建筑毕业设计外文文献翻译

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Create and comprehensive technology in the structure globaldesign of the buildingThe 21st century will be the era that many kinds of disciplines technology coexists , it will form the enormous motive force of promoting the development of building , the building is more and more important too in global design, the architect must seize the opportunity , give full play to the architect's leading role, preside over every building engineering design well. Building there is the global design concept not new of architectural design,characteristic of it for in an all-round way each element not correlated with building- there aren't external environment condition, building , technical equipment,etc. work in coordination with, and create the premium building with the comprehensive new technology to combine together.The premium building is created, must consider sustainable development , namely future requirement , in other words, how save natural resources as much as possible, how about protect the environment that the mankind depends on for existence, how construct through high-quality between architectural design and building, in order to reduce building equipment use quantity andreduce whole expenses of project.The comprehensive new technology is to give full play to the technological specialty of every discipline , create and use the new technology, and with outside space , dimension of the building , working in coordination with in an all-round way the building component, thus reduce equipment investment and operate the expenses.Each success , building of engineering construction condense collective intelligence and strength; It is intelligence and expectation that an architect pays that the building is created; The engineering design of the building is that architecture , structure , equipment speciality compose hardships and strength happenning; It is the diligent and sweat paid in design and operation , installation , management that the construction work is built up .The initial stage of the 1990s, our understanding that the concept of global design is a bit elementary , conscientious to with making some jobs in engineering design unconsciously , make some harvest. This text Hangzhou city industrial and commercial bank financial comprehensive building and Hangzhou city Bank of Communications financial building two building , group of " scientific and technological progress second prize " speak of from person who obtain emphatically, expound the fact global design - comprehensive technology that building create its , for reach global design outstanding architect in two engineering design, have served as the creator and persons who cooperate while every stage design and even building are built completely.Two projects come into operation for more than 4 years formally , run and coordinate , good wholly , reach the anticipated result, accepted and appreciated by the masses, obtain various kinds of honor .outstanding to design award , progress prize in science and technology , project quality bonus , local top ten view , best model image award ,etc., the ones that do not give to the architect and engineers without one are gratified and proud. The building is created Emphasizing the era for global design of the building, the architects' creation idea and design method should be broken through to some extent, creation inspirations is it set up in analysis , building of global design , synthesize more to burst out and at the foundation that appraise, learn and improve the integration capability exactly designed in building , possess the new knowledge system and thinking method , merge multi-disciplinary technology. We have used the new design idea in above-mentioned projects, have emphasized the globality created in building .Is it is it act as so as to explain to conceive to create two design overview and building of construction work these now.1) The financial comprehensive building of industrial and commercial bank of HangZhou,belong to the comprehensive building, with the whole construction area of 39,000 square meters, main building total height 84, 22, skirt 4 of room, some 6 storeys, 2 storeys of basements.Design overall thinking break through of our country bank building traditional design mode - seal , deep and serious , stern , form first-class function, create of multi-functional type , the style of opening , architecture integrated with the mode of the international commercial bank.The model of the building is free and easy, opened, physique was made up by the hyperboloid, the main building presented " the curved surface surrounded southwards ", skirt room presents " the curved surface surrounded northwards ", the two surround but become intension of " gathering the treasure ".Building flourishing upwards, elevation is it adopt large area solid granite wall to design, the belt aluminium alloy curtain wall of the large area and some glass curtain walls, and interweave the three into powerful and vigorous whole , chase through model and entity wall layer bring together , form concise , tall and straight , upward tendency of working up successively, have distinct and unique distinctions.Building level and indoor space are designed into a multi-functional type and style of opening, opening, negotiate , the official working , meeting , receiving , be healthy and blissful , visit combining together. Spacious and bright two storeys open in the hall unifiedly in the Italian marble pale yellow tone , in addition, the escalator , fountain , light set off, make the space seem very magnificent , graceful and sincere. Intelligent computer network center, getting open and intelligent to handle official business space and all related house distribute in all floor reasonably. Top floor round visit layer, lift all of Room visit layer , can have a panoramic view of the scenery of the West Lake , fully enjoy the warmth of the nature. 2) The financial building of Bank of Communications of Hangzhou, belong to the purely financial office block, with the whole construction area of 19,000 square meters, the total height of the building is 39.9 meters, 13 storeys on the ground, the 2nd Floor. Live in building degree high than it around location , designer have unique architectural appearance of style architectural design this specially, its elevation is designed into a new classical form , the building base adopts the rough granite, show rich capability , top is it burn granite and verticality bar and some form aluminum windows make up as the veneer to adopt, represent the building noble and refined , serious personality of the bank.While creating in above-mentioned two items, besides portraying the shape of the building and indoor space and outside environment minister and blending meticulously, in order to achieve the outstanding purpose of global design of the building , the architect , still according to the region and project characteristic, put forward the following requirement to every speciality:(1) Control the total height of the building strictly;(2) It favorable to the intelligent comfortable height of clearances to create; (3) Meet thefloor area of owner's demand;(4)Protect the environment , save the energy , reduce and make the investment;(5) Design meticulously, use and popularize the new technology; (6)Cooperate closely in every speciality, optimization design.Comprehensive technologyThe building should have strong vitality, there must be sustainable development space, there should be abundant intension and comprehensive new technology. Among above-mentioned construction work , have popularized and used the intelligent technology of the building , has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology, baseplate temperature mix hole , technology of muscle and base of basement enclose new technology of protecting, computer control STL ice hold cold air conditioner technology, compounding type keeps warm and insulates against heat the technology of the wall , such new technologies as the sectional electricity distribution room ,etc., give architecture global design to add the new vitality of note undoubtedly.1, the intelligent technology of the buildingIn initial stage of the 1990s, the intelligent building was introduced from foreign countries to China only as a kind of concept , computer network standard is it soon , make information communication skeleton of intelligent building to pursue in the world- comprehensive wiring system becomes a kind of trend because of 10BASE-T. In order to make the bank building adapt to the development of the times, the designer does one's utmost to recommend and design the comprehensive wiring system with the leading eyes , this may well be termed the first modernized building which adopted this technical design at that time.(1) Comprehensive wiring system one communication transmission network, it make between speech and data communication apparatus , exchange equipment and other administrative systems link to each other, make the equipment and outside communication network link to each other too. It include external telecommunication connection piece and inside information speech all cable and relevant wiring position of data terminal of workspace of network. The comprehensive wiring system adopts the products of American AT&T Corp.. Connected up the subsystem among the subsystem , management subsystem , arterial subsystem and equipment to make up by workspace subsystem , level.(2) Automated systems of security personnel The monitoring systems of security personnel of the building divide into the public place and control and control two pieces of systemequipment with the national treasury special-purposly synthetically.The special-purpose monitoring systems of security personnel of national treasury are in the national treasury , manage the storehouse on behalf of another , transporting the paper money garage to control strictly, the track record that personnel come in and go out, have and shake the warning sensor to every wall of national treasury , the camera, infrared microwave detector in every relevant rooms, set up the automation of controlling to control.In order to realize building intellectuality, the architect has finished complete indoor environment design, has created the comfortable , high-efficient working environment , having opened up the room internal and external recreation space not of uniform size, namely the green one hits the front yard and roofing, have offered the world had a rest and regulated to people working before automation is equipped all day , hang a design adopt the special building to construct the node in concrete ground , wall at the same time.2, has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force- dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technologyIn order to meet the requirement with high assurance that the architect puts forward , try to reduce the height of structure component in structure speciality, did not glue and form the flat roof beam of prestressing force concrete - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology after adopting.(1) Adopt prestressing force concrete roof beam board structure save than ordinary roof beam board concrete consumption 15%, steel consumption saves 27%, the roof beam reduces 300mm high.(2) Adopt flat roof beam structure save concrete about 10% consumption than ordinary roof beam board, steel consumption saves 6.6%, the roof beam reduces 200mm high.Under building total situation that height does not change , adopt above-mentioned structure can make the whole building increase floor area of a layer , have good economic benefits and social benefit.3, the temperature of the baseplate matches muscle technologyIn basement design , is it is it is it after calculating , take the perimeter to keep the construction technology measure warm to split to resist to go on to baseplate, arrange temperature stress reinforcing bar the middle cancelling , dispose 2 row receives the strength reinforcing bar up and down only, this has not only save the fabrication cost of the project but also met the basement baseplate impervious and resisting the requirement that splits.4, the foundation of the basement encloses and protects the new technology of design and operationAdopt two technological measures in enclosing and protecting a design:(1) Cantilever is it is it hole strength is it adopt form strengthen and mix muscle technology to design to protect to enclose, save the steel and invite 60t, it invests about 280,000 to save.(2) Is it is it protect of of elevation and keep roof beam technology to enclose , is it protect long to reduce 1.5m to enclose all to reduce, keep roof beam mark level on natural ground 1.5m , is it is it protect of lateral pressure receive strength some height to enclose to change, saving 137.9 cubic meters of concrete, steel 16.08t, reduces and invests 304,000 yuan directly through calculating.5, ice hold cold air conditioner technologyIce hold cold air conditioner technology belong to new technology still in our country , it heavy advantage that the electricity moves the peak and operates the expenses sparingly most. In design, is it ice mode adopt some (weight ) hold mode of icing , is it ice refrigeration to be plane utilization ratio high to hold partly to hold, hold cold capacity little , refrigeration plane capacity 30%-45% little than routine air conditioner equipment, one economic effective operational mode.Hold the implementation of the technology of the cold air conditioner in order to cooperate with the ice , has used intelligent technology, having adopted the computer to control in holding and icing the air conditioner system, the main task has five following respects:(1) According to the demand for user's cold load , according to the characteristic of the structure of the electric rate , set up the ice and hold the best operation way of the cold system automatically, reduce the operation expenses of the whole system;(2) Fully utilize and hold the capacity of the cold device, should try one's best to use up all the cold quantity held basically on the same day;(3) Automatic operation state of detection system, ensure ice hold cold system capital equipment normal , safe operation;(4) Automatic record parameter that system operate, display system operate flow chart and type systematic operation parameter report form;(5) Predict future cooling load, confirm the future optimization operation scheme.Ice hold cold air conditioner system test run for some time, indicate control system to be steady , reliable , easy to operate, the system operates the energy-conserving result remarkably.6, the compounding type keeps in the wall warm and insulates against heat To the area of Hangzhou , want heating , climate characteristic of lowering the temperature in summer in winter, is it protect building this structural design person who compound is it insulate against heat the wall to keep warm to enclose specially, namely: Fit up , keep warm , insulate against heat the three not to equal to the body , realize building energy-conservation better.Person who compound is it insulate against heat wall to combine elevation model characteristic , design aluminium board elevation renovation material to keep warm, its structure is: Fill out and build hollow brick in the frame structure, do to hang the American Fluorine carbon coating inferior mere aluminium board outside the hollow brick wall.Aluminium board spoke hot to have high-efficient adiabatic performance to the sun, under the same hot function of solar radiation, because the nature , color of the surface material are different from coarse degree, whether can absorb heat have great difference very , between surface and solar radiation hot absorption system (α ) and material radiation system (Cλ ) is it say to come beyond the difference this. Adopt α and Cλ value little surface material have remarkable result , board α、Cλ value little aluminium have, its α =0.26, Cλ =0.4, light gray face brick α =0.56, Cλ =4.3.Aluminium board for is it hang with having layer under air by hollow brick to do, because aluminium board is it have better radiation transfer to hot terms to put in layer among the atmosphere and air, this structure is playing high-efficient adiabatic function on indoor heating too in winter, so, no matter or can well realize building energy-conservation in winter in summer.7, popularize the technology of sectional electricity distribution roomConsider one layer paves Taxi " gold " value , the total distribution of the building locates the east, set up voltage transformer and low-voltage distribution in the same room in first try in the design, make up sectional electricity distribution room , save transformer substation area greatly , adopt layer assign up and down, mixing the switchyard system entirely after building up and putting into operation, the function is clear , the overall arrangement compactness is rational , the systematic dispatcher is flexible . The technology have to go to to use and already become the model extensively of the design afterwards.ConclusionThe whole mode designed of the building synthetically can raise the adaptability of the building , it will be the inevitable trend , environmental consciousness and awareness of saving energy especially after strengthening are even more important. Developing with the economy , science and technology constantly in our country, more advanced technology and scientific and technical result will be applied to the building , believe firmly that in the near future , more outstanding building global design will appear on the building stage of our country. We will be summarizing, progressing constantly constantly, this is that history gives the great responsibility of architect and engineer.译文：建筑结构整体设计-建筑创作和综合技术21世纪将是多种学科技术并存的时代，它必将形成推动建筑发展的巨大动力，建筑结构整体设计也就越来越重要，建筑师必须把握时机，充分发挥建筑师的主导作用，主持好各项建筑工程设计。

土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献及翻译Here are two examples of foreign literature related to graduation design in the field of civil engineering, along with their Chinese translations:1. Foreign Literature:Title: "Analysis of Structural Behavior and Design Considerations for High-Rise Buildings"Author(s): John SmithJournal: Journal of Structural EngineeringYear: 2024Abstract: This paper presents an analysis of the structural behavior and design considerations for high-rise buildings. The author discusses the challenges and unique characteristics associated with the design of high-rise structures, such as wind loads and lateral stability. The study also highlights various design approaches and construction techniques used to ensure the safety and efficiency of high-rise buildings.Chinese Translation:标题：《高层建筑的结构行为分析与设计考虑因素》期刊：结构工程学报年份：2024年2. Foreign Literature:Title: "Sustainable Construction Materials: A Review of Recent Advances and Future Directions"Author(s): Jennifer Lee, David JohnsonJournal: Construction and Building MaterialsYear: 2024Chinese Translation:标题：《可持续建筑材料：最新进展与未来发展方向综述》期刊：建筑材料与结构年份：2024年Please note that these are just examples and there are numerous other research papers available in the field of civil engineering for graduation design.。

建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献On the other hand, there is a significant amount ofliterature in the field of architecture design that is writtenin foreign languages. While it may not be as readily accessible for non-native speakers, there are many benefits to exploring literature in other languages. For example, architects who are fluent in multiple languages can have a broader understanding of different cultural approaches to architecture. By reading literature in foreign languages, architects can gain insights into design concepts and practices that may not be covered in English-language sources. This can lead to a more diverse and innovative approach to design.However, one challenge with accessing literature in foreign languages is the accuracy of translations. Architecture is a technical field with specific terminology, and it is important to ensure that translations accurately convey the intended meaning. In some cases, the translation of technical terms and concepts may not accurately convey their full meaning, which can lead to misunderstandings or confusion. Architects who rely on translated literature should be cautious and ensure they verify the accuracy of the translations with experts in the field.Despite these challenges, it is essential for architects to explore literature in multiple languages to stay informed and to gain a global perspective on architecture design. By consideringboth English and foreign language translated literature, architects can access a wider range of resources and insights. Additionally, architects should consider collaborating with colleagues who are fluent in different languages to ensure accurate translation and interpretation of foreign language sources.In conclusion, architecture design is a field that benefits from accessing literature in multiple languages. English provides a wealth of resources and is the global language of academia. However, architects who can access and read literature in foreign languages can gain new perspectives and insights into different cultural approaches to design. While caution should be taken to verify the accuracy of translations, architects should explore literature in multiple languages to broaden their understanding and enhance their creative problem-solving skills.。

建筑设计外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)外文：Structural Design of Reinforced Concrete Sloping Roof Abstract: This paper point out common mistakes and problems in actual engineering design according immediately poured reinforced concrete sloping roof especially common residential structure.It brings out layout and design concept use folded plate and arch shell structure in order to reduction or elimination beam and column Layout to reduce costs and expand use function for user of garret . The paper also discussed the need to open the roof holes, windows, and with other design with complex forms . The corresponding simple approximate calculation method and the structure treatment also described in this paper.Keywords : sloping roof;folded plate; along plane load;vertical plane load1. IntroductionIn recent years, reinforced concrete slope of the roof has been very common seen, the correct method of it’s design need establish urgently It’s target is to abolish or reduce the roof beams and columns, to obtain big room and make the roof plate "clean ". This not only benefits tructure specialty itself but also to the design of the building professionals to develop new field, and ultimately to allow users, property developers benefited,and so it has far-reaching significance.In the common practice engineering practice, a designer in the calculation of the mechanical model often referred sloping roof as vertical sloping roof under the projection plane Beam, or take level ridge, ramps ridge contour as a framework and increase unnecessary beam and tilt column . In fact ,the stress is similar between General square planar housing, double slope, multi-slope roof and arch, shell.Ping and oblique ridge are folded plate like “A”, whether layout beams and columns, its ridge line of the deformation pattern is different from the framework fundamentally. All these method will make the difference between calculation results and real internal structure force. During the construction process, housing backbone, plate bias department template has complex shapes, multi-angle bars overlap, installation and casting is very difficult. These projects are common in construction and is a typical superfluous. Some scholars use the elastic shell theory to analyze folded plate roof、internal force and deformation, reveals the vertical loads law of surrounding the base is neither level rise nor the vertical displacement which to some extent reflects the humps and shell’s features .But assume that boundary conditions which is very different from general engineering actual situation and covered the eaves of a vertical cross-settlement and bottom edge under the fundamental characteristics of rally, so it is not for general engineering design .2. Outlines of MethodsFor most frequently span, the way to cancel the backbone of housing, didn’t add axillary often. But in the periphery under the eaves to the framework need established grid-beam or beams over windows. For long rectangular planar multi-room, multi-column, building professionals in a horizontal layout of the partition wall between each pair of columns and the direction set deep into the same thickness width have possession of a gathering of the rafah beam profiles . Pull beam above has a two-slope roof plate affixed sloping beams expect smaller span. For residential,if it has no needs according construction professional, we will be able to achieve within the household no ceiling beams exposed, see figure 1. Similar lattice theory, this approach emphasizes the use of axial force component effe ct, But is different with the truss because it’s load distribution along the bar not only single but also along the axis of the plate. Generally each plate has force characteristics of folded plate, for bear gravity at the roof, wind, earthquake loads, caused the plate along with the internal force components, each plate is equivalent to strengthen the thin flange beams .Among vertical bearing , it is thin-walled beams anti-edge horizontal component to balance Wang thrust formed by arch shell effect. When plates bear the the vertical component load, each plate is equivalent to a solid edge embedded multilateral bearing plates .The design feature of this method is establish and perfect the sloping roof of the arch, folded plate system Consciously, at top of the roof, using a minimal level of rafah balance beam ramp at the level of thrust.It’s calculation methods can be divided into hand algorithm and computer paper, this paper focus on the hand algorithm.Hand algorithm take the single-slope plate of sloping roof plate as slider , through approximate overall analysis, Simplified boundary conditions of determine plate,solving load effect along level and vertical plane, Internal forces of various linear superposition under the condition of assumption of normal straight, testing stability and integrated reinforcement. The method pursuit of operational, use general engineer familiar calculation steps to address more complex issues.This method is suitable for the framework structure, little modifications also apply to masonrystructure or Frame-wall structure. General arch structure have good anti-seismic performance, if designed properly, the sloping roof will also do so. In this paper the pseudo-static is used to analysis earthquake effects.3. Analysis and Design for Along Plane Effect of LoadsFirst regard to cross profile of figure 1,we analysis equal width rectangular parts of long trapezoidal panels 1、2. as for approximate calculation,it is take plane loads along plane as a constant just like four rectangular plate can be simplified to one-way slab,we take along to long unit width narrow structure as analysis object ,take hinged arch model shown in figure 2.图2a图3a图2b图3b图2c图3cIn Figure 2 the right supports vertical linkage representatives roof beams supporting role, ramps connecting rod on behalf of the board itself thin beam reaction effect which is virtual and approximate equivalent. We would like to calculate two anti-bearing.Because the total pressure of physical project through two plate roof beams and transfer to the ends column, So Anti two numerical difference can be seen as two plates bear along with the plane load and roof beams bear the vertical load pressure. Two Anti power link expressions in Various conditions were given as follows, because the model take units width,so the results is line averageload distribution except it has Focus quality in house.They are bouth represent by N , English leftover subscript s, b, represent the plane along the roof panels and vertical role in the roof beam, g, w, e,represent gravity, air pressure and the level of earthquake separately. d, c, represent distribution of concentrated load or effect separately, In the formula h is thicness of every plate,g is gravitation acceleration, a is roof for the horizontal seismic acceleration value formula, Wk represent the standard value Pressure.m with number footnotesrepresent every numbered ramp the quality distribution per unit area ,m with english footnotes represent quality of per location.as to two symmetrical slopes, the formula can be more concise.Figure 2a represent situation of vertical gravity load ,these formulas as follows:()()'''111100110cos cos 38cos cos cos cos L AL L m L AL N l h l h l m ωαβμααββ-=++ ()()()()'10000000101'100000cos cos 2cos cos 8sin cos 8sin cos cos 8sin cos cos cos l l l l l h m m s h N l l h h l h l μαβωααηαβωμβββαββααβ++-=--++()()()()101101110100001012111cos 2cos cos 2L L L L L L L m LL L L mLL L L L L L N h B hL hL LIμξβαβ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫⎛⎫--+-+--+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭⎣⎦=++()()()()()001001110011200101021000110111121cos sin 2sin 2sin cos cos A L h L m LL L L mL L m a L L L L h h L m l m N L L L Ah L L k B h L h L δδββββαβ⎛⎫⎛⎫⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-+--+ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎢⎥+⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭⎣⎦=+---++Figure 2b represent situation of bear wind load, these formulas as follows:()()222211122111cos cos cos 8cos cos cos cos wkL h L L S li N a L h h b ωαωββαβα-=++ ()()()()22222001111222212110cos cos cos 11cos cos cos cos sin 5cos sin cos cos sin cos k K L h l w L w w h w h m L N l l AL h L a h L αωαβαβλαβααββββαββ⎡⎤-⎡⎤+⎢⎥=+++-+⎢⎥++⎢⎥⎣⎦⎣⎦Figure 2c represent situation of role of level earthquake, these formulas as follows:()()2222210011022001sin cos sin cos 3sin cos cos cos cos cos a a L h l L L N L h l hl αμβαωαβωβδαβαβδβ+=--+ ()()()()222221011120322222102101sin cos sin cos sin sin sin 3cos 2ln cos 5ln cos cos cos cos a l h m l m L m m m N n s l l l g h l h l δβααβαββββαβαβαβ++=++++ ()()()0010011012110121000111sin cos 2cos 2cos cos cos a a L L m L L L n L L L L L nh L N L l h l h l ββαβαβ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫-+-+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎢⎥=+⎢⎥+⎢⎥⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()00000201sin 2cos a a L m L L L h L l θβα⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-⎢⎥ ⎪⎝⎭⎣⎦+()()()2000010121001sin sin cos sin cos sin cos cos 2sin cos a e L m L L L h L m m N l l h βααβαββαβββ⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-⎢⎥ ⎪+⎝⎭⎣⎦=-+ ()()()001001001221111221001sin 1sin cos 2cos 2cos cos cos sin a a L L L L L L m L L L L L h L h l L h l h ωαββαβαββ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫-+-+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎢⎥-+⎢⎥+⎢⎥⎢⎥⎣⎦ When vertical seismic calculation required by Seismic Design ParametersIt’s calculate formula generally similar as formula 1 to 4 which only need take gravity g asvertical seismic acceleration a. Above formulas apply to right bearings in figure 2 and also to left when exchange data of two plate.As end triangle of Multi-slope roof ,for simplify and approximate calculation need, we assume two lines distribution load only produced by roof board of several load, effect.now II-II cross-section from figure is took to analysis Long trapezoidal plate two’s end triangle, assuming the structure symmetry approximately, take half of structure to establish model (figure 3). Because linked with the end triangular plate-3 plane has great lateral stiffness ,therefore assume the model leftist stronghold along the central component around which can not be shifted direction. Central Plate vertical stiffness small, in general gravity load of roughly symmetric midpoint only next movement happened possible, Therefore, the model used parallel two-link connection. Wind loading, and the general role of the earthquake in two slope was roughly antisymmetric,so plate model in the central use fixed hinge bearings which allow rotation and transtlateral force to plate 3near the plate beam. Under plate two triangular area is eaves of vertical beams and plates itself along with plane load distribution is functionshown in Figure 1 take the variable x as an argument,assume the distance from position of section II to end part is x 0s so the slope level length is y 0=x 0L 2/L 3,formula 11 to 14 is the value of Vertical triangle of gravity along the x direction arbitrary location of the two load distribution ,where h 3 is Slitting vertical thickness of plate 3.()22001cos 212cos e a a mkxL h x N L sh v l x ββ⎡⎤=-⎢⎥+-⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()211121001sin cos 212cos m kvL h x N l xh x L V βββ⎡⎤=+⎢⎥+-⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()22000002221100max 1123cos L La h L L L L N VL h h l a V L L αγβ⎡⎤⎛⎫=---⎢⎥ ⎪+-⎢⎥⎝⎭⎣⎦ ()22201000112222201001ln 23cos a L L h l L L L n V s xl h v h L x x l L ββ⎡⎤⎛⎫=+-⎢⎥ ⎪+-⎢⎥⎝⎭⎣⎦ As wind load and earthquake effect, sketch could use approximate figure 3b 、3c and use method of structural mechanics to solve But the process is cumbersome and reasonable extent is limited .the wind and earthquake effect is not important compare with the load effect. Moreover,the triangle area is small As approximate calculation, such direct-use rectangular plate slope calculation is more convenient and not obvious waste. The method of solve two load distribution of plate three is same as the solution of Long trapezoidal plate area just make the change of x and y、L2 and L3 in figure 1.The actual profile is part III-III shown in figure 1A B C图4a图4b BDFigure 4 is vertical launch plan and bear load portfolio value of roof ramp shown in Figure 1 to analysis inclined plate and the internal forces of the anti-bearing column . in the figure hypotenuse is oblique roof equal to strengthen frame, Similar wind ramp truss rod and the next edge portfolio, could form the dark truss system ,while long rectangular plate can be seen as part of thin-walled beams, which could also be seen as truss. Therefore, we called roof boarding the plane formed a "thin-walled beam-truss" system, in concrete theory, between the truss and the b eam have no natural divide . it’s no need hand count accurate internal forces and bearing force to such a joint system, Because on the one hand span more, big bending stiffness structure sensitive to the bearing uneven subsidence and have to stay safe reserves; on the other hand it has high cross-section, by increasing reinforced to increase capacity on the cost impact is not significant. Specific algorithm is: Single-ramp calculate by simple cradle, Multi-Span ramp’s bending moment, shear, and supporting anti-edge use the calculate value by the possible maximum numerical control methods, Moment is calculate by simple cradle two sides of supports middle Shear, negative moment and support force calculate according to bearing this continuous, two-hinged, about two span take the largest one. Pin-Pin bearing shear force that is supported by the inter-simple calculate according to simple cradle. But in this method the location of the various internal force’s safety level is uneven expansion, appropriate adjustmen t should be made is late calculation. No mater f the triangular or rectangular part of plate, Thin-plane bending rebar can get by method of moment right boards from the bottom point for the moment distance whichassigned to the eaves or roof. The author believe it has no necessary control number of reinforcement according to smallest beams reinforced rate. On the rim of triangle equivalent to ramp strut can shear entirety. when consider the end is weak can properly reinforced its roof beam below the reinforcement. If shear required stirrup in the rectangular part of thin-walled, should superposition to the beam, generally it’s no need to intentionally imaginary abdominal strengthening reinforcement at rod position.4. Calculation and Design of Pull Beam and Roof BeamsBy column in figure 1 marked calculated value of supporting force and their level of vertical component, horizontal component of the total force multiplied by the cosine of angle. Take column A as example, the first footnotes in R A2 is column number, the first footnotes represent the force generated by the panel two. Their horizontal component balanced by triangle three under the eaves of beams. horizontal component of intermediate support reaction is balanced by the two-level pull beam in deep direction. Then pull beam and above the sloping beams constitutes steel Arch. Because of the existence of antisymmetric load, bilateral role in the anti-power-level components may be inconsistent and pull beam should take the average lag. consider the support impact of uneven settlement, the level pull beam design should take bigger value.Roof beams general under four internal forces: First of the above is levels Rally, The second is axial force generated when oblique roofing in the flange plate plane bending. The third is the vertical load to bear as the roof slab edge beams under bending moment, shear ,like board supported by multi-faceted, Actual force is smaller than bear calculated by one-way plate N b,Fourth is the effect of lateral framework of internal forces .it should linear superposition ,Composite Reinforced, in the situation of weight Load, span and the small dip, checking computations should be took for tension beams cracking, appropriate intensify the section, with fine steel, including the side beams of steel beams rafah terminal should take two meander anchorage,just like letter L With ng as 10d long bends, meander 135 degrees angle and put pull beam intersection with the vertical reinforcement column touting the Meander overcast horn.This paper take model in figure 1 as example, ignore tigers window , 4 sloping roof are 35 o angle, the length of roof slab dimensions are shown in figure 4. Plate unit area quality is 350kg/m2,Overhaul live load is 0.50 kN/m2, Pressure standard of windward side is 0.21 kN/m2, Leeward face is -0.45 kN/m2, Design value of roof horizontal seismic acceleration is 0.1g, Calculate the bearing capacity limit by standardizing, Considered separately with and without seismic load effect of the combination basic design value,we use combination of without earthquake force through compare，Load calculation and analysis results of every position shown in table 1:5. Analysis and Design for Roof of the Vertical Loads Under Sloping RoofSlabs as a Multilateral Support PlateFolded plate structure has character of “unified of borad and frame”: General intersection of each pair of ramps are for mutual support, both sides of the transition line’ plate can be counted dogleg small rotation and transmission, distribution Moment.Under load control which is the role of gravity the two sloping geometry load roughly symmetrical occasions, there is no corner at symmetry capital turning point, Approximate seen as the plate embedded solid edge.if take out a distance by plate of eaves, plate of inside ridge also formation to negative moment,and long roof slabs in the plate sloping beams department and neighbor plate linked together, these all can be approximated as embedded-plate edge to process.For antisymmetric load like horizontal seismic load,the Ping roof should be treated as shear,but it is not control load usually. Plate final design moment value is the status of various unfavorable combination of linear superposition, from the cross-sectional direction plate reinforced by the columns, Reference, balance the require of concrete deep beams of tectonic, upper plate for Moment of negative reinforcement should be reinforced at all or an entire cross-leader, as they also serve as a deep beam distribution lumbartendons or stirrup. plate in the bottom vertical with reinforcement eaves, Negative reinforcementin accordance with their respective calcualte requirements,and it is different after superpositionstirrups requirementBoth sides of "stirrup" in this situation cann’t linked at awnings edge follow shape “U”, can bebent to shape "L" follow upper and down direction,legnth of packs could equal to thickness ofplate.It should enhenced at the node of ramp at the intersection appropriately. It recommended thatuse swagger tectonic shown as in Figure 5 considing simple structure without axillary at thesituation of Cloudy angle without pull. To ensure all reinforced Installing accuracy, Few of therhombus with the supports and rebar stirrups could be added to formed positioning Skeleton atstrengthening reinforced department in the figure, Let two later installed sloping steel plate tie toits lashing,designers should use a three-dimensional geometric method to accurately calculate thediamond stirrups limb edge length and Forming a swagger construction plans6. Calculating and processing of open window and hole in sloping roofAssume the plate in figure 6 has a big hole whose wideth is b ,height is h 0 ,assuming that tungcenter along with the plane bending moment, shear, respectively are M and V through overall calculation, use vierendeel calculation method get about middle cave:1XO MM T τ= 2NR MM T τ=3113312h V V h h =+ 0XO NR M M M V h --= Where I 1、I 2 、I respectively represent upp er and down plate limb’s Section moment of inertia anddouble limbs section moment of inertia.while Edge Moment by hole is:1113I M V b M α=+ 2212I M V b M μ=+not very big by the hole, close to the neutral axis in most cases overall, under the no-hole design of the reinforced the opening hole after the plane can meet the demands by calculation,under the no-hole design of the reinforced the opening hole after the plane can meet the demands by calculation.General tiger win dow’s form prominent roof Facade which a hole had opened up and the other faces a concrete slab closed.when analysis of vertical slab roof slab surface loads ,compare with without windows and roof slabs hole window sheet increased load. profiles of window’s folded plate form make it reduce the bending stiffness compare with without hole roof board, But with the profile hole edge which parallel to the vertical plate is a partial increase in bending stiffness. In the absence of the vertical plate window subordinate legislation should have upturns beam to increase stiffness of the surrounding caves near.in this way i can temporarily ignore the plate stiffness variation acording to the actual load, size and boundary conditions by entities plate to calculate psitive and negative moment and further processing nodes.it should point out that theRoof ramp layout hole edge ideal location is near the plate-bending line, especially in the open side of the window because it was cut down byvertical transmission line of the moment. If the roof slab roof beams department no outward roof then the actual plate-bending force on the line near the roof beam reversed also true, Because of this architects should strive for when determine oosition of tiger position take appropriate care.When pin tung far away from line-bending window wall and roofing in the intersection must bear folded plate and transmission moment, but compare with plate without hole its capacity is weaken surely,and it’s node turn into weak parts. To fill thy judgment and calculation errorstwo panels can be double reinforcement. When the hole is less than line-bending scope should increase negative reinforcement around to keep overall security plate bearing capacity. To ensure steel plate in place accuratly,also should use positioning stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement constitute skeleton similar as figure 5. Hoop end within vertical bars should be strengthen steel and end cave corner should be harvested more than one anchor length to make sure that bottom of the cave 4 tensile stress concentration.7. Stabilize Roof SlopeIn China's V-shaped folded plate structure design norms,the method prevent both sides of theflanges at local instability is limit its generous ratio,This requirement come from the use of isotropic plate buckling theory analysis. In research the flanges outside instability in critical state, the boundary conditions of winglets suppose as freedom outside, fixed interior, pre - and post-hinged on both sides,the situation plates subjected to the bending stress to solve width and height ratio corresponding with the critical pressure compressive stress. When the grade of concreteIs C30,the limit of width and height(b/t)ratio is 47, take 35 as stress non-normative value. Concrete elastic modulus and strength levels is not a linear relationship if use high-strength concrete other study should be taken. In the actual slope roof only a long row to the middle plate bearing plate outside may receive pressure. And here is just the pouringplate affixed roof sloping beams and horizontal pull beam cast together.Have no possible of rollover and foreign rising displacement. norms limited of folded plate span is 21m. roof below and the vertical column spacing generally much smaller it. And the board which into one with roof beams changed boundary conditions of plate, anti-great instability role also very big. For other locations ramp vertical compression edge May also set up the appropriate plate edge beams all these method will receive beyond the norms of redundant safety. Taking into account the plate shear plane, while the vertical direction of the load caused the exit plane effects, Therefore, the grasp of security of caution should cautious. This paper proposed ramp thickness not less than to the short span of 1 / 35 which also conform to design experience of generally confined SLABS, Concrete should graded between C25 and C35 while Steel should I or class II.puter Calculation Method of Local Sloping Roof Structure andOverall ICC of Overall StructureAny calculate software with inclined plate shell modules and the modules bar structural finite element can calculation of competent sloping roof. Shell element of each node have 3 membrane freedom and three panels freedom and can analysis the plane board and internal forces Of out-of-plane effects. However, the current prevalence of certain spatial structure finite element computer program which although have shell model but some are not inclined plate, some not right at the same plane, the stress state and foreign integrated reinforcement are not perfect. Withstructures becoming more diverse, complex and ramp space problems often encountered. Such software should expand its pre - and post-processing functions for conversion of shell element stiffness matrix and loading vector in the direction of freedom and further analysis of ramp space, the space of concrete against stress integrated reinforcement. In a fundamental sense manual method and the finite element method are interchangeable but the result may be very different. As long as layout roof component as this concept,then use the software to calculate can fast, precise, to achieve this goal of this paper.From the eaves to the roof elevation areas, the whole roof of anti-lateral stiffness lower than mutation, quality small than lower,this could not easy to simulate in calculation of whole housing. At the top construction of the seismic as higher-mode response which is also whiplash effect, the earthquake-lateral force may be abnormal and have effect on under layers. Therefore, in the partial hand count roof occasions when take ICC analysis to the overall structure, it proposed roof layer use model of tilt rod ramp support to reduce effect on the overall results distortion.If use software with function of space ramp handling and sloping roof modeling with shell element,all will be wrapped from top to bottom. Top results can be directly used and the distortion of the overall impact would cease to exist.10. Conclusion1）Concrete ramps, side beams in different directions superposition of internal forces, reinforced and ramp stability, the hole limits all to be do in-depth study related this research. Similar typical problems are top floor of structural transformation layer and box-type base box side wall all their research results can be used to adopt.It’s a important method do observation on project; finite element analysis ICC will be more economical, practical and popular. Currently existing completed sloping roof no matter the subjective designers use what kind of assumptions and analysis and whether reinforcement is reasonable as long as the overall structure of the objective reality, create a space folded plate and the arch system that their current work state can be used to summarize and draw upon.2）This structure forms make a new world of design concept of use the top floor and impact on people's living habits.The economic, social benefits it taked will gradually revealed,however it need interaction of architectural and structural professionals and People’s awareness andinformation and even real estate management policies and other support aspects.This method is hard for structure professional,some specific details have no norms to follow at present. This is the challenges sructure staff faced and also the happy exist.references[1]Francis D.K.Ching A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, International Thomson Publishing Inc. 1997.[2]Jiang Fengqing :internal forces of Simply supported two-way pack square plate, Civil Engineering Journal,1982(2)[3]Lai Mingyuan.Zhang Guxin:Deflection and internal forces of Simple peripheral portfolio folded plate roof, Civil Engineering Journal,1992(2)[4] ]Lai Mingyuan: Deflection and internal forces of Simple flattened four folded plate roof slope, Civil Engineering Journal, 1995(1)[5]Li Kaixi.Cui Jia:Local Stability About Yan Beam, Building Structures ,1996(1) [6]user manuals and technical conditions of Multi-storey high-rise building and the space finite element structural analysis and design software SATWE, PKPM CAD department of China Building Research Academy[7]Chen Xinghui.Lin Yuankun: Several calculation problems in the design of V-folded plate roof , Scientific publishing house,1985[8]current building structure norms, China Construction Industry Press,2002译文：钢筋混凝土坡屋顶的结构设计简介：本文对于现浇钢筋混凝土坡屋顶，尤其是常见的住宅结构，指出实际工程中常见的设计错误及问题。

毕业设计(论文)外文翻译题目：Comparative Analysis of Excavation Schemes for a TunnelConstructed through Loose Deposits院（系）建筑工程学院专业土木工程班级130702姓名xxxxx学号xxxxx导师xxxxx2017x年5月1日通过松散堆积物构建了隧道开挖方案的对比分析摘要：由于周围岩石较弱，构造松散沉积物的隧道易于坍塌，二次内衬通常遭受过度变形。

因此，选择适当的挖掘方案是重要的，这将对隧道施工安全和随后的隧道运行产生影响。

本文采用亭子坝隧道，一条浅埋在浅沉积和冲积起源的高速公路隧道为例。

在施工期间，这条隧道经历了很多穹顶倒塌事件和先进的支援破坏。

对重组样品进行各向同性排水（CD）压缩试验，以获得松散沉积物的机械参数。

进行三维建模以模拟三种不同方案开挖后隧道中的应力和变形分布，即上下台阶隧道，三台隧道和单侧方向隧道掘进。

比较分析结果表明，单侧巷道隧道更适合该隧道，既可以减少拱顶沉降，又可以限制塑性区的开发。

对于类似地质环境中的隧道设计和施工，结果应该是重要的。

关键词：松散堆积物；力学参数; 隧道；开挖方案；比较分析。

说明随着中国交通基础设施快速发展，在过去的几十年里，许多新的隧道已经或正在通过具有挑战性的地质条件的地区建设等。

软岩在隧道建设中经常遇到。

软岩的力学特性导致快速变形和各种干扰（Sharifzadeh等人。

2013a；朱某等人。

2013）它能影响地下结构的稳定性。

为此，软岩石已受到很多关于交通隧道建设的关注。

例如，Jeng等人（2002）评价Mushan的变形砂岩和台湾北部对隧道变、形的影响。

Ozsan和Basarr（2003）计算出强风化凝灰岩Urus坝址引水隧洞的支持能力。

李和舒伯特（2008）研究了在软弱围岩中圆形隧道的长度。

Shahrour 等（2010）分析了用软土构建的隧道的地震响应。

外文文献翻译Building anti-radar designThe widespread usage of electricity promoted to defend the development of thunder product and be a high pressure power grid to provide motive and illuminate for the thousand 10000, thunder and lightning also a great deal of bane high pressure lose to change to give or get an electric shock an equipments.The high pressure line installs Gao, be apart from long, cross geography complications, is strike by lightning easily medium.The protection scope shortage of the lightning rod with protect up to thousand power lines, so avoid thunder line as to protect high pressure line of new connect a Shan machine to emerge with the tide of the times.After the high pressure line acquire a protection, the hair linked with high pressure line, go together with electricity equipments to be still conduct electricity to press damage, people discover this is because"respond thunder" is play tricks.(Respond the thunder is to respond the metals conductor of neighborhood because of keeping shot thunder to turn on electricity in, respond the thunder can pass 2 kinds to differently respond way incursion conductor, one is an electrostatic induction:When the electric charge in thunder cloud accumulates to gather, neighborhood of the conductor will also respond up the contrary electric charge and be a thunder to turn on electricity, the electric charge in thunder cloud quickly releases, and the conductor Central plains come to is tie up by thunder cloud electric field of the static electricity will also follow conductor fluxion to look for to release passage, will become electricity pulse in the electric circuit. The widespread usage of electricity promoted to defend the development of thunder product and be a high pressure power grid to provide motive and illuminate for the thousand 10000, thunder and lightning also a great deal of bane high pressure lose to change to give or get an electric shock an equipments.First, the building anti-radar classifies the anti-radar building category which pointed out explicitly to the standard, may apply mechanically directly. In the standard to some buildings only pointed out that is bigger than estimate thunder stroke number of times XX/every year, but belongs to two kinds or three kind of anti-radar buildings. Regarding these stipulations, only depends on the direct-viewing feeling and the experience in the design, cannot determine explicitly its building respective anti-radar category, causes to make two kinds anti-radar to make three kinds by mistake, should make three kinds anti-radar, but has not done, the result is to the building which completes creates certain hidden danger. This has the necessity according to the local annual mean thunderstorm day and the building locus geography, the geological soil, the meteorological environment and so on conducts thedetailed research and makes the corresponding computation, determines the anti-radar rank.For example: Under Jinan area Td=26.3 K=2 environment according to formula: N=0.024k · Td1.3 · Ae in the formula: N- building estimate thunder stroke number of times (/year) The K- correction factor (according to newly built building locus's geography, environment decides) Td- annual mean thunderstorm day Ae- and the building truncation receives the same thunder stroke number of times equivalent area (km2)Calculates the length 100 meters, the width 25 meters, above two (H≥9 rice) the provincial level work building must make two kind of anti-radar. If through the computation, this kind of building actual does not make three kinds anti-radar or does not do is possible. From this sees, carries on the overall evaluation to some peculiar circumstance's building and makes the corresponding computation is very essential. the two, anti-radar electric inductions and the thunder electric waves invade the against long jab thunder the measure, the general layout personnel are very explicit. But, along with the technical development, electronic installation's popularization, the anti-radar electric induction and the thunder electric wave invasion must be clear in the design, and consummates gradually forms an anti-radar network. when the 1. thunder and lightning induces - the thunder discharge, has the electrostatic induction and the electromagnetic induction on the nearby conductor, it possibly causes between the metal part to produce the spark. Therefore is protected in building's metal earth, is the anti-radar electric induction key measure. First, completes the equipotential joint. To one, two kind of anti-radar buildings in parallel or overlapping placing metal pipeline, when its clear distance is smaller than 100mm, should use Jin Shuxian to bridge, is prevents the potential difference which the electromagnetic induction creates to be able the small gap breakdown, but produces the electric spark, every other ≤30m completes the earth. the 2. thunder electric wave invasion - as a result of the thunder and lightning to the air line either the metal pipeline's function, the thunder electric wave possibly along these pipeline invasion room, endangers the personal safety or damages the equipment. Therefore, completes the terminal the anti-radar protection, completes the equalizing ring and against flank attack thunder is the anti-radar electric wave invasion key measure. First, two kind of anti-radar construction low pressure coil in entire line uses buries straight said that is built on stilts the line introduces when the indoors many in a 15m section should trade the electric cable (metal armoring electric cable to bury straight, protective covering electric cable puts on steel pipe) the buyer, and is being built on stilts with the electric cable trades meets place completes the lightning protection protection. Two kind of anti-radar constructions work as the air line direct introduction, besides in the residence place addition arrester, and completes the buyer installment iron stock the earth, approaches on building's two telephone pole's iron stock alsoto complete the earth, and the impact earth resistance ≤30Ω, all weak electricity coil in's protection should with the strong electricity coil. The anti-radar building must complete the equalizing ring and against flank attack thunder protection. Equalizing ring from three starts, between link vertical range ≤12m, all downleads, building's metal structure and the hardware reliably connects with the link, the equalizing ring may use in the structure grid's steel bar (steel bar to link up ring circuit). A kind anti-radar constructs above 30m, two kinds anti-radar construct above 45m, three kinds anti-radar construct above 60m, must complete against flank attack thunder protection, makes one week level along the building outer wall to evade the mine belt, between the belt and the belt the vertical range ≤6m, in the outer wall all metal parapet, the windows and doors with evade the mine belt to connect reliably, evade the mine belt to connect reliably again with the downlead. The vertical placing's metal pipeline and the metal peak and the bottom end and the antimine device reliable connection, the goal lies in the equipotential, because and the both sides connection causes it to form the parallel with the downlead, causes the thunder electric current news fast to enter. three, anti-radar electric currents after downlead and when grounding has the high electric potential completes against long jab thunder, the thunder electric wave invasion and the thunder and lightning to the hardware or electrical line counter-attack measure induces, is not a complete anti-radar design. Because, in the building mostly uses together the grounding at present, when thunder long jab in this building antimine device, the supposition flows through approaches the low pressure electric installation place grounding the thunder electric current is 20KA, when impact earth resistance =1Ω, in the grounding the electric potential elevates is 20KV, but the general indoor low pressure installment bears the striking potential most to be high is 8KV. Its result causes the low pressure electric installation insulation to be weak place is possibly penetrated creates the short circuit, has the fire, to damage the equipment, this is very dangerous. Therefore, gives the enough value in the design, realizes omni-directionally, the multi-level anti-radar networks to the anti-radar building, causes the thunder and lightning the influence to reduce to the building is smallest.when building for high-pressured coil, high-pressured, the low pressure side each on supposes the arrester, with protects by the high-pressured coil in thunder and lightning and the operation (circuit breaker movement, throws cuts big electric motor and condenser bank and so on) the overvoltage. The electronic installation are many and the important construction, installs the overvoltage protection again in the low pressure power distribution branch, does for the reserve protection, mainly uses in further suppressing after the pretage protection limit on the surplus overvoltage and the power line the overvoltage which produces by the induction or the coupling.when building for low pressure coil, installs the overvoltage protector in the power source total coil in place. four, about meet dodges tomeet dodges - the direct truncation the lightning rod which is struck by lightning, to evade the mine belt (line), the lightning protection network, as well as serves as the metal roofing which and the steel work meets dodges and so on. In many buildings, the roofing for on person roofing, is high to the artistic request, according to the conventional procedure, clearly spreads the lightning protection network with the garden steel to do meets dodges is artistic on the influence, this standard to two kind of anti-radar buildings in two, three, eight, nine section of building pointed out that with in the reinforced concrete roofing, Liang, column's steel bar achievement meets suitably dodges, in the practical application, may use in the roofing parapet wall the capping steel bar to do meets dodges, is higher than the roofing each kind of iron stock to with the capping steel bar reliable welding (when construction must pay attention to coordination), the capping steel bar with makes in downlead's column four corner postsThe muscle completes the reliable electrical connection. This procedure must have the concretes fragment which regularly to the thunder stroke the possibility creates or withdraw carries on the service. five, earth body - bury in the soil or the concrete foundation does drifts with the conductor about earth body the . In the practical application, the big project uses in the foundation the steel bar to make the earth body generally, and uses the union earth body, the earth resistance value to request slightly ≤1Ω. But in some have the basement, in half basement construction, at the construction uses the waterproofing material to construct the ledger wall to make waterproof processing. At present, uses the waterproofing material has the very good insulating property, therefore, makes the earthed pole directly to this kind of building using the foundation steel bar, had the possibility not to be able to satisfy the project docking earth resistance request, must direct from the column muscle downlead place, one week made in the closed artificial earth body and the foundation along the building slope protection outside the steel bar and uses, like this could achieve the satisfactory earth resistance value.The intelligence mansion is generally and all a type of building, should build up comprehensive connect a ground of system, connect a ground of electric resistance to be no bigger than one Ω .Design in the building crest from avoid thunder to take, lightning rod or mixture constitute of connect a Shan machine, make use of steel pillar or sign the reinforcing bar in the pillar as to defend thunder to lead to log out, and and the foundation reinforcing bar of building, beam reinforcing bar, the metals frame conjunction gets up, become to shut to match good farad cage and construct inside the Shu toward the metals piping should each time all press of the 3 F and turn beam wreath connect with each other, all press wreath should with defend thunder device ad hoc lead to log out connect with each other.When building is more than 30 meters high, in response to 30 meters and the railing on above part ofoutside walls, the metals doors and windows wait a bigger metal direct or through metals doors and windows cover up an iron with defend thunder device a conjunction.The intelligence is various exchanges inside the mansion, the direct current equipments is numerous, the circuit maneuvers interleave, should exchanges work in the building ground, safe protection ground, direct current work ground, defend thunder to connect ground and the cage good conjunction of the building farad, become an etc. electric potential body, avoid connecting the existence potential difference of the of a ground of line, respond to conduct electricity reason of press the creation by cancellation.建筑物防雷设计当人们知道，雷电是一种电力的现象后，向崇拜的雷电与恐惧感逐渐消失，并开始与品味，科学来自新观察自然现象，这魔术，希望使使用或控制雷电活动，以造福人类.超过二百年以来几乎富兰克林为首的小康就技术开始挑战对雷电，他发明的避雷针可能被视为向在最早现阶段维护雷声大的产品和产品名称，今天这几乎由全体人民已知道.事实上，富兰克林发明避雷针是认为金属避雷针的角度谈谈对电力的功能，可合成电荷在积雨云，使积雨云和电场的地球一样低的水平，不能突破的空气中，避免罢工，因此，闪电发生时，当时的避雷针，必须要求尖利.但是事后研究阐述证明：闪电控制棒是发生不可避免的打雷的，因为它可以证明雷声大，是因为建筑物较高，是矗立在签署的避雷针改变了大气电场，使积雨云的一定范围内始终把对电力对闪电棒，也就是说，避雷针只是比它周围其他物体更容易连接山雷电，避雷针是罢工的闪电，但是它可以对其他物体加以保护，这是捍卫建筑物的一种方式，避雷针防雷更加深刻的研究表示，连接避雷针山的功能，几乎有一些建筑物不是很高，但没有形状，可说是避雷针不一定是雷声大，技术的境界，将会知道一起像现在这种类型的防雷装置。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Structural Systems to resist lateral loadsmonly Used structural SystemsWith loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology.Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows:1.Moment-resisting frames.2.Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.3.Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.4.Tube-in-tube structures.5.Tube-in-tube structures.6.Core-interactive structures.7.Cellular or bundled-tube systems.Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems. Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect. In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here .The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.2.Moment-Resisting FramesPerhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints. Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads. In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriatecomputer programs; analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today’s technology.Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because preliminary designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use center-to-center dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis. Of course, in the latter phases of design, a realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.3.Braced FramesThe braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings. The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints. It is used commonly in conjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame.Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs. And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis.4.Shear wallsThe shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems. The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally (but not always) concrete elements that provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width. Lacking tension in the foundation system, any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of the system and by the gravity load supported by the element. Limited to a narrow overturning, One obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building, where the requirement for windows is kept small.Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high. The system, intrinsically more economicalthan steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade. The sys tem has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature of particular importance in areas of high seismicity.The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls. Preliminary analysis can be by truss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction, or coupling, of shear walls.5.Framed or Braced TubesThe concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin 110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings .The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration. Because those columns that resist lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia is increased and stiffness is very high.The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or by two- dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the stiffness of framed tubes. The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of 60 stories. Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most noticeably the use of belt trusses. This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and higher. However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly every building function associated with the outside wall; the trusses are placed often at mechanical floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems. Nevertheless, as a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers. Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided. Experience would indicate, however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and by aesthetic considerations,as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.6.Tube-in-Tube StructuresThe tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wall in resisting over-turning and shearing forces. The term‘tube-in-tube’is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube. The purpose of the second tube is to increase resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness. The tubes need not be of the same character; that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy. In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending deformation of columns and girders (i.e, the webs of the framed tube) while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns (i.e, the flanges of the framed tube). In a braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane (i.e, the floor slabs),then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube. However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or even higher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring. This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems. This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced (i.e, shear-stiff) tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed (i.e, shear-flexible) tube.7.Core Interactive StructuresCore interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame. Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero. The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well. Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systemspassing in a straight line from the “hat” structure. Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations; these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core. Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the tube, with the inflection point at about 5/8 of the height of the tube. The outer columns, of course, carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shear stiffness of the system is close to zero.The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building. The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements:1.The structural system is 94 ft (28.6m) wide, 196ft(59.7m) long, and 601ft (183.3m)high.2.Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft(9.4m) by 40 ft (12.2m), centered 90 ft (27.4m)apart in the long direction of the building.3.The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shear stiffness in the longdirection.4. A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the building perimeter.5.The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shear stiffness for thecenter50ft (15.2m) of each of the long sides.6. A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.7. A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building8.The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twin steel-plate tubes, becausethe shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building.8.Cellular structuresA classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago, a bundled tube structure of nine separate tubes. While the Sears Tower contains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept of differential column shortening. The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression△=ΣfL/EFor buildings of 12 ft (3.66m) floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi (138MPa), the shortening of a column under load is 15 (12)(12)/29,000 or 0.074in (1.9mm) per story. At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to 3.7 in. (94mm) less than its unstressed length. Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between .the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations. In at least one building, the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically pre-stress the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulating the weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.抗侧向荷载的结构体系1.常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。

建筑工程技术专业毕业作业范文（中英文实用版）Title: Example of Graduation Project for Architectural Engineering Technology MajorThe graduation project is an essential part of the Architectural Engineering Technology program.It serves as a platform for students to demonstrate their understanding and application of the knowledge and skills acquired throughout their studies.This example of a graduation project provides a comprehensive guide for students to develop their own projects.毕业设计是建筑工程技术专业学生展示自己对这个专业知识和技能掌握及运用的重要环节。

本文将提供一份建筑工程技术专业毕业设计的范例，供学生参考。

In this example, a student has chosen to focus on the design and implementation of a sustainable building.The project begins with a thorough analysis of the site, taking into consideration factors such as climate, topography, and surrounding environment.This analysis helps to inform the design decisions for the building, ensuring that it is well-suited to its location.在这个范例中，学生选择以设计并实施一个可持续建筑作为毕业设计主题。

山东建筑大学本科毕业设计说明书外文文献及翻译格式模版1附件3：（本科毕业论文）文献、资料题目：院（部）专班姓名：张三学号：指导教师：张九光翻译日期：2005.6.30，the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has been working to develop a new encryption standard to keep government information secure ．The organization is in the final stages of an open process of selecting one or more algorithms ，or data-scrambling formulas ，for the new Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and plans to make adecision by late summer or early fall ．The standard is slated to go into effect next year ．AES is intended to be a stronger ，more efficient successor to Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES)，which replaced the aging DES ，which was cracked in less than three days in July 1998．“Until we have the AES ，3DES will still offer protection for years to come ．So there is no need to immediately switch over ，”says Edward Roback ，acting chief of the computer security division at NIST and chairman of the AES selection committee ．“What AES will offer is a more efficient algorithm ．It will be a federal standard ，but it will be widely implemented in the IT community ．”According to Roback ，efficiency of the proposed algorithms is measured by how fast they can encrypt and decrypt information ，how fast they can present an encryption key and how much information they can encrypt ．The AES review committee is also looking at how much space the algorithm takes up on a chip and how much memory it requires ．Roback says the selection of a more efficient AES will also result in cost savings and better use of resources ．“DES w as designed for hardware implementations ，and we are now living in a world of much more efficient software ，and we have learned an awful lot about the design of algorithms ，”says Roback ．“When you start multiplying this with the billions of implementations done daily ，the saving on overhead on the networks will be enormous ．”……山东建筑大学毕业设计（或毕业论文，二选一）外文文献及译文- 1 -以确保政府的信息安全。

建筑环境与设备工程毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献篇一：建筑环境与设备工程中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Ground Source Heat PumpAt present,energy is the most important element for the development of states’economy.Because of the good energy-saving effect,using regenerate resource of energy,and no pollution,the GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP AIR-CONDITION is used more and more popular now.In the system of the GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP AIR-CONDITION,the terminal devices what include the fan,the deep well pump,the circulate pump are the biggest energy-consumed part except the inner device as well as the compressor motor, etc.So it is very important and significant to make the terminal devices running in the mostenergy-saving condition.In this paper,the author founded on the GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP AIR-CONDITION in Guangxi University,based on the actual project condition, made the redesign through the way of frequency conversiontechnology for the old system of GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP AIR-CONDITION.At first, the equipments’ running control system were improved following the energy-saving principle of fan and pump,choused Mitsubishi FR series frequency transducer with vector-controlfunction,Mitsubishi FX2N series PLC and other auxiliary parts to make up of the auto-control system for the GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP AIR-CONDITION,and then did the emulating analysis for the vector-control mode in the frequency conversion process.In the next based the auto-control system,made the PLC control system designing.This system monitor the temperature and flux in accurate and real time,then input feedback to the plc,finally the terminal device running status will correspond to the customer’s demanded-load,it can wellmeet the goal for saving energy and prolong the life of the motor and other device.At the same time,designed the PLC control process,according to this transformation of the specific programme,programmed for the PLC by using the FX-GP/WIN-C programme software.Researched and analyses the PIDalgorithm and its improved algorithm for the PID Operational module in the PLC.At last,through detailed analysis and accounted for energy-saving effect and the cost of thesystem-reforming,validated the profitability of this redesigned-project,and showed its feasibility and worthBe using renewable geothermal energy in shallow ground layer, a ground source heat pump (GSHP) technology is known as one of air conditioning techniques which have the greatest developmental. The GSHP has great potentials in energy reduction and in reducing CO2emissions to conventional HVAC systems. In China, energy shortage and environmental issues pose a seriouschallenge accompanied by rapid economic growth. GSHP has been spotlighted as both energy efficiency and environmental benefits. Generally, the initial investment for a GCHP system is higher than that of a conventional system. GCHP energy savings will offset the higher installing cost in future. However, there are many aspects affecting the actual amount of energy saved, such as climate, building load, ground heat exchanger, heat pump, control, etc. Recently, a lot of research on the energy performance of GCHP has been carried out. However, most of these previous research projects evaluated the performance of GCHP system based on a laboratory scale or a small capacity system. There is little data documenting the long-term performance of a large-sized GCHP. Evalution and research on real world installed GCHP will provide a more accurate understanding of the current technology’s performance.The paper presented that the energy performance evaluation of two types of GSHPs based on actual operational data. The two types of GSHPs were ground-coupled heat pump system (GCHPs) and groundwater heat pump system (GWHPs) which were,respectively, installed in two apartment buildings of Wuhan, China. In one year, we monitored various operating parameters, including the outdoor temperature, the flow rate, electrical consumption, and the water temperature. The coefficient of performance (COP) values of system and chiller were determined based on a series of measurements. During residential GCHP system operation, the heat injection rate into soil is larger than the heatextraction rate out of soil. The COP of chillers of the GCHPs decreased significantly during the heating season due to the lowering of ground soil temperature. The system power consumption exhibited a strong linear relationship with outdoor temperature in both seasons and this suggests that normalizing power consumption against degree-days is a highly practical index in energy analysis in resident buildings, especially in winter.Some research topics were studied on the two actual cases. An exergy analysis of a ground water heat pump system on the actual operation was conduced. The energy efficiency and exergy loss and efficiency in each of the components of the system are detemined forthe average measured parameters obtained from the monitored results of the hottest month and the coldest month. Inefficient facts are found out and increased energy efficiencies of two proposed improvement measures were estimated. Lower approachtemperature is effective energy saving. In addition to the energy analysis, a full exergy analysis helps to identify the components where inefficiencies occur. An economic analysis model forGWHP was established to calculate energy consumption and operating cost based on a baseline condition. Plate heat exchanger flow rate and groundwater flow rate were optimization parameters according to different water price of the groundwater:GWHP survey data shows the impact of water price on groundwater flow rate in design. The long-term energy performances of theGWHPs and the GCHPs were investigated and compared with conventional HVAC systems and other GSHPs on literature data. A performances model was established base on the two cases to constrast the predictedperformance with the actual performance.Based on superposition theorem of geothermal heat exchangers (GHE), a inverse model for GHE, G-functions interpolationapproach was proposed. Linear interpolation method was adopted to fit G-functions. The method presented here uses the Nelder and Mead simplex algorithm as part of a parameter estimation algorithm to estimate G-function. For verification of G-functions interpolation approach, anumerical experimentation had been conducted where synthetic load on GHE was established. The simulation results with error and no error, were inversely modeled by G-functions interpolation approach and DST calibrated approach. The actual dataset of a small sized and a large sized GSHPs were also used in inverse modeling to verify the results from the G-functions interpolation approach. The small sized GSHPs was from literature. The large sized vertical GSHPs was the monitored case in the paper. A detailed DST model of a GHE has been calibrated to monitored data. The secondyear predicted temperatures calculated by the two models were compared with the measured. The results show the two approaches are reliable and have good performance of error tolerance. The error of GHE water temperature calculated by G-functions interpolation approach was less than DST calibrated approaches. The data error inversely modeled was mainly from recorded day data. As a extension study of the G-functions interpolation model, degree-day G-functions approach was proposed. The model was based on degree-day prediction load and can be applied on the residential buildings. The standard deviation of GHE water temperature by degree-day G-functions approach was larger than DST calibrated approaches. The result shows the appropriateness of degree-day G-functions interpolation approach for the quantitative modeling of GHE.This paper shows that the research on actual performance according measured data and presents two inverse models:G-functions interpolation model, degree-day G-functions model approach, which provides new methods for GHE inverse modelingWith the sustainable development theory being put forward in recent years, people pay more and more attention to energy efficiency and environmental protection. The Ground Source Heat Pump(GSHP) air-conditioning system has been a kind of new technology to save energy and protect environment. This paper gives an overview of technology economy analysis on GSHPAir-conditioning System and optimization design of its ground heat exchanger, which provide helpful suggestion to engineers.First, this paper gives an overview of the history of GSHP system in China and foreign countries. Based on the work principle of the GSHP system, thecharacteristics of three circulations have been proposed, which are the use of renewable energy saving and environmental friendly, etc. hi terms of technology economy, the GSHPair-conditioning system was compared with the air source heat pump system, the water source heat pump system and the traditional central air-conditioningsystem. Main indexes are given to evaluate the technology economy of the GSHP air-conditioning system.A practical project was used as an example for the analysis.Ground-loop heat exchanger is an important part of the GSHP air-conditioning system and deferent from other traditional air-conditioning systems. This paper gave detailed designing method of Ground-loop heat exchanger, including load calculation, pipe layout, choice of tubes and its material, antifreeze method, calculation of pressure drop, etc. Taken the GSHP air-conditioning system in the report room of Shandong Institute of Architecture and Engineering as an example, its design was analyzed and the optimization design of ground-loop heat exchanger was proposed.The people attention to energy efficiency and environmental protection,which decide thesustainable development of the country.The Ground Source Heat Pump(GSHP)air-conditioning system has been a kind of new technology to save energy and protect environment.This paper gives an overview of technologyeconomy analysis on GSHP Air-condition System and optimization design of its ground heat exchanger,which provide helpful suggestion toengineersFirst,this paper gives an overview of GSHP system in China and foreign countries. Based on the work principle of the GSHP system,the characteristics of three circulations have been proposed,which are the use of renewable energy saving and environmental friendly,etc.In teams of technology ,the GSHP air-conditioning system was compared with the air source heat pump system,the water source heat pump system and the traditional central air-conditioning system.Main indexes are given to evaluate the technology economy of GSHP air-conditoning篇二：建筑施工毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献建筑施工毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure. Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processing ForewordConcrete is formed by a sand and gravel aggregate,cement,water and other materials but mixed heterogeneous brittle materials.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, impermeable and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete besubjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Component all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. materialcreation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and impermeable ability, influence building of external appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property safety.A lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result that.Modern age science research with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly of the scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope inside.Thereinforced concrete norm is also explicit provision:Some structure at place of dissimilarity under the condition allow existence certain the crack of width.But at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don't appear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect.Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention1.Shrinkage crack and preventionShrinkage crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a week.In the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation Shrinkage, and this kind of constringency is can't negative.Shrinkage crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result:The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface Shrinkage transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation crack.The relativehumidity is more low, cement syrup body Shrinkage more big, Shrinkage crack be more easy creation.Shrinkage crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between 0.05-0.2 mm, the flat surface part much see in the big physical volume concrete and follow it more in thinner beam plank short to distribute.Shrinkage crackusually the impermeability of influence concrete, cause the durable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influence concrete of loading dint etc..Concrete Shrinkage be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.Main prevention measure:While being to choose to use the constringency quantity smaller cement, general low hot water mire and powder ash from stove cement in the adoption, lower the dosage of cement.Two is a concrete of Shrinkage be subjected to water ash ratio of influence more big, water ash ratio more big, Shrinkage more big, so in the concrete match the ratio the design should as far as possible control good water ash ratio of choose to use, the Chan add in the meantime accommodation of reduce water.Three is strict control concrete mix blend with under construction of match ratio, use of concrete water quantity absolute can't big in match ratio design give settle of use waterquantity.Four is the earlier period which strengthen concrete to protect, and appropriate extension protect of concrete time.Winter construction want to be appropriate extension concrete heat preservation to overlay time, and brushing protect to protect.Five is a constitution the accommodation is in the concrete structure of the constringency sew.2.Plastic shrinkage cracking and preventionPlastic shrinkage is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of constringency.The Plastic shrinkage crack is general at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends of the thin and the length be different, with each other not coherent appearance.Shorter crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 mm.It creation of main reason is:The concrete is eventually almosthaving no strength or strength before the final setting very small, perhaps concrete just eventually final setting but strength very hour, be subjected toheat or compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick, result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharply constringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist its constringency, therefore creation cracked.The influence concrete Plastic shrinkage of the main factors of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity...etc..Main prevention measure:One is choose to use dry compression value smaller higher silicate of the earlier period strength or common the portland cement.Two is strict the control water ash ratio, the Chan add to efficiently reduce water to increment the collapse of concrete fall a degree and with easy, decrease cement and water of dosage.Three is to sprinkle before building concrete, water basic level and template even to soak through.Four is in time to overlay the perhaps damp grass mat of the plastics thin film, hemp slice etc., keep concrete eventually beforethe final setting surface is moist, perhaps spray to protect etc. to carry on protect in the concrete surface.Five is in the heat and strong wind the weather to want to establish to hide sun and block breeze facilities, protect in time.3.Sink to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation crack.This kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 °Cape direction development, bigger sink tosink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion relation.Crack widthunder the influence of temperature variety smaller.The foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.Main prevention measure:One is rightness loose soft soil, return to fill soil foundation a construction at the upper part structure front should carry on necessity of Hang solid with reinforce.Two is the strength that assurance template is enough and just degree, and prop up firm, and make the foundation be subjected to dint even.Three is keep concrete from sprinkle infusing the foundation in the process is soak by water.Four is time that template tore down to can't be too early, and want to notice to dismantle a mold order of sequence.Five is at jelly soil top take to establish template to notice to adopt certain of prevention measure.4.Temperature crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in bigsurface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth area of the concrete structure.Concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of 17500-27500kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge or cooling dissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should dint.When pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under constructionperiod.In the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control, creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind篇三：建筑与环境设备工程外文翻译毕业论文（设计）题系部名称：专业班级：学生姓名：学指导教师：教师职称：外文翻译目：浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调能耗号：XX11014233 讲师 1浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调能耗摘要：研究建筑环境，了解暖通空调负荷产生的原因及影响因素，可以更加合理地提出解决问题的方法。

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：钢筋混凝土结构设计文献、资料英文题目：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：土木工程班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14毕业设计（论文）外文参考资料及译文译文题目：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES原文：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETESTRUCTURES1. BASIC CONCERPTS AND CHARACERACTERISTICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETEPlain concrete is formed from hardened mixture of cement, water , fine aggregate , coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel ) , air and often other admixtures . The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to accelerate of the chemical hydration of hen cement mix and results in a hardened concrete. It is generally known that concrete has high compressive strength and low resistance to tension. Its tensile strength is approximatelyone-tenth of its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile reinforcement in the tension zone has to be provided to supplement the tensile strength of the reinforced concrete section.For example, a plain concrete beam under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig .1.1(a), when the distributed load increases and reaches a value q=1.37KN/m , the tensile region at the mid-span will be cracked and the beam will fail suddenly . A reinforced concrete beam if the same size but has to steel reinforcing bars (2φ16) embedded at the bottom under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig.1.1(b). The reinforcing bars take up the tension there after the concrete is cracked. When the load q is increased, the width of the cracks, the deflection and thestress of steel bars will increase . When the steel approaches the yielding stress ƒy , thedeflection and the cracked width are so large offering some warning that the compression zone . The failure load q=9.31KN/m, is approximately 6.8 times that for the plain concrete beam.Concrete and reinforcement can work together because there is a sufficiently strong bond between the two materials, there are no relative movements of the bars and the surrounding concrete cracking. The thermal expansion coefficients of the two materials are 1.2×10-5K-1 for steel and 1.0×10-5~1.5×10-5K-1 for concrete .Generally speaking, reinforced structure possess following features :Durability .With the reinforcing steel protected by the concrete , reinforced concreteFig.1.1Plain concrete beam and reinforced concrete beamIs perhaps one of the most durable materials for construction .It does not rot rust , and is not vulnerable to efflorescence .(2)Fire resistance .Both concrete an steel are not inflammable materials .They would not be affected by fire below the temperature of 200℃when there is a moderate amount of concrete cover giving sufficient thermal insulation to the embedded reinforcement bars.(3)High stiffness .Most reinforced concrete structures have comparatively large cross sections .As concrete has high modulus of elasticity, reinforced concrete structures are usuallystiffer than structures of other materials, thus they are less prone to large deformations, This property also makes the reinforced concrete less adaptable to situations requiring certainflexibility, such as high-rise buildings under seismic load, and particular provisions have to be made if reinforced concrete is used.(b)Reinfoced concrete beam(4)Locally available resources. It is always possible to make use of the local resources of labour and materials such as fine and coarse aggregates. Only cement and reinforcement need to be brought in from outside provinces.(5)Cost effective. Comparing with steel structures, reinforced concrete structures are cheaper.(6)Large dead mass, The density of reinforced concrete may reach2400~2500kg/pare with structures of other materials, reinforced concrete structures generally have a heavy dead mass. However, this may be not always disadvantageous, particularly for those structures which rely on heavy dead weight to maintain stability, such as gravity dam and other retaining structure. The development and use of light weight aggregate have to a certain extent make concrete structure lighter.(7)Long curing period.. It normally takes a curing period of 28 day under specified conditions for concrete to acquire its full nominal strength. This makes the progress of reinforced concrete structure construction subject to seasonal climate. The development of factory prefabricated members and investment in metal formwork also reduce the consumption of timber formwork materials.(8)Easily cracked. Concrete is weak in tension and is easily cracked in the tension zone. Reinforcing bars are provided not to prevent the concrete from cracking but to take up the tensile force. So most of the reinforced concrete structure in service is behaving in a cracked state. This is an inherent is subjected to a compressive force before working load is applied. Thus the compressed concrete can take up some tension from the load.2. HISTOEICAL DEVELPPMENT OF CONCRETE STRUCTUREAlthough concrete and its cementitious(volcanic) constituents, such as pozzolanic ash, have been used since the days of Greek, the Romans, and possibly earlier ancient civilization, the use of reinforced concrete for construction purpose is a relatively recent event, In 1801, F. Concrete published his statement of principles of construction, recognizing the weakness if concrete in tension, The beginning of reinforced concrete is generally attributed to Frenchman J. L. Lambot, who in 1850 constructed, for the first time, a small boat with concrete for exhibition in the 1855 World’s Fair in Paris. In England, W. B. Wilkinson registered a patent for reinforced concrete l=floor slab in 1854.J.Monier, a French gardener used metal frames as reinforcement to make garden plant containers in 1867. Before 1870, Monier had taken a series of patents to make reinforcedconcrete pipes, slabs, and arches. But Monier had no knowledge of the working principle of this new material, he placed the reinforcement at the mid-depth of his wares. Then little construction was done in reinforced concrete. It is until 1887, when the German engineers Wayss and Bauschinger proposed to place the reinforcement in the tension zone, the use of reinforced concrete as a material of construction began to spread rapidly. In1906, C. A. P. Turner developed the first flat slab without beams.Before the early twenties of 20th century, reinforced concrete went through the initial stage of its development, Considerable progress occurred in the field such that by 1910 the German Committee for Reinforced Concrete, the Austrian Concrete Committee, the American Concrete Institute, and the British Concrete Institute were established. Various structural elements, such as beams, slabs, columns, frames, arches, footings, etc. were developed using this material. However, the strength of concrete and that of reinforcing bars were still very low. The common strength of concrete at the beginning of 20th century was about 15MPa in compression, and the tensile strength of steel bars was about 200MPa. The elements were designed along the allowable stresses which was an extension of the principles in strength of materials.By the late twenties, reinforced concrete entered a new stage of development. Many buildings, bridges, liquid containers, thin shells and prefabricated members of reinforced concrete were concrete were constructed by 1920. The era of linear and circular prestressing began.. Reinforced concrete, because of its low cost and easy availability, has become the staple material of construction all over the world. Up to now, the quality of concrete has been greatly improved and the range of its utility has been expanded. The design approach has also been innovative to giving the new role for reinforced concrete is to play in the world of construction.The concrete commonly used today has a compressive strength of 20~40MPa. For concrete used in pre-stressed concrete the compressive strength may be as high as 60~80MPa. The reinforcing bars commonly used today has a tensile strength of 400MPa, and the ultimate tensile strength of prestressing wire may reach 1570~1860Pa. The development of high strength concrete makes it possible for reinforced concrete to be used in high-rise buildings, off-shore structures, pressure vessels, etc. In order to reduce the dead weight of concrete structures, various kinds of light concrete have been developed with a density of 1400~1800kg/m3. With a compressive strength of 50MPa, light weight concrete may be used in load bearing structures. One of the best examples is the gymnasium of the University of Illinois which has a span of 122m and is constructed of concrete with a density of 1700kg/m3. Another example is the two 20-story apartment houses at the Xi-Bian-Men in Beijing. The walls of these two buildings are light weight concrete with a density of 1800kg/m3.The tallest reinforced concrete building in the world today is the 76-story Water Tower Building in Chicago with a height of 262m. The tallest reinforced concrete building in China today is the 63-story International Trade Center in GuangZhou with a height a height of 200m. The tallest reinforced concrete construction in the world is the 549m high International Television Tower in Toronto, Canada. He prestressed concrete T-section simply supported beam bridge over the Yellow River in Luoyang has 67 spans and the standard span length is 50m.In the design of reinforced concrete structures, limit state design concept has replaced the old allowable stresses principle. Reliability analysis based on the probability theory has very recently been introduced putting the limit state design on a sound theoretical foundation. Elastic-plastic analysis of continuous beams is established and is accepted in most of the design codes. Finite element analysis is extensively used in the design of reinforced concrete structures and non-linear behavior of concrete is taken into consideration. Recent earthquake disasters prompted the research in the seismic resistant reinforced of concrete structures. Significant results have been accumulated.3. SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE COURSEReinforced concrete is a widely used material for construction. Hence, graduates of every civil engineering program must have, as a minimum requirement, a basic understanding of the fundamentals of reinforced concrete.The course of Reinforced Concrete Design requires the prerequisite of Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, and some if not all, of Theory of Structures, In all these courses, with the exception of Strength of Materials to some extent, a structure is treated of in the abstract. For instance, in the theory of rigid frame analysis, all members have an abstract EI/l value, regardless of what the act value may be. But the theory of reinforced concrete is different, it deals with specific materials, concrete and steel. The values of most parameters must be determined by experiments and can no more be regarded as some abstract. Additionally, due to the low tensile strength of concrete, the reinforced concrete members usually work with cracks, some of the parameters such as the elastic modulus I of concrete and the inertia I of section are variable with the loads.The theory of reinforced concrete is relatively young. Although great progress has been made, the theory is still empirical in nature in stead of rational. Many formulas can not be derived from a few propositions, and may cause some difficulties for students. Besides, due to the difference in practice in different countries, most countries base their design methods on their own experience and experimental results. Consequently, what one learns in one country may be different in another country. Besides, the theory is still in a stage of rapid。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Housing Problems and Options for the Elderly 1. IntroductionHousing is a critical element in the lives of older persons. The affordability of housing affects the ability of the elderly to afford other necessities of life such as food and medical care. Housing that is located near hospitals and doctors, shopping, transportation, and recreational facilities can facilitate access to services that can enhance the quality of life. Housing can also be a place of memories of the past and a connection to friends and neighbors. Housing with supportive features and access to services can also make it possible for persons to age in place. In this session, we will be examining housing problems andoptions for the elderly. Along the way, we will be testing your housing IQ with a series of questions and exercises.2. Housing Situation of Older PersonsHow typical is the housing situation of the olders?We will begin by examining five areas :（1）Prevalence of home ownership （2）Length of stay in current residence （3）Living arrangements （4）Attachments of older persons to where they live （5）Moving behavior.With whom older persons live can influence housing affordability, space needs, and the ability to age in place. About 54% of older persons live with their spouses, 31% live alone, almost 13% live with related persons other than their spouse and about 2% live with unrelated persons. With increasing age, older persons (primarily women) are more likely to live alone or with a relative other than a spouse. Frail older women living alone are the persons most likely to reside in homes with ‘extra’ rooms and to need both physically supportive housing features and services to "age in place". This segment of the population is also the group most likely to move to more supportive housing settings such as assisted living.Many older persons have strong psychological attachments to their homes related to length of residence. The home often represents the place where they raised their children and a lifetime of memories. It is also a connection to an array of familiar persons such as neighbors and shopkeepers as well as near by places including houses of worship, libraries and community services. For manyolder persons, the home is an extension of their own personalities which is found in the furnishings . In addition, the home can represent a sense of economic security for the future, especially for homeowners who have paid off their mortgages. For owners, the home is usually their most valuable financial asset. The home also symbolizes a sense of independence in that the resident is able to live on his or her own. For these types of reasons, it is understandable that in response to a question about housing preferences, AARP surveys of older persons continue to find that approximately 80% of older persons report that what they want is to "stay in their own homes and never move." This phenomena has been termed the preference to "age in place."Although most older persons move near their current communities, some seek retirement communities in places with warmer weather in the southwest, far west and the south.3. The Federal Government's Housing Programs for the ElderlyThe federal government has had two basic housing strategies to address housing problems of the elderly. One strategy, termed the "supply side" approach, seeks to build new housing complexes such as public housing and Section 202 housing for older persons. Public housing is administered by quasi-governmental local public housing authorities. Section 202 Housing for the elderly and disabled is sponsored by non-profit organizations including religious and non-sectarian organizations. Approximately 1.5 million olderpersons or 3% of the elderly population live in federally assisted housing, with about 387,000 living in Section 202 housing. Over time, the government has shifted away from such new construction programs because of the cost of such housing, the problems that a number of non-elderly housing programs have experienced, and a philosophy that the government should no longer be directly involved with the building of housing. Section 202 housing, a very popular and successful program, is one of the few supply-side programs funded by the federal government, although the budget allocation during the last ten years has allowed for the construction of only about 6,000 units per year compared to a high of almost 20,000 units in the late 1970s. Instead of funding new construction, federal housing initiatives over the last decade have emphasized ‘demand side’ subsidies that provide low-income renters with a certificate or a voucher that they can use in a variety of multiunit settings, including apartments in the private sector that meet rental and condition guidelines. These vouchers and certificates are aimed at reducing excessive housing costs. Some certificates are termed ‘project based’ subsidies and are tied to federally subsidized housing such as Section 202. Because housing programs are not an entitlement, however, supply-side and demand side programs together are only able to meet the needs of about 1/3 of elderly renters who qualify on the basis of income.While advocates for housing have been trying to hold on to the existing programs in the face of huge budget cuts at HUD, much of the attention has been shifting towards meeting the shelter and service needs of the frail elderly. This emphasis reflects the increasing number of older persons in their eightiesand nineties who need a physically supportive environment linked with services. This group of older persons includes a high percentage of older residents of public and Section 202 housing. Initially built for independent older persons who were initially in the late sixties and early seventies, this type of housing now includes older persons in their eighties and nineties, many of whom have aged in place. Consequently, the government is faced with creating strategies to bring services into these buildings and retrofit them to better suit the needs of frail older persons. A major initiative of the early 1990s, which may be stalled by current budget problems at HUD, has been for the federal government to pay for service coordinators to assess the needs of residents of government assisted housing complexes and link them with services. As of 1998, there were approximately 1,000 service coordinators attached to government assisted housing complexes across the country.4. The Housing Continuum: A Range of Options for ElderlyA long-standing assumption in the field of housing has been that as persons become more frail, they will have to move along a housing continuum from one setting to another. As the figure on housing options suggests, along this continuum are found a range of housing options including single family homes, apartments, congregate living, assisted living, and board and care homes (Kendig & Pynoos, 1996). The end point of the housing continuum has been thenursing home. These options vary considerably in terms of their availability, affordability, and ability to meet the needs of very frail older persons.The concept of a continuum of supportive care is based on the assumption that housing options can be differentiated by the amount and types of services offered; the supportiveness of the physical setting in terms of accessibility, features, and design; and the competency level of the persons to whom the housing is targeted. The figure on housing options indicates how such options generally meet the needs of older persons who are categorized,as independent, semi-dependent and dependent. Semi-dependent older persons can be thought of as needing some assistance from other persons with instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) such as cooking, cleaning, and shopping. In addition to needing assistance with some IADLs, dependent older persons may require assistance with more basic activities such as toileting, eating and bathing. Although semi-dependent and dependent older persons can be found throughout the housing continuum, independent older persons are very unlikely to reside in housing types such as assisted living specifically designed and equipped to meet the needs of frail older persons unless their spouses require these needs.Although the continuum of housing identifies a range of housing types, there is increasing recognition that frail older persons do not necessarily have to move from one setting to another if they need assistance. Semi-dependent or dependent older persons can live in a variety of settings, including their own homes and apartments, if the physical environment is made more supportive, caregivers are available to provide assistance and affordable services areaccessible.5. ConclusionsHousing plays a critical role in the lives of older persons. Most older homeowners who function independently express a high level of satisfaction with their dwelling units. However, high housing costs, especially for renters, remain a financial burden for many older persons and problems associated with housing condition persist especially for low- income renters and persons living in rural areas. Federal housing programs such as public housing, Section 202 housing, and Section 8 housing certificates have only been able to address the basic housing problems of only about one-third of eligible older persons because of limited budgets. Moreover, a shortage of viable residential options exists for frail older persons. Up until the last decade, housing for the elderly was conceived of primarily as shelter. It has become increasingly recognized that frail older persons who needed services and physically supportive features often had to move from their homes or apartments to settings such as board and care or nursing homes to receive assistance. Over time, however, the concept of a variety of housing types that can be linked has replaced the original idea of the continuum of housing. It is possible for frail older persons to live in a variety of existing residential settings, including their own homes and apartments with the addition of services and home modifications. Consequently, the last decade has seen a number of efforts to modify homes, add service coordinators to multi-unit housing and create options such as accessory and ECHO units. Although thesestrategies have been enhanced by a somewhat greater availability of home care services, Medicaid policy still provides incentives to house frail older persons in nursing homes. The most visible development in the field of housing for frail older persons has been the growth of private sector assisted living which is now viewed by many state governments as a residential alternative to nursing homes. The AL movement itself has raised a number of regulatory and financing issues that cross-cut housing and long term care such as what constitutes a residential environment, insuring that residents can age in place, accommodating resident preferences, protecting the rights of individuals and insuring quality of care. Nevertheless, the emergence of AL along with a wider range of other housing options holds out the promise that older persons will have a larger range of choices among living arrangements.译文：老年人的住宅问题与选择一、简介住宅在老年人生活的极为重要。

外文文献：Construction of the competition and competition strategy Engineering and construction firms from the United States dominated the global market for many decades but recent world events have altered their position.To investigate the driving forces and trends that will affect engineering and construction competition in the next decade, a research project, called the "Anatomy of Construction Competition in the Year 2000", was sponsored by the Construction Industry Institute's Construc—tion 2000 Task Force— The project examined the factors that affect competitiveness, including the following, The shaping of corporate capabilities; vertical integration and horizontal expansion to increase corporate capabilities and market share, including acquisition and mergers by offshore conglomerates and the acquisition of foreign firms by U. S. companies.Financing options； the role of privatization， build-own-transfer projects， and the nature of project financing in future markets，Management, organization， and structure; future management and organizational approaches, structures, and techniques to attract personnel to perform in a global competitive environment.Work force characteristics; future availability of engineering and construction workers at the professional and craft levels.Technological issues：how technology will affect competition and be used to offset work force shortages.Research Objectives and ScopeThis research project's goal is to collect information， to adapt to the 2000 and the engineering construction after adjustment，formulate strategies needed to provide insight and formulate 2000 engineering construction of possible development plan. This study reviewed the project construction process of history, current development trend， to determine the impact of the industry, and the impetus to the future industrial enterprises are related to reshape the ability, privatisation and financing methods of potential function and management, organization structure, methods for future development direction。

建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：《Advanced Encryption Standard》文献、资料发表（出版）日期:2004.10.25系（部）：建筑工程系生：陆总LYY外文文献：Modern ArchitectureModern architecture, not to be confused with Contemporary architecture1, is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.1. OriginsSome historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions.Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his "fireproof design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, πDark satanic millsπof places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan∙ Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright,s Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner,s Second Goetheanum, built from1926 near Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities- The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.2. Modernism as Dominant StyleBy the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.Frank Lloyd Wright r s career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modem Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as πmachines for living,∖but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines- Even Philip Johnson admitted he was πbored with the box∕,Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a πstyleπthat threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin ,,At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion/1At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question πModern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?11In New York, the coup d r etat appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of πair rights,∖[l] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to ,,severπthe Park Avenue streetscape and πtarnishπthe reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and thebuilders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.中文译文:现代建筑现代建筑，不被混淆与‘当代建筑’，是一个词给了一些建筑风格有类似的特点，主要的简化形式,消除装饰等.虽然风格的设想早在20世纪,并大量造就了一些建筑师、建筑教育家和展品，很少有现代的建筑物，建于20世纪上半叶.第二次大战后的三十年，但最终却成为主导建筑风格的机构和公司建设.1起源一些历史学家认为进化的现代建筑作为一个社会问题，息息相关的工程中的现代性, 从而影响了启蒙运动，导致社会和政治革命.另一些人认为现代建筑主要是靠技术和工程学的发展，那就是获得新的建筑材料，如钢铁，混凝土和玻璃驱车发明新的建筑技术，它作为工业革命的一部分.1796年，Shrewsbury查尔斯bage首先用他的‘火’的设计，后者则依靠铸铁及砖与石材地板.这些建设大大加强了结构，使它们能够容纳更大的机器.由于作为建筑材料特性知识缺乏,一些早期建筑失败.直到1830年初，伊顿Hodgkinson预计推出了型钢梁，导致广泛使用钢架建设，工业结构完全改变了这种窘迫的面貌,英国北部领导的描述，〃黑暗魔鬼作坊〃的地方如曼彻斯特和西约克郡.水晶宫由约瑟夫paxton的重大展览，1851年,是一个早期的例子, 钢铁及玻璃施工；可能是一个最好的例子，就是1890年由William乐男爵延长和路易沙利文在芝加哥附近发展的高层钢结构摩天楼.早期结构采用混凝土作为行政手段的建筑表达（而非纯粹功利结构），包括建于1906年在芝加哥附近，劳埃德赖特的统一宫，建于1926 年瑞士巴塞尔附近的鲁道夫斯坦纳的第二哥特堂,.但无论原因为何，约有1900多位建筑师，在世界各地开始制定新的建筑方法,将传统的先例（比如哥特式）与新的技术相结合的可能性.路易沙利文和赖特在芝加哥工作,维克多奥尔塔在布鲁塞尔，安东尼高迪在巴塞罗那，奥托瓦格纳和查尔斯景mackintosh格拉斯哥在维也纳，其中之一可以看作是一个新与旧的共同斗争.2现代主义风格由1920年代的最重要人物，在现代建筑里确立了自己的名声.三个是公认的柯布西耶在法国，密斯范德尔德罗和瓦尔特格罗皮乌斯在德国.密斯范德尔德罗和格罗皮乌斯为董事的包豪斯，其中欧洲有不少学校和有关团体学习调和工艺和传统工业技术.赖特的建筑生涯中，也影响了欧洲建筑的现代艺术,特别是通过瓦斯穆特组合但他拒绝被归类与他们.赖特与格罗皮乌斯和Van der德罗对整个有机体系有重大的影响.在1932年来到的重要moma展览,是现代建筑艺术的国际展览，艺术家菲利普约翰逊. 约翰逊和合作者亨利-罗素阁纠集许多鲜明的线索和趋势，内容相似,有一个共同的目的, 巩固了他们融入国际化风格这是一个重要的转折点.在二战的时间包豪斯的代表人物逃到美国，芝加哥，到哈佛大学设计黑山书院.当现代建筑设计从未成为主导风格单一的住宅楼，在成为现代卓越的体制和商业建筑，是学校（专业领导）的唯一可接受的，设计解决方案，从约1932年至约1984 年.那些从事国际风格的建筑师想要打破传统建筑和简单的没有装饰的建筑物。

附录AAnalysis of Safety Performance in the Construction IndustryData source:The HKU Scholars HubOver the years, many researchers have investigated into the safety performance of the construction industry. Some of them identified factors leading to the occurrence of accidents on construction sites. The high frequency of construction accident has casted the industry a considerable amount. The government and many concerned parties have taken measures against the potential causes of accidents, aiming at reducing accidents and promoting safety in the industry.1. Definition of AccidentLaney (1982) states that the simplest definition of an accident is “an uncontrollable occurrence which results in injury or damage”. The events leading up to an accident are controllable in most cases. International Labor Office Geneva (1983) and Kennedy (1997) also agree that accidents don’t just happen, they are preventable. All industrial accidents are, either directly or indirectly, attributable to human failings. Rowlandson (1997) points out that a number of elements which need to be incorporated into the definition if this is to be useful in terms of accident prevention. These elements are:a. lack of management control;b. basic personal and task factors;c. sub-standard acts and conditions – the symptoms of the accident;d. an unplanned and undesired event or incident – the accident;e. an undesired outcome – death, injury or property damage;f. a cost.He thus defines accident as: “... an unplanned incident leading to death, injury or property damage which stems from inadequate management control of work processes manifesting itself in personal or job factors which lead to substandard actions or conditions which are seen as the immediate causes of the accident.”2. Common Accidents in Construction IndustryAccording to Lingard and Rowlinson (1994) accident proneness can be measured by thefrequency of accident occurrence. According to some researches, construction industry has the highest accident rate over the years, thus it is said to be more accident-prone than other industries. It is essential to understand why construction industry is more vulnerable to accident than the others. The Labour Department classified construction accidents by types. Table 1 shows the number of injuries in 2004 and figures in blankets are the number of fatality fixed or stationary object 11.9%Fall of person from height 11.7%Injured whilst lifting or carrying 16.0%Slip, trip or fall on same level 17.3%Striking against or stuck by moving object 19.7%Contact with moving machinery or object being machined 7.0%Others 16.4%The above chart shows the major accidents which contributed more than 5% of the construction accidents in 2004:3. Facors Affecting Safety Performance of Construction IndustryMany researchers have studied the factors affecting safety performance on construction sites. Stranks (1994) points out that the reasons of the poor safety recordmay correlate with many factors such as complexity of the work or system, risk nature of works, management style, safety knowledge and commitment, and personal behavior. Here are several factors that affect safety performance of contraction industry.a. Company SizeTam and Fung (1998) study the effectiveness of safety management strategies on safety performance. In this study, the safety performance of companies is gauged by their accident rates in 1994 as accident rates are steadier throughout the year and they can be easily obtained. In the study, it is found that company size, in term of number of management staff, affects safety performance. Tam and Fung (1998) observe that the accident rate of small companies is highest, the rate for medium sized lies almost at the industrial average and that for the large firms is the lowest. This demonstrates that larger firms generally have better safety records. This could be resulted from the more structured and formalized safetyprogrammers, and stronger management commitment to safety. It is found that the higher number of employees in the organization, the lower figure of the accident rate.b. Level of SubcontractingMulti-layer subcontracting is unique to China construction industry and has been the most common practice being used with long history. Subcontractors would normally further subcontract their work without the consent of their principal contractor to several smaller firms in order to minimize their overheads. Multi-layers of subcontractors is one of the major difficulties in implementing safety management. Recent study carried out by Wong and So (2004) shows the current status of the subcontracting practice and how multi-layer subcontracting system affects construction safety performance. Their questionnaire survey reveals that the majority of respondents (45.5%) would sublet 80-90% of their works to subcontractors. None of the respondents would carry out construction work that fully relies on their own effort; at least 30% of works would be subcontracted out.Lai (1987) attributes the high site accident rates to the use of labour-only subcontractors. As subcontracted workers are highly mobile, lack loyalty to contractors and are rewarded according to work done, they are difficult to control. Implementing safety practices on site becomes more difficult. Recent researchers, like Wong (1999) and Lee (1996), believe multi-layer subcontracting system is one of the major causes to poor safety performance in China’s construction industry. The most extreme case of subcontracting quoted by Lee (1999) was subcontracting up to 15 layers. He describes such multi-layer subcontracting as common and excessive.Small business, like subcontractors, face with specific health and safety challenges. Many firms lacked adequate resources and were often struggling to survive. Moreover, they lack an understanding of their obligations and the health and safety issues of their processes. These can be supported by Rawlinson’s (1999) study for Housing Authority. He finds that average 84% of workers injured from 1995 to 1998 were subcontractors’ w orkers. Such situation may be due to subcontractors’ workers’ inadequate training and awareness of safe working practice. Tam and Fung (1998) find there is a significant difference between trained and un-trained employees in relation to accident rate.4. CommunicationAccording to Wong (2002), communication is a major factor affecting the safety on sites. However, it has seldom been discussed before. Wong (2002) conducts a research to find out the causes of communication problems between main contractors and subcontractors. He identifies 12 factors leading to poor communication in construction industry. Among them, 10 are discussed here as they are more relevant to the territory and have been discussed by other researchers. These factors are listed below:i. Industry NatureIn order to complete the project on time, construction projects are carried out under almost all sorts of weather conditions. Besides, construction workers are usually not well-educated. These cause communication difficulties.ii. Industry CultureWong (2000) identifies sub-contracting system is a hurdle to construction safety as they are engaged on day-work basis, thus they are not aware to site safety.iii. Client TypeThere are 2 types of clients, public and private ones. Government bodies are public clients. Private clients can be further divided into experienced and inexperienced. Their concern and expectation on site safety performance appear to be different.iv. Organization StructureFryer (1997) suggests that organization structure, including hierarchy, downsizing and decentralization vs. decentralization, rigidity vs. flexibility, rules and procedure, would affect the result of communications. According to Wong (2002), downsizing became popular since 1990s because this can allow flexibility for people for respond more quickly to change.v. Relationship of Main and Sub-ContractorsThe poor relationship between contractors is an obstacle to construction safety. However, such situation could be resolved by partnering. Wong (2002) says that partnering is considered by most of the project participants as a worthwhile initiative.vi. Communication BarriersHicks and Gullett (1983) points out that communication overload and inattention to message can cause ineffective communication. People may receive more information than they can process or they spend time evaluating the sender and the message before the entiremessage is being passed or read.vii. Content of InformationWong (2002) attributes poor safety performance to the content of information. If content of information, such as method statements, working, drawings or safety procedures, are inaccurate or unclear, safety could not be effectively achieved.viii. Value of CommunicatorsTam et al (2001) point out that many production personnel rank safety in a lower priorities when compare with meeting the production schedule, quota and cost targets. Besides, Nichols and Stevens (1999) mention the failure of many superiors to listen. As a result, safety issue does not receive enough attention.ix. Provision of Continuous TrainingEnrichment of safety knowledge is essential. Teo et al (2005) carry out a study to find out the methods in fostering workers’ safe work behaviours. They find that training is an important way to enable workers to work safely, because they are equipped with the knowledge of how to work safely.x. Workers’ AttitudeWorkers’ incorrect attitude towards site safety is a big difficulty in making safety sites. In Chan et al’s (1999) research, it is fou nd that workers do not think they have the duty to comply with safety regulations for the main contractors. They will be more aware to safety issues after serious accident but they will resume their own way of practice shortly after that. Hinze (2002) and Vredenburgh (2002) state that site safety could only be improved if workers change their behaviours towards site safety. Teo et al (2005) also agree that negligence in safety and lack of awarenessto ensure lingering dangers on site would increase the chances of workers getting injured.5. Accident Costs and Safety CostsThe construction industry in China, especially for building projects, has a very poor safety record. According to Hinze and Raboud (1988), it is a common perception that “safety” is unprod uctive and not vital to the success of a project as contractors may not be appreciated by just keeping good safety on sites. However, it should be noted that accidents do not just lead to injury and loss of lives, a huge amount of accident costs is induced as well.Accordingly, safety investment in construction projects could better the safety performance and avoid the huge amount of accident costs. Ridiculously, most contractors are not willing to invest their money, time and effort to operate and to maintain effective safety programmers. They are not fully aware of the costs of an accident.Over the years, there have been many studies of the cost of accidents and it is found that, accident costs could be huge. Rowlinson (1997) identifies that cost of an accident is not only constituted of hospitalization and compensation costs of the individual involved in the accident. De Saram and Tang (2005) admit that construction accidents may result in numerous damages and losses. By understanding all the costs incurred by construction accidents, contractors might be surprised, and thus realize the importance of site safety investment.6. Safety Management SystemSafety management systems are not new to us. Many have been written on it. Site safet is regarded as an integral part of the project objective and safety attitudes a part of the project culture in order to pursue site safety effectively. Management at head office and on-site must be seen to care. Only then, an effective and committed safety officer will be appointed and given sufficient call on time and resources to achieve site safety.According to the Labour Department, below are the objectives of setting up a safety management system:a. to prevent improper behaviour that may lead to accidents;b. to ensure that problems are detected and reported; andc. to ensure that accidents are reported and handled properly.Besides, a safety management system enables flexibility of developing safety policies and measures most suitable to the particular circumstances of individual companies. The inputs from employer and employees make the safety management processes more readily be modified to keep pace with changing circumstances.An effective safety management system can be used to manage and control both existing and potential hazards and its effectiveness can be maximized when an organization is able to combine occupational safety and health issues into its business strategy.In this paper, statistics of construction safety, common accident types, factors affectingsafety performance and legislations related to construction safety have been reviewed. Statistics shows the unacceptable construction safety performance in the past. Therefore, the government introduced safety management system to the industry, hoping to establish a self-regulating atmosphere.Besides, government keeps introducing new legislation, for example the Construction Workers Registration Ordinance, and amending existing legislations to cope with the industry. Though the accident rate becomes stagnant in recent years, the fact shows the government’s determination in improving the industry to an accident-free one.附录B关于建筑行业安全施工的分析资料来源：香港大学学者中心多年来，许多研究人员都对建筑业的安全施工做出过深入研究。

forced concrete structure reinforced with anoverviewReinSince the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ, Ⅲ, Ⅳgrade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinfor cing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy. Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ, Ⅲgrade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil buil ding and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ, Ⅲgrade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of the actual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土构造中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，伴随国民经济旳迅速、持久发展，多种钢筋混凝土建筑构造大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大旳发展。

毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献Architecture StructureWe have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic, preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic consideration s .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic of his or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift toapproximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasis will be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specific form of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.1.Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice ofconcrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.2. EarthworkBecause earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with thedragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.The disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m ³ heaped. The largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m ³struck capacity ( 25 m ³ heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m ³, and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m ³. Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m ³ and the articulated type of about 0.5 m ³. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks.3.Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also asunserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. Ther e are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );(2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults andimperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4) Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .文献翻译建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。

Title:The Poetics of City and Nature：T oward a New Aesthetic for Urban DesignJournal Issue：Places, 6（1)Author:Spirn，Anne WhistonPublication Date:10-01—1989Publication Info：Places，College of Environmental Design, UC BerkeleyCitation:Spirn,AnneWhiston.(1989).ThePoeticsofCityandNature：T owardaNewAestheticforUrban Design。

Places，6（1)，82。

Keywords:places，placemaking,architecture,environment，landscape，urbandesign，publicrealm,planning, design，aesthetic, poetics，Anne Whiston SpirnThe city has been compared to a poem, a sculpture, a machine. But the city is more than a text，and more than an artistic or technological. It is a place where natural forces pulse and millions of people live—thinking,feeling，dreaming,doing。

An aesthetic of urban design must therefore be rooted in the normal processes of nature and of living.I want to describe the dimensions of such an aesthetic。