objective of this paper, therefore, is to study the hourly measured air temperaturedistribution and then to establish a model to generate bin weather data for the long term daily temperaturedata.2. Data usedZ. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–1850In this paper, to study the hourly ambient temperature variation and to establish and evaluate the model, aone year long hourly ambient temperature record for Nanjing in 2002 was used in the study. These data aretaken from the Climatological Center of Lukou Airport in Nanjing, which is located in the southeast of China(latitude 32.0°N, longitude 118.8°E, altitude 9 m).In addition, in order to create the bin weather data for Nanjing, typical weather year data was needed.Based on the long term meteorological data from 1961 to 1989 obtained from the China MeteorologicalAdministration, the typical weather year data for most cities in China has been studied in our former research[11] by means of the TMY (Typical Meteorological Year) method. The typical weather year for Nanjing isshown in Table 1. As only daily values of the meteorological elements were recorded and available in China,the data contained in the typical weather year data was also only daily values. In this study, the daily maxi-mum and minimum ambient temperature in the typical weather year data for Nanjing was used.3. Stochastic model to generate bin dataTraditionally, the generation of bin weather data needs long term hourly ambient temperature records.However, in the generation, the time information, namely the exact time that such a temperature occurredin a day, was omitted, and only the numerical value of the temperature was used. So, the value of each hourlyambient temperature can be treated as the independent random variable, and its distribution within the dailytemperature range can be analyzed by means of probability theory.3.1. Probability distribution of normalized hourly ambient temperatureSince the daily maximum and minimum temperatures and temperature range varied day by day, the con-cept of normalized hourly ambient temperature should be introduced to transform the hourly temperatures ineach day into a uniform scale. The new variable, normalized hourly ambient temperature is defined by^ ¼ttmintmaxtminwhere ^ may be termed the normalized hourly ambient temperature, tmaxand tminare the daily maximum andminimum temperatures, respectively, t is the hourly ambient temperature. Obviously, the normalized hourly ambient temperature ^ is a random variable that lies in the interval [0, 1].To analyze its distribution, the interval [0, 1] can be divided equally into several subintervals, and by means ofthe histogram method [12]iin each subinterval can be calculated by1137土木工程英文文献及翻译Based on the one year long hourly ambient temperature data in Nanjing, China, the probability density piwas calculated for the whole day and the 08:00–20:00 period, where the interval [0, 1] was equally divided into50 subintervals, namely n equals 50. The results are shown in Fig. 1.According to the discrete probability density data in Fig. 1, the probability density function of ^ can beobtained by a fitting method. In this study, the quadratic polynomialswere used to fit the probability density data, where a, b and c are coefficients. According to the property of theprobability density function, the following equation should be satisfiedAs shown in Fig. 1, the probability density curve obtained according to the probability density data pointsis also shown. The probability densit y functions that are fitted are described byp ¼ 2:7893^23:1228^ þ 1:6316 for the whole day periodp ¼ 2:2173^20:1827^ þ 0:3522 for the 08 : 00–20 : 00 period3.2. The generation of hourly ambient temperatureAs stated in the beginning of this paper, the objective of this study is to generate the hourly ambient tem-perature needed for bin weather data generation in the case that only the daily maximum and minimum tem-peratures are known. To do this, we can use the obtained probability density function to generate thenormalized hourly ambient temperature and then transform it to hourly temperature. This belongs to theproblem of how to simulate a random variable with a prescribed probability density function and can be doneon a computer by the method described in the literature [13]. For a given probability density function f ð^Þ, ifits distribution function F ð^Þ can be obtained and if u is a random variable with uniform distribution on [0, 1],thenF, we need only setAs stated above, the probability density function of the normalized ambient temperature was fitted using aone year long hourly temperature data. Based on the probability density function obtained, the random nor-malized hourly temperature can be generated. When the daily maximum and minimum temperature areknown, the normalized hourly temperature can be transformed to an actual temperature by the followingequationWhen the hourly temperature for a particular period of the day has been generated using the above method,the bin data can also be obtained. Because the normalized temperature generated using the model in this studyis a random variable, the bin data obtained from each generation shows somedifference, but it has much sim-ilarity. To obtain a stable result of bin data, the generation of the bin data can be performed enough times,and the bin data can be obtained by averaging the result of each generation. In this paper, 50 generations wereaveraged to generate the bin weather data.Z. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–18503.4. Methods of model evaluationThe performance of the model was evaluated in terms of the following statistical error test:土木工程英文文献及翻译一种产生bin气象数据的随机方法——中国南京周晋摘要：bin方法是一种众所周知且简捷的稳态的计算方法，可以用来预计建筑的冷热能耗。

土木工程类专业英文文献及翻译土木工程类专业英文文献及翻译PA VEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSEDBY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADESBy Sandra L. Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE(Reviewed by the Highway Division) ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com- mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional andweathering processes favorable to their formation. Included herein is a discussionof predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment andtesting methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for theseproblem soils. A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapsestrains for typical pavement subgrades is presented. Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests,are used.INTRODUCTIONWhen a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume,increase in volume, or do nothing. A soil that increases in volume is calleda swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called acollapsible soil. The amount of volume change that occursdepends on thesoil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, andthe degree and extent of wetting. Subgrade materials comprised of soils thatchange volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be-ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollarsin roadway repairs. The prediction of the volume changes that may occur inthe field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing withthese problem subgrade materials.Each project will have different design considerations, economic con-straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account. However,with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best designrelative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, anda much more rational design approach may be made. For example, typicaltechniques for dealing with expansive clays include: (1) In situ treatmentswith substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash;(2) seepage barriers and/or drainage systems; or (3) a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod-ification of the design to "accept" the anticipated expansion. In order to makethe most economical decision, the amount of volume change (especially non-uniform volume change) must be accurately estimated, and the degree of roadroughness evaluated from these data. Similarly, alternative design techniquesare available for any roadway problem.The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simplemethods for: (1) Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible;and (2) estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the'Asst. Prof., Ctr. for Advanced Res. in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ85287.Note. Discussion open until April 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one month,a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The manuscriptfor this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on February 3, 1988.This paper is part of the Journal of Transportation.Engineering, Vol. 114, No. 6, November, 1988. ASCE, ISSN 0733-947X/88/0006-0673/$1.00 + $.15 per page.。

Unit Eight The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealing comprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical design determinants. Structural considerations were cast as important physical determinants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if they are to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmental control design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in final analysis, must also be considered important. Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design. But this need not be so. If something is known of the relationship between structural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’ observation that most enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’ observation that most creative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and not because of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases of extravagance might lead one to believe. One could even say that a designer who is truly creative will produce architectural excellence within the constraints of economy. Especially today, we find that there is a need to recognize that elegance and economy can become synonymous concepts.Therefore, in this chapter we will set forth a brief explanation of the parameters of cost analysis and the means by which designers may evaluate the overall economic implications of their structural and architectural design thinking.The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total cost of building construction. Or, since the total construction cost is but a part of a total project cost, one could include additional consideration for land(10～20percent),finance and interest(100～200 percent),taxes and maintenance costs (on the order of20 percent).But a discussion of these so-called architectural costs is beyond the scope of this book, and we will focus on the cost of construction only.On the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percent of total construction costs. This is so because it has been traditional to discriminate between purely structural and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find that architectural costs have been taken to be those that are not necessary for the structural strength and physical integrity of a building design.“Essential services” forms a third construction cost category and refers to the provision of mechanical and electrical equipment and other service systems. On the average, these service costs account for some 15 to 30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on the type of building. Mechanical and electrical refersto the cost of providing for air-conditioning equipment and he means on air distribution as well as other services, such as plumbing, communications, and electrical light and power.The salient point is that this breakdown of costs suggests that, up to now, an average of about 45 to 60 percent of the total cost of constructing a typical design solution could be considered as architectural. But this picture is rapidly changing. With high interest costs and a scarcity of capital, client groups are demanding leaner designs. Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches the designer may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.The first approach to cost efficiency is to consider that wherever architectural and structural solutions can be achieved simultaneously, a potential for economy is evident. Since current trends indicate a reluctance to allocate large portions of a construction budget to purely architectural costs, this approach seems a logical necessity. But, even where money is available, any use of structure to play a basic architectural role will allow the nonstructural budget to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be cut back. The second approach achieves economy through an integration of service and structural subsystems to round out one’s effort to produce a total architectural solution to a building design problem.The final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usually takes a different form. The costs are broken down into (1) cost of materials brought to the site, (2)cost of labor involved in every phase of the construction process, (3)cost of equipment purchased or rented for the project, (4)cost of management and overhead, and(5) profit. The architect or engineer seldom follows such an accurate path but should perhaps keep in mind how the actual cost of a structure is finally priced and made up.Thus, the percent averages stated above are obviously crude, but they can suffice to introduce the nature of the cost picture. The following sections will discuss the range of these averages and then proceed to a discussion of square footage costs and volume-based estimates for use in rough approximation of the cost of building a structural system.2. Percentage EstimatesThe type of building project may indicate the range of percentages that can be allocated to structural and other costs. As might be expected, highly decorative or symbolic buildings would normally demand the lowest percentage of structural costs as compared to total construction cost. In this case the structural costs might drop to 10～15percent of the total building cost because more money is allocated to the so-called architectural costs. Once again this implies that the symbolic components are conceived independent of basic structural requirements. However, where structure and symbolism are more-or-less synthesized, as with a church or Cathedral, the structural system cost can be expected to be somewhat higher, say, 15and20 percent(or more).At the other end of the cost scale are the very simple and nonsymbolic industrial buildings, such as warehouses and garages. In these cases, the nonstructural systems, such as interior partition walls and ceilings, as will as mechanical systems, are normally minimal, as is decoration, and therefore the structural costs can account for60 to 70 percent, even 80 percent of the total cost of construction.Buildings such as medium-rise office and apartment buildings(5～10 stories)occupy the median position on a cost scale at about 25 percent for structure. Low and short-span buildings for commerce and housing, say, of three or four stories and with spans of some 20 or 30 ft and simple erection requirements, will yield structural costs of 15～20 percent of total building cost.Special-performance buildings, such as laboratories and hospitals, represent another category. They can require long spans and a more than average portion of the total costs will be allocated to services (i.e., 30～50 percent), with about 20 percent going for the purely structural costs. Tall office building (15 stories or more) and/or long-span buildings (say, 50 to 60 ft) can require a higher percentage for structural costs (about 30to 35percent of the total construction costs), with about 30 to 40 percent allocated to services.In my case, these percentages are typical and can be considered as a measure of average efficiency in design of buildings. For example, if a low, short-span and no monumental building were to be bid at 30 percent for the structure alone, one could assume that the structural design may be comparatively uneconomical. On the other hand, the architect should be aware of the confusing fact that economical bids depend on the practical ability of both the designer and the contractor to interpret the design and construction requirements so that a low bid will ensue. Progress in structural design is often limited more by the designer’s or contractor’ slack of experience, imagination, and absence of communication than by the idea of the design. If a contractor is uncertain, he will add costs to hedge the risk he will be taking. It is for this reason that both the architect and the engineer should be well-versed in the area of construction potentials if innovative designs ate to be competitively bid. At the least the architect must be capable of working closely with imaginative structural engineers, contractors and even fabricators wherever possible even if the architecture is very ordinary. Efficiency always requires knowledge and above all imagination, and these are essential when designs are unfamiliar.The foregoing percentages can be helpful in approximating total construction costs if the assumption is made that structural design is at least of average (of typical) efficiency. For example, if a total office building construction cost budget is ﹩5,000,000,and 25 percen t is the “standard” to be used for structure, a projected structural system should cost no more than ﹩1,250,000.If a very efficient design were realized, say, at 80 percent of what would be given by the “average” efficientdesign estimate stated above the savings,(20 percent),would then be﹩250,000 or 5 percent of total construction costs ﹩5,000,000.If the ﹩5,000,000 figure is committed, then the savings of ﹩250,000 could be applied to expand the budget for “other” costs.All this suggests that creative integration of structural (and mechanical and electrical) design with the total architectural design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction costs or more architecture for the same cost. Thus, the degree of success possible depends on knowledge, cleverness, and insightful collaboration of the designers and contractors.The above discussion is only meant to give the reader an overall perspective on total construction costs. The following sections will now furnish the means for estimating the cost of structure alone. Two alternative means will be provided for making an approximate structural cost estimate: one on a square foot of building basis, and another on volumes of structural materials used. Such costs can then be used to get a rough idea of total cost by referring to the “standards” for efficient design given above. At best, this will be a crude measure, but it is hoped that the reader will find that it makes him somewhat familiar with the type of real economic problems that responsible designers must deal with. At the least, this capability will be useful in comparing alternative systems for the purpose of determining their relative cost efficiency.3. Square-foot EstimatingAs before, it is possible to empirically determine a “standard” per-square-foot cost factor based on the average of costs for similar construction at a given place and time. More-or-less efficient designs are possible, depending on the ability of the designer and contractor to use materials and labor efficiently, and vary from the average.The range of square-foot costs for “normal” structural systems is ﹩10 to ﹩16 psf. For example, typical office buildings average between ﹩12 and ﹩16 psf, and apartment-type structures range from ﹩10 to ﹩14.In each case, the lower part of the range refers to short spans and low buildings, whereas the upper portion refers to longer spans and moderately tall buildings.Ordinary industrial structures are simple and normally produce square-foot costs ranging from ﹩10 to ﹩14,as with the more typical apartment building. Although the spans for industrial structures are generally longer than those for apartment buildings and the loads heavier, they commonly have fewer complexities as well as fewer interior walls, partitions, ceiling requirements, and they are not tall. In other words, simplicity of design and erection can offset the additional cost for longer span lengths and heavier loads in industrial buildings.Of course there are exceptions to these averages. The limits of variation depend on a system’s complexity, span length over “normal” and special loading or foundation conditions. For example, the Crown Zellerbach high-rise bank and office building in San Francisco is an exception, since its structural costs were unusually high. However, in this case, the use of 60 ft steel spans and free-standing columns at the bottom, which carry the considerable earthquake loading, as well as the special foundation associated with the poor San Francisco soil conditions, contributed to the exceptionally high costs. The design was also unusual for its time and a decision had been made to allow higher than normal costs for all aspects of the building to achieve open spaces and for both function and symbolic reasons. Hence the proportion of structural to total cost probably remained similar to ordinary buildings.The effect of spans longer than normal can be further illustrated. The “usual” floor span range is as follows: for apartment buildings,16 to 25 ft; for office buildings,20 to 30 ft; for industrial buildings,25 to 30 ft loaded heavily at 200 to 300 psf; and garage-type structures span,50 to 60 ft, carrying relatively light(50～75 psf) loads(i.e., similar to those for apartment and office structures).Where these spans are doubled, the structural costs can be expected to rise about 20 to 30 percent.To increased loading in the case of industrial buildings offers another insight into the dependency of cost estimates on “usual” standards. If the loading in an industrial building were to be increased to 500psf(i.e., two or three times), the additional structural cost would be on the order of another 20 to 30 percent.The reference in the above cases is for floor systems. For roofs using efficient orthotropic (flat) systems, contemporary limits for economical design appear to be on the order of 150 ft, whether of steel or prestressed concrete. Although space- frames are often used for steel or prestressed concrete. Although space-frames are often used for steel spans over 150 ft the fabrication costs begin to raise considerably.At any rate, it should be recognized that very long-span subsystems are special cases and can in themselves have a great or small effect on is added, structural costs for special buildings can vary greatly from design to design. The more special the form, the more that design knowledge and creativity, as well as construction skill, will determine the potential for achieving cost efficiency.4. Volume-Based EstimatesWhen more accuracy is desired, estimates of costs can be based on the volume of materials used to do a job. At first glance it might seem that the architect would be ill equipped to estimate the volume of material required in construction with any accuracy, and much less speed. But it is possible, with a moderate learning effort, to achieve some capability for making such estimates.V olume-based estimates are given by assigning in-place value to the pounds or tons of steel, or the cubic yards of reinforced or prestressed concrete required to build a structural system. For such a preliminary estimate, one does not need to itemize detailed costs. For example, in-place concrete costs include the cost of forming, falsework, reinforcing steel, labor, and overhead. Steel includes fabrication and erection of components.Costs of structural steel as measured by weight range from ﹩0.50 to ﹩0.70 per pound in place for building construction. For low-rise buildings, one can use stock wide-flange structural members that require minimum fabrication, and the cost could be as bow as ﹩0.50 per pound. More complicated systems requiring much cutting and welding(such as a complicated steel truss or space-frame design) can go to ﹩0.70 per pound and beyond. For standard tall building designs (say, exceeding 20 stories), there would typically be about 20 to 30 pounds of steel/psf, which one should wish not to exceed. A design calling for under 20 psf would require a great deal of ingenuity and the careful integration of structural and architectural components and would be a real accomplishment.Concrete costs are volumetric and should range from an in-place low of ﹩150 per cu yd for very simple reinforced concrete work to ﹩300 per cu yd for expensive small quantity precast and prestressed work. This large range is due to the fact that the contributing variables are more complicated, depending upon the shape of the precise components, the erection problems, and the total quantity produced.Form work is generally the controlling factor for any cast-in-place concrete work. Therefore, to achieve a cost of ﹩150 per cu yd, only the simplest of systems can be used, such as flat slabs that require little cutting and much reuse of forms. Where any beams are introduced that require special forms and difficulty in placement of concrete and steel bars, the range begins at ﹩180 per cu yd and goes up to ﹩300.Since, in a developed country, high labor costs account for high forming costs, this results in pressure to use the simplest and most repetitive of systems to keep costs down. It become rewarding to consider the possibility of mass-produced precast and prestressed components, which may bring a saving in costs and\or construction completion time. The latter results in savings due to lower construction financing costs for the contractor plus quicker earnings for the owner.One important exception to the above cost picture is that of concrete work in foundations. Here the cost of forming and casting simple foundations (i.e., for spread foundations with very little steel, such as subgrade bearing walls and mat foundations) should be considered at about $90 per cu yd. But in case pile can cost $12 per ft or more in place, of course depending on soil conditions.It is enlightening to pay some attention to the makeup of these in-place concrete estimates. The cost of concrete alone for ordinary reinforced concrete work is about $40 per cu yd delivered. For special concrete, such as lightweight and/or high-strengthquick-setting concrete, the cost can go to $50 or even $60 per cu yd. Mild reinforcing steel, depending on the cutting and fabricating complexity of the required reinforcing design, can rang from 30￠to46￠per lb in place. For an average of about 150 lb of steel per cubic yard of ordinary reinforced concrete, the steel cost would range from about $45 to $60 per sq yd. Labor, including placing of reinforcing and concrete, cost about $20 to $40 per cu yd depending on the complexity of placing and working the concrete.Form work represents the largest single cost factor for most concrete work. The cost can be stated as per square feet of contact area, with slabs requiring single-side and walls double-side forming. In either case, efficiency depends on reusability and the simplicity of form design. For the simplest reusable plywood forms, such as for a flat slab, the costs will run a minimum of $1 psf of contact area. This amounts to some $80 of forming cost per cu yd of concrete for an ordinary 8-in wall. When beams are introduced, cutting and erection costs are much affected by high labor cost, and the forming costs can easily go to $2.50or $3.00 psf of contact area. Special designs for very complicated forming, such as for nonstandard waffle systems, or for shell and suspension design, will often contribute a large portion to cast-in –place concrete cost, unless the forms are reused.The mass of concrete per square foot of plan area affects the form/cost ratio. This is pronounced in the case of, say, a simple 3-in shell as compared with an 8-in flat slab. At $1 psf form cost, one cubic yard of concrete placed for a 3-in shell will require 108 sq ft of form, at a cost of $108.Thus, the thinner the system, the greater the influence of form costs on total costs.Prestressing costs can now be compared with nonprestressed concrete work. The material and labor for prestressing steel cost about $40 to $60 per cu yd for pretensioned precast concrete and $60 to $80 per cu yd for post tensioned in-place concrete. But with competent design, prestresse structural members are designed thinner in comparison with reinforced concrete design, and the overall cost of prestressed concrete construction could often be cheaper than ordinary reinforced concrete work. The other advantages of weight reduction and minimum deflection are additional.Often where prestressing is not found to be less expensive in term of immediate construction cost, the ability to design for longer spans and lighter elements with less wall, column and foundation loading, as well as the increased architectural freedom, determine the desirability of going to prestressed elements. The point for the designer to remember is that good design in either material will be competitive and frequently one’s decision is in a context of many important building design determinants, only one of which is the structural system.To summarize, the range of cost per cubic yard of standard types of poured-in-place concrete work will average from $150 to $250, the minimum being for simple reinforced work and the maximum for moderately complicated post tensioned work. This range is large and any estimate that ignores the effect of variables above will be commensurately inaccurate.5.SummaryThe estimate and economical design of structure building are important and essential work, which should be valued by all architects and engineers and others. Better you do it, more profit you will receive from it!中文翻译：建筑结构的成本1．导言建筑艺术设计被描绘成了作为一个既包含处理很多物质因素，又考虑诸多非物质方面的因素的复杂形式。

土木工程专业外文文献及翻译外文文献及翻译学号：学校代码：（二〇一二年六月题目： About Buiding on the Structure Design 学生姓名：学院：土木工程学院系别：建筑工程系专业：土木工程(建筑工程方向) 班级：土木08-4班指导教师：英文原文：Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread e某istencebut again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this te某t carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiarcrack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concretethe circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure. Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mi某ture but formation of the inaddition material of quality brittleness not andall the concrete construction transform with oneself,control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete e某istence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is e某actly because these beginning start blemish of e某istencejust make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of e某pand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of e某istence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of e某ternal appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result age science research with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly ofthe scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope reinforced concrete norm is also e某plicit provision:Some structure at place ofdissimilarity under the condition allow e某istence certain the crack of at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don'tappear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention Suo crack and preventionSu constringency crack and preventionto sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation kind crack manyis deep enter or pierce through se某 crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 ° Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion width under the influence of temperature variety foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.crack and prevention。

土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献翻译2篇XXXXXXXXX学院学士学位毕业设计（论文）英语翻译课题名称英语翻译学号学生专业、年级所在院系指导教师选题时间Fundamental Assumptions for Reinforced ConcreteBehaviorThe chief task of the structural engineer is the design of structures. Design is the determination of the general shape and all specific dimensions of a particular structure so that it will perform the function for which it is created and will safely withstand the influences that will act on it throughout useful life. These influences are primarily the loads and other forces to which it will be subjected, as well as other detrimental agents, such as temperature fluctuations, foundation settlements, and corrosive influences, Structural mechanics is one of the main tools in this process of design. As here understood, it is the body of scientific knowledge that permits one to predict with a good degree of certainly how a structure of give shape and dimensions will behave when acted upon by known forces or other mechanical influences. The chief items of behavior that are of practical interest are (1) the strength of the structure, i. e. , that magnitude of loads of a give distribution which will cause the structure to fail, and (2) the deformations, such as deflections and extent of cracking, that the structure will undergo when loaded underservice condition.The fundamental propositions on which the mechanics of reinforced concrete is based are as follows:1.The internal forces, such as bending moments, shear forces, and normal andshear stresses, at any section of a member are in equilibrium with the effect of the external loads at that section. This proposition is not an assumption but a fact, because any body or any portion thereof can be at rest only if all forces acting on it are in equilibrium.2.The strain in an embedded reinforcing bar is the same as that of thesurrounding concrete. Expressed differently, it is assumed that perfect bonding exists between concrete and steel at the interface, so that no slip can occur between the two materials. Hence, as the one deforms, so must the other. With modern deformed bars, a high degree of mechanical interlocking is provided in addition to the natural surface adhesion, so this assumption is very close to correct.3.Cross sections that were plane prior to loading continue to be plan in themember under load. Accurate measurements have shown that when a reinforced concrete member is loaded close to failure, this assumption is not absolutely accurate. However, the deviations are usually minor.4.In view of the fact the tensile strength of concrete is only a small fraction ofits compressive strength; the concrete in that part of a member which is in tension is usually cracked. While these cracks, in well-designed members, are generally so sorrow as to behardly visible, they evidently render the cracked concrete incapable of resisting tension stress whatever. This assumption is evidently a simplification of the actual situation because, in fact, concrete prior to cracking, as well as the concrete located between cracks, does resist tension stresses of small magnitude. Later in discussions of the resistance of reinforced concrete beams to shear, it will become apparent that under certain conditions this particular assumption is dispensed with and advantage is taken of the modest tensile strength that concrete can develop.5.The theory is based on the actual stress-strain relation ships and strengthproperties of the two constituent materials or some reasonable equivalent simplifications thereof. The fact that novelistic behavior is reflected in modern theory, that concrete is assumed to be ineffective in tension, and that the joint action of the two materials is taken into consideration results in analytical methods which are considerably more complex and also more challenging, than those that are adequate for members made of a single, substantially elastic material.These five assumptions permit one to predict by calculation the performance of reinforced concrete members only for some simple situations. Actually, the joint action of two materials as dissimilar and complicated as concrete and steel is so complex that it has not yet lent itself to purely analytical treatment. For this reason, methods of design and analysis, while using these assumptions, are very largely based on the results of extensive and continuing experimental research. They are modified and improved as additional test evidence becomes available.钢筋混凝土的基本假设作为结构工程师的主要任务是结构设计。

144 Study on Construction Cost of Construction ProjectsHui LiAudit Department of Tianjin Polytechnic UniversityE-mail: lihui650122@AbstractChina is a country which has the largest investment amount in engineering construction in the world and which has the most construction projects. It is a significant subject for the extensive engineering managers to have effective engineering cost management in construction project management and to reasonably determine and control construction cost on the condition of ensuring construction quality and time limit.On the basis of the status quo of losing control in Chinese construction investment and of separation of technique and economy in engineering, and guided by basic theories of construction cost control, the author discusses control methods and application of construction cost, sets forth existing issues in construction cost control and influences of these issues on determination and control of construction cost, puts forward that construction cost control should reflect cost control of the entire construction process at the earlier stage of construction, and then introduces some procedures and methods of applying value project cost control at all stages of construction projects.Keywords: Construction cost, Cost control, Project1. Significance of the studyThe existing construction cost management system in China was formulated in 1950s, and improved in 1980s. Traditional construction cost managerial approach was one method brought in from the former Soviet Union based on unified quota of the country. It is characterized by the managerial approach of construction cost in the planned economy, which determines that it cannot adapt to requirements of the current market economy.Traditional construction cost managerial approach in China mainly includes two aspects, namely, determination approach of construction cost and control approach of construction cost. The traditional determination approach of construction cost mainly applied mechanically national or local unified quantity quota to determine the cost of a construction project. Although this approach has undergone reform of over 20 years, until now, influences of planned economy management mode have still been in existence in many regions. Control approach of our traditional construction cost is mainly to control settlement and alteration of construction cost, which is merely an approach to settle accounts after the event, and which cannot satisfy the purpose of saving resources and improving work. In recent years, requirements of developed countries on project investment have been to plan to control in advance and to control in the middle of an event, whose effects have proved to be effective. An actually scientific approach should be that construction cost control approach beforehand and after the event can eliminate or diminish labour in vain or poor efficiency and unnecessary resource degradation and methods applied in implementation of construction projects before or after the event.Considering the above situation, the academic circles put forward concept of cost management and control of the overall process as early as 1980s. They began to attach importance to prophase management of construction projects and take the initiative to conduct cost management. Afterwards, on July 1, 2003, implementation of <<Cost Estimate Norm for Bill of Quantity of Construction Works>> symbolized that cost estimate of China had entered a brand-new era that complied with development rules of market economy. From then on, concepts and approaches of Chinese cost management were really integrated with the international society.Losing control of construction project investment is a universal phenomenon in fixed investment field in China. A construction project consumes quite a lot of manpower, materials and machines, with large investment, long construction cycle, and strong synthesis, so it is related with economic interests of all construction parties and means a lot to national economy. Currently, in the field of Chinese project construction, there exists the status quo of separation of technique and economy. Most of engineers and technicians tend to regard construction cost as duty of financing andpreliminary budget personnel, and mistakenly believe that it has nothing to do with themselves. In the process of carrying out a project, they usually only focus on quality control and progress control, while they ignore control over investment in construction projects. If technicians ignore construction cost, and those who are in charge of construction cost have no knowledge in relevant technical construction connected with construction cost, then it is difficult for them to reasonably confirm and effectively control construction cost. Construction supervision investment control refers to managerial activities at the whole implementation state of the project, which attempts to guarantee realization of project investment targets with the premise of satisfying quality and progress. Investment targets are set at different stages with further progress of construction practice, and construction cost control runs through the entire process of project construction, but it should give prominence to the key points. Obviously, the key of construction cost control lies in investment decision-making and design stage before the construction, while after the investment decision is made, the key lies in the design. Life cycle of construction project includes construction cost and recurrent expenditure after the construction project is put into service, and discard and removal costs etc after usage period of the project. According to analysis of some western countries, usually design cost only amounts to less than 1% of life cycle of construction project. However, it is the cost of less than 1% that accounts for more than 75% of influences on construction cost. It is therefore obvious that, design quality is vital to benefits of the entire project construction.For a long time, construction cost control of the preliminary engineering of project construction has been ignored in China, while the primary energy of controlling construction cost has been focused upon auditing working drawing estimate, settling construction cost and settling itemized account during construction. Although this has its effect, after all, this had no difference from taking precautions after suffering a loss and getting half the result with twice the efforts. In order to effectively control construction cost, the emphasis of control should be firmly transferred to preliminary construction stage. At present, we should take all pains to grasp this significant stage so as to achieve maximum results with little effort.This article aims to analyze existing issues in cost control of the entire construction period through study on theoretical methods and practice of construction cost management. Especially, issues in cost control in the earlier period of construction deserve our research, so that we can explore corresponding reform measures to offer some references for construction project cost control.The situation of a construction project in which budgetary estimate exceeds estimation, budget exceeds budgetary estimate, and settlement exceeds budget, is a universal phenomenon in investment in fixed assets in China. Construction cost which is out of control adds to investment pressure, increases construction cost, reduces investment profit, affects investment decision-making, and, to a great extent, wastes the national finance, so it is likely to result in corruption or offence. Since the middle of 1950s, on the basis of summarizing practical experiences of fundamental construction battle line for several decades, we have conducted a series of reforms in construction field. Especially since May 1988, we have gradually implemented the system of construction supervision all over the country, which has had some positive effects upon reversing the phenomenon of losing control of a construction project in the implementation period. However, because that system is still in its starting stage, there hasn’t appeared a large batch of professional and socialized supervision teams. In addition, in projects in which construction supervision is carried out, there exist general phenomena, such as “emphasis on quality control at the construction stage and neglect of investment control”, and “emphasis on technical aspects of supervision and neglect of economic aspects of supervision”. In reality, rights of supervision tend to be confined to management of technical aspects, while management of economic aspects is firmly in control of proprietors. Meanwhile, lagging behind of existing construction cost management system is the primary cause for losing control of construction cost. Therefore, as a whole, the phenomenon of losing control over construction project cost is still quite serious, so it is necessary to conduct further study and make further analysis on major factors of current construction cost management and factors at all stages of a construction project that affect construction cost.2. Primary study contentAiming at the subject of “control of whole-process of construction project cost”, and based on lots of literature reviews about determination and control of construction project cost both at home and abroad, the author of this paper has collected extensively some relevant provincial and city reports and data after investigation. Afterwards, the author conducts the following work.1) To analyze formulation of construction project investment and to find out primary reasons for losing control over construction cost at all stages of a construction project.2) To study and analyze status quo and existing issues of current construction cost management, and study influences of these issues upon determination and control of a construction cost.3) To put forward effective approaches and methods as well application of value engineering of a construction project from its decision-making stage, design stage, construction stage to the final acceptance of construction stage.1454) To make clear significance, necessity and feasibility of cost control of a construction project so as to provide recommendations for improvement of construction cost management in China.2.1 Construction cost control theory and management mod eAccording to the new cost control theory, cost engineers are “professional persons who undertake cost estimate, cost control, marketing planning and scientific management”. Fields undertaken by cost engineers include such aspects as project management, project planning, progress management and profitability analysis etc of a project construction and its production process. Cost engineers offer service for control over life cycle expenditure, property facilities and production & manufacture of a construction project with their management technique with an overall cost.2.2 Current construction cost management model and theories in China2.2.1 Direct regulation and control of the governmentConsidering development process of quota, it can be discovered that quota has come into being, developed and become mature gradually with development of planned economy after foundation of PRC. Since China has carried out centralized management model of investment system for a long time, the government is not only a maker of macropolicy, but a participant of micro-project construction. Therefore, a unified quota with dense colour of planned economy is able to provide powerful methods and means for the government to carry out macro-investment regulation and control and micro-construction project management.2.2.2 Valuation basis for current construction costBasic materials for calculation of construction cost usually include construction cost quota, construction cost expense quota, cost index, basic unit price, quantities calculation rule and relevant economic rules and policies issued by competent departments of the government, etc. It includes index of estimate (budgetary estimate index), budgetary estimate quota, budgetary quota (comprehensive budgetary quota), expense quota (standard), labor quota, working-day norm, materials, budgetary price of facilities, direct price index of a project, material price index and cost index. And also included is valuation criterion of consumption quota and list of items in recent two years.2.2.3 Valuation model of current construction costValuation model is a basic aspect of construction cost management. Construction cost management is a governmental behavior, while valuation model is a means for a country to manage and control construction cost. There are two construction valuation models at present in China, namely, valuation model according to quota and one according to bill of quantities.2.2.3.1 Valuation model according to quotaValuation model according to quota is an effective model adopted during the transition period from planned economy to market economy. Determination of construction cost through valuation model according to quota prevents overrated valuation and standards and prices pressed down to some extent, because budgetary quota standardizes rate of consumption and a variety of documents stipulate manpower, materials, unit price of machines and all sorts of service fee norms, which reflects normativity, unitarity and rationality of construction cost. However, it has an inhibited effect upon market competition, and is not favorable for a construction enterprise to improve its technique, strengthen its management and enhance its labor efficiency and market competition.2.2.3.2 Valuation model according to bill of quantitiesValuation model according to bill of quantities is a construction cost determination model proposed recently. In this model, the government merely unifies project code, project name, unit of measurement and measurement rule of quantities. Each construction enterprise has its self-determination to quote a price according to its own situation in a tender offer, and price of building products is formed thereby in the process of bidding.2.3 Cost control in the process of implementationFor a long time, technique and economy has been separated in the field of project construction. Restrained by the planned economy, there lacks the economic concept in the minds of our engineers and technicians, because they regard reduction of construction cost as a duty of financial personnel which has nothing to do with themselves. However, the primary responsibility of financial and preliminary budget personnel is to act in accordance with financial system. Usually, they are not familiar with construction technique, and know little or even nothing about changes of various relations in project design, construction content and implementation of construction. Under such a circumstance, they have no choice but to mechanically work out or audit the expenditure from a financial perspective, which results in mutual separation of technique and economy. They just do what they do, which negatively reflects price of quantities of a project that has been completed, so it is difficult to control construction cost rationally and effectively.1462.4 Control of cost in the process of constructionImplementation stage of a construction project is a stage which requires the most assets in the whole process of a project construction, and is also a vital stage for pecuniary resources to transform into building entities. Cost control at the implementation stage refers to confine construction cost within a scheduled control scope through a scientific cost control theory and method on the condition of ensuring project quality and time limit. The process of generation of a building entity is inreversible, so if effective automatic control and precontrol cannot be conducted over construction cost, then economic loss might be caused that cannot be made up for.2.5 Analysis of major factors that affect construction cost at the stage of implementationImplementation stage of a project refers to the period from completion of construction documents design and examination and submission to the construction party to the final completion acceptance of the project and until it is put into use. According to the basic operation procedure of the implementation stage of a construction project, formation of a construction cost has to undergo such major aspects as bidding, contract signing and management, joint auditing of a shop drawing, investigation of a construction management plan, material management and completion settlement, etc. All these aspects affect construction cost settlement to different degrees. In that process, after evolving from budgetary price, price for successful bidding, refurbishing cost for a contract, the construction cost is finally determined in the form of settlement price for project completion. Factors affecting construction cost are various, but from the perspective of analysis of cost formation, there are primarily the following reasons.1) Influences of a project bidding. Bidding can determine price for successful bidding, while contract price is determined on the basis of price for successful bidding. If something goes wrong with bidding, then it might result in distortion of the price for bidding, and it is impossible to provide accurate and reliable foundation for cost control, and even result in losing control over the cost.2) Influences of contract signing and management. Determination of a contract price further makes precise target of cost control, and an initial draft of a contract term provides correct foundation and principles for cost control. After signing of a contract, contract items are regarded as foundation, which will have strict contract control over design changes at the construction stage, project measurement, payment of a construction debt, and construction compensation, etc, and which will ensure realization of a control target. Therefore, losing control over signing and management of a contract will necessarily result in losing control over construction cost.3) Influences of examination of construction management plan. Construction management plan is one of important foundations for determine a project bidding price and contract price. In the process of construction, adjustment of a contract price should also be determined according to construction management plan, because quality of construction management plan will directly affect quality and progress of a project. Therefore, losing control over examination of construction management plan will bring extremely unfavorable influences upon control over construction cost.4) Influences of material management. On one hand, material price is an important component of bidding price and contract price. On the other hand, material expense accounts for a large proportion in construction cost, because price of materials determine construction cost. Therefore, losing control over material management will necessarily result in losing control over construction cost.5) Influences of settlement, examination and verification of a project completion. Settlement, examination and verification is the final stage of a construction cost control at the implementation stage. A strict and meticulous settlement, examination and verification can ensure accuracy and authenticity of settlement cost of a project. According to previous analysis, we believe that all aspects of cost control can have effect upon formation of construction cost, among which bidding of a project, contract signing and management, examination of a construction management plan and management of materials all have decisive effects upon formation of construction cost, and are vital aspects in cost construction at the implementation stage of a project, so neglect of these four aspects is a direct cause for losing control over construction cost.In this paper, the author summarizes relevant issues in construction cost control at the decision-making stage of a construction project, at the design stage and construction stage, and puts forward principles or resolutions for handing such issues. Especially, as a method of combination of technique and economics, application of value engineering is elaborated at all stages, so that construction cost gets effective controlled. This paper cannot conclude all such issues existing, and also resolutions to resolve these issues cannot cover and contain everything, but with development of construction, new issues and new trains of thought will continue to emerge.ReferencesAminan Fayek. (1998). Competitive Bidding Strategy Model and Software System for Bid Preparation. Jounal of Construction Engineering and Management.Chen, Jianguo. (2001). Project Measurement and cost management. Shanghai: Tongji University Press.147Don R.Hansen & Maryanne M. Mowen. (2005). Cost Management: Accounting and Control.Dong, Shibo. (2003). Status Quo of Construction Cost Management Theory and Its Developmental Trend. Construction Cost Management, (5).Feng, Jingchun. (2000). Study on Counter Measures of Project Cost Management. Technical and Economic Development, (6).George J.Ritz. (1993). Total Construction Project Management.Gou, Zhiyuan. (2002). Thought on Integrated Control Approach of Construction Cost Management. Construction Cost Management, (6).Hao, Jianxin. (2002). American Construction Cost Management. Tianjin: Nankai University Press, 1, 51.Hu, Jianming. (2002). Discussion on Construction Cost Estimation Consultant Participating in Whole Course of Cost Management. Construction Cost Management, (5).Hu, Zhifeng. (2000). Overall Process Control on Construction Projects. Coal Enterprise Management, (7).Huang, Yonggen. (2004). Value Engineering and Its Application in Construction Cost Control. Construction Economics, (8).Ivor H Seeley. (1996). Building economics (fourth edition). Macmillan Press LTD.James A.Bent & Kenneth King Humphreys. (1996). Effective Project Management through Applied Cost and Schedule Control, Cost Engineering.Jan Emblemsavg. (2003). Life cycle Costing: sing Activity-based Costing and Monte Carlo Methods to Manage Future Costs and Risks. John wiley & sons, (5).Janice T. Dana. (1999). Standardized Quantity Recipe File for Quality and Cost Control.John E.Schaufelberger & Len Holm. (2001). Management of Construction Projects: A Constructor's Perspective.John Innes, Falconer Mitchell & Takeo Yoshikawa. (2000). Activity Costing for Engineers. Research Studies Press Ltd. John R.Canada, William G Sullivan, Dennis 3. Kulonda & John A.White. (2004). Capital Investment Analysis for Engineering and Management.Li, Tinggui. (2003). Study on Cost Management Model and Countermeasures of Construction project after China's entry into the WTO. Construction Cost Management.Liu, Guiwen & Shen, Qiping. (2001). A Study of Value Engineering Applications in China’s Construction Industry. Value Engineering, (3).Liu, Hongqing. (2003). About overall cost control. Shanxi Architecture, (29)6.Liu, Zhongying & Mao, Jian. Architecture Project Quantity List Quotation. Southeast University Press, 9.Luo, Dinglin. (1997). Determination and Control of Construction Project Cost at Home and Abroad. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press.Ma, Guanghong & Xu, Wei. (2003). Discussion on Application of Overall Cost Management Theory. Project Management, (4).Ma, Guanghong & Xu, Wei. (2003). Discussion on Application of Overall Cost Management Theory. Project Management, (4).Norton B R & McElligot C W. (1995). Value management in construction: a practical guide. Hampshire: Macmillan Press.Paul J. McVety. (1997). The Menu and the Cycle of Cost Control.Project Management Institute. (2004). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge.Qi, Anbang. (2000). Total Cost Management for Engineering Project. Tianjin: Nankai University Press.Qin, Aiguo. (1999). Study on Construction Cost Management. Economic Tribune, (22).Ren, Guoqiang & Yin, Yilin. (2003). The Feasibility Study on Life Cycle Cost Management in Terms of Paradigm Transformation. China Soft Science Magazine, (5).Ren, Hong. (2004). Cost Planning and Control of Construction Project. China Higher Education Press.Sidney M.Levy. (2002). Project Management in Construction.Stephen P Robbins & David A. Decenzo. (2002). Fundament of Management. Prentice Hall, Inc.148Takashi Ishikawa. (1996). Analogy by Abstraction: Case Retrieval and Adaptation for Inventive Design Expert Systems. Expert Systems with Application, (4)10.Tao, Xueming, Huang, Yunde & Xiong, Wei. (2004). Construction Cost Valuation and Management. China Architecture & Building Press, 2.Wang, Ailin. (2003). Value Engineering and Its Application in Constructional Engineering. Anhui Architecture, (5). Wang, Li & Xu, Zihua. (2004). Comparative Study on Construction Cost Models at Home and Abroad. Architecture Economics.Wang, Yulong. (1997). 2000 Cases on Issues of Construction Project Cost. Shanghai: Tongji University Press. Wang, Zhenqiang. (2002). British Construction Cost Management. Tianjin: Nankai University Press.Wang, Zhenqiang. (2002). Japanese Construction Cost Management. Tianjin: Nankai University Press, 4.Xiang, Ke & Luo, Feng. (2004). Cost Control of Design Stage. Sichuan Architecture, (2).Xu, Datu. (1997). Determination and Control of Construction Cost. Beijing: China Planning Press.Xu, Datu. (1997). Investment Control of Construction Project. Beijing: China Planning Press.Yin, Yilin. (2001). Determination and Control of Construction Cost. Beijing: China Planning Press.Zhang, Caijiang, Li, Kehua & Xu, Yongmei. Review of VE Theory and Practice in China and Some Deep Thinking about its Depression. Nankai Business Review, (1).Zhong, Guangen. (2004). Brief Discussion on Cost Control System in Projects of Commonwealth Nations.Zuo, Jin & Han, Hongyun. Actuality & Amelioration of Whole Life-cycle Value-chain in Architecture. Value Engineering, (6).149。

英文原文:Rehabilitation of rectangular simply supported RC beams with shear deficiencies using CFRP compositesAhmed Khalifa a，＊，Antonio Nanni ba Department of Structural Engineering，University of Alexandria，Alexandria 21544, Egyptb Department of Civil Engineering，University of Missouri at Rolla，Rolla，MO 65409，USAReceived 28 April 1999；received in revised form 30 October 2001; accepted 10 January 2002AbstractThe present study examines the shear performance and modes of failure of rectangular simply supported reinforced concrete(RC) beams designed with shear deficiencies. These members were strengthened with externally bonded carbon fiber reinforced polymer （CFRP) sheets and evaluated in the laboratory。

The experimental program consisted of twelve full-scale RC beams tested to fail in shear. The variables investigated within this programincluded steel stirrups，and the shear span-to—effective depth ratio，as well as amount and distribution of CFRP。

英文原文：Concrete structure reinforcement designSheyanb oⅠWangchenji aⅡⅠFoundation Engineering Co., Ltd. Heilongjiang DongyuⅡHeilongjiang Province, East Building Foundation Engineering Co., Ltd. CoalAbstract：structure in the long-term natural environment and under the use environment's function, its function is weaken inevitably gradually, our structural engineering's duty not just must finish the building earlier period the project work, but must be able the science appraisal structure damage objective law and the degree, and adopts the effective method guarantee structure the security use, that the structure reinforcement will become an important work. What may foresee will be the 21st century, the human building also by the concrete structure, the steel structure, the bricking-up structure and so on primarily, the present stage I will think us in the structure reinforcement this aspect research should also take this as the main breakthrough direction.Key word：Concrete structure reinforcement bricking-up structure reinforcement steel structure reinforcement1 Concrete structure reinforcementConcrete structure's reinforcement divides into the direct reinforcement and reinforces two kinds indirectly, when the design may act according to the actual condition and the operation requirements choice being suitable method and the necessary technology.1.1the direct reinforcement's general method1）Enlarges the section reinforcement lawAdds the concretes cast-in-place level in the reinforced concrete member in bending compression zone, may increase the section effective height, the expansion cross sectional area, thus enhances the component right section anti-curved, the oblique section anti-cuts ability and the section rigidity, plays the reinforcement reinforcement the role.In the suitable muscle scope, the concretes change curved the component right section supporting capacity increase along with the area of reinforcement and the intensity enhance. In the original component right section ratio of reinforcement not too high situation, increases the main reinforcement area to be possible to propose the plateau component right section anti-curved supporting capacity effectively. Is pulled in the section the area to add the cast-in-place concrete jacket to increase the component section, through new Canada partial and original component joint work, but enhances the component supporting capacity effectively, improvement normal operational performance.Enlarges the section reinforcement law construction craft simply, compatible, and has the mature design and the construction experience; Is suitable in Liang, the board, the column, the wall and the general structure concretes reinforcement; But scene construction's wet operating time is long, to produces has certain influence with the life, and after reinforcing the building clearance has certain reduction.2) Replacement concretes reinforcement lawThis law's merit with enlarges the method of sections to be close, and after reinforcing, does not affect building's clearance, but similar existence construction wet operating time long shortcoming; Is suitable somewhat low or has concretes carrier's and so on serious defect Liang, column in the compression zone concretes intensity reinforcement.3) the caking outsourcing section reinforcement lawOutside the Baotou Steel Factory reinforcement is wraps in the section or the steel plate is reinforced component's outside, outside the Baotou Steel Factory reinforces reinforced concrete Liang to use the wet outsourcing law generally, namely uses the epoxy resinification to be in the milk and so on methods with to reinforce the section the construction commission to cake a whole, after the reinforcement component, because is pulled with the compressed steel cross sectional area large scale enhancement, therefore right section supporting capacity and section rigidity large scale enhancement.This law also said that the wet outside Baotou Steel Factory reinforcement law, the stress is reliable, the construction is simple, the scene work load is small, but is big with the steel quantity, and uses in above not suitably 600C in the non-protection's situation the high temperature place; Is suitable does not allow in the use obviously to increase the original component section size, but requests to sharpen its bearing capacity large scale the concrete structure reinforcement.4) Sticks the steel reinforcement lawOutside the reinforced concrete member in bending sticks the steel reinforcement is (right section is pulled in the component supporting capacity insufficient sector area, right section compression zone or oblique section) the superficial glue steel plate, like this may enhance is reinforced component's supporting capacity, and constructs conveniently.This law construction is fast, the scene not wet work or only has the plastering and so on few wet works, to produces is small with the life influence, and after reinforcing, is not remarkable to the original structure outward appearance and the original clearance affects, but the reinforcement effect is decided to a great extent by the gummy craft and the operational level; Is suitable in the withstanding static function, and is in the normal humidity environment to bend or the tension member reinforcement.5) Glue fibre reinforcement plastic reinforcement lawOutside pastes the textile fiber reinforcement is pastes with the cementing material the fibre reinforcement compound materials in is reinforced the component to pull the region, causes it with to reinforce the section joint work, achieves sharpens the component bearing capacity the goal. Besides has glues the steel plate similar merit, but also has anticorrosive muddy, bears moistly, does not increase the self-weight of structure nearly, durably, the maintenance cost low status merit, but needs special fire protection processing, is suitable in each kind of stress nature concrete structure component and the general construction.This law's good and bad points with enlarge the method of sections to be close; Is suitable reinforcement which is insufficient in the concrete structure component oblique section supporting capacity, or must exert the crosswise binding force to the compressional member the situation.6) Reeling lawThis law's good and bad points with enlarge the method of sections to be close; Is suitable reinforcement which is insufficient in the concrete structure component oblique section supporting capacity, or must exert the crosswise binding force to the compressional member the situation.7) Fang bolt anchor lawThis law is suitable in the concretes intensity rank is the C20~C60 concretes load-bearing member transformation, the reinforcement; It is not suitable for already the above structure which and the light quality structure makes decent seriously. 1.2The indirect reinforcement's general method1)Pre-stressed reinforcement law(1)Thepre-stressed horizontal tension bar reinforces concretes member in bending,because the pre-stressed and increases the exterior load the combined action, in the tension bar has the axial tension, this strength eccentric transmits on the component through the pole end anchor (, when tension bar and Liang board bottom surface close fitting, tension bar can look for tune together with component, this fashion has partial pressures to transmit directly for component bottom surface), has the eccentric compression function in the component, this function has overcome the bending moment which outside the part the load produces, reduced outside the load effect, thus sharpened component's anti-curved ability. At the same time, because the tension bar passes to component's pressure function, the component crack development can alleviate, the control, the oblique section anti-to cut the supporting capacity also along with it enhancement.As a result of the horizontal lifting stem's function, the original component's section stress characteristic by received bends turned the eccentric compression, therefore, after the reinforcement, component's supporting capacity was mainly decided in bends under the condition the original component's supporting capacity 。

文献翻译Bridge Maintenance TechniquesEssential maintenance generally involves strengthening or replacement of bridge elements . Strengthening techniques include welding , plate bonding and external post-tensioning which increase the stiffness of bridge decks . Replacement of elements has been used for deck slabs and beams, piers and columns. The primary purpose of essential maintenance is to increase the load carrying capacity and the reason for the inadequate capacity is secondary . If the reason is simply increased loading the maintenance can be limited to increasing the capacity , but if the reason is deterioration then maintenance must also include repairs and preventative maintenance.The selection of the maintenance method for repairs prevention depends primarily on the cause of deterioration . For steel construction the main cause of deterioration is corrosion and regular maintenance painting should be carried out to prevent the steel from corroding . If corrosion does occur then the only repair option is to grit blast back to shiny metal before repainting . An assessment of load carrying capacity should be carried out if corrosion has resulted in a significant reduction of steel section .The selection of repair and prevention methods for concrete construction is more complex because there are numerous causes of concrete deterioration .The deterioration of reinforced concrete can be conveniently sub-divided into deterioration of the concrete and deterioration of the steel reinforcement . The main causes of concrete deterioration are sulphates , free-thaw cycles and alkali-silica reaction(ASR). Deterioration can also be related to poor mix design and construction process such as compaction and curing . These types of deterioration can only be prevented by actions taken at the time of construction ; there are no effective preventative actions that can be taken after construction. For example where the environment is known to contain significant quantities of sulphide it is sensible to consider the use of sulphate resisting Portland cement . In regions experiencing large numbers of freeze-thaw cycles frost damage to concrete can be prevented by adding air entraining agent to the concrete mix . Frost damage is worse in concrete that is saturated with salty water so techniques such as waterproofing membranes and silane treatments may be helpful . Alkali-silica reaction between aggregates and the alkali in cement can be prevented by avoiding the most reactive types of aggregate and by keeping the alkali content of the cement below the designated limit . To set up damaging stresses in concrete the ASR requires water so procedures to reduce the water content such as waterproofing membranes and silane treatments may help . If these forms of concrete deterioration take place the only viable repair method is concrete replacement which may be extensive especially for ASR where entire sections can be affected . Sulphate and freeze-thaw damage normally occur only in the coverzone of the concrete . It is important to note that deterioration of the concrete will increase the risk of corrosion to the reinforcement because steel depassivators , like chlorides and carbon dioxide , will be able to move more easily through the concrete to the reinforcement .Deterioration of the reinforcing steel is caused by corrosion and can be prevented by actions taken at the time of construction and for a period after construction . Preventative techniques that can be applied at construction include the use of epoxy coated mild steel , stainless steel of carbon or glass fibre reinforcement , inhibitors , cathodic protection , anti-carbonation coatings , silane treatments and waterproofing membranes . All of these techniques , except the last three , directly protect the reinforcement against corrosion and to date , have been used only occasionally largely on grounds of cost . Waterproofing membranes , silane treatments , and anti-carbonation coatings are applied to the concrete and are designed to slow down the ingress of carbon dioxide and chlorides into the concrete thereby increasing the age of the structure when the reinforcement begins to corrode . These techniques can be used after construction because they are applied to the concrete surface and they should be effective , providing corrosion of the reinforcement has not already begun . It is important not to overlook the importance of well compacted and cured, low water : cement ratio concrete in preventing reinforcement corrosion.When corrosion of the reinforcement occurs it result in a loss of steel section and/or cracking, spalling and delamination of concrete due to the stresses produced as a result of the low density of rust compared with density of the steel . Reinforcement corrosion repair methods have two main functions , to crete replacement ; cathodic protection ; desalination ; realkalization.Concrete replacement has to be used to repair the damage caused by corrosion regardless of which technique is used to stop corrosion . Concrete replacement can also be used to stop corrosion although this involves the removal of all the carbonated and chloride contaminated concrete even though it is physically sound . This often means that concrete repairs to stop corrosion are not economically viable . Cathodic protection can be applied at any time to stop corrosion caused by carbonation or chlorides . It functions by making the reinforcing steel cathodic with respect to an external anode system . Cathodic protection requires a permanent electrical installation . Desalination can be used to stop corrosion caused by chlorides and it works by migrating chloride ions towards an external anode and away from the reinforcing steel in an electric field ; this process takes about 6 weeks . Realkalization stops corrosion caused by carbonation and it works by migrating sodium ions from an external anolyte into the concrete where in combination with the hydroxyl ions generated on the reinforcing steel due to the electric field , the alkalinity is raised to a level where the steel re-passivates . Realkalization takes about 4 weeks . Desalination ,realkalization and concrete repair are not normally used in conjunction with a preventative treatment such as silane or an anti-carbonation coating to increase the life of the repair .Cathodic protection does not requireadditional preventative measures because it is a permanent installation , but the anodes do require periodic replacement.大桥维修技术大桥的基本的维修大体上包括加强和更换桥的基本元素。