大学思辨英语教程 精读1Unit 3教师用书(20150809)

大学思辨英语教程写作1练习答案 - Unit 3 Growth and Maturity一、词汇学习1. Command - Verb: to give an authoritative order. - Noun: an authoritative order.2. Accumulate - Verb: to gather or collect.3. Inevitable - Adjective: certain to happen; unavoidable.4. Rites - Noun: a religious or other solemn ceremony or act;a way of behaving or doing something that is customary.5. Entail - Verb: involve (something) as a necessary or inevitable part or consequence.二、短文改写原文： Growth and maturity entail several stages and experiences that shape who we become. It is inevitable that we encounter challenges and difficulties along the way. However, it is through overcoming these obstacles that we gain maturity and wisdom.改写： Becoming mature and growing up involve a series of stages and experiences that influence our personal development. It is unavoidable that we face various challengesand hardships throughout this process. Nevertheless, it is by successfully conquering these obstacles that we acquire wisdom and maturity.三、完形填空原文： Ad vertisements in today’s society often try to 1 the idea that people can purchase happiness. They try to 2 us that buying certain products will make us happier and more fulfilled. While it is true that having some material possessions can bring us temporary joy, true happiness and fulfillment come from 3 sources.Money is a 4 tool that can be used for good or for evil. It can provide us with security and opportunities, but it can also make us 5 and lead to dissatisfaction if we become too focused on accumulating wealth. We must remember that there are certain things that money cannot 6. It cannot buy love, friendship, or personal growth, which are all essential for true happiness.In order to truly be happy and fulfilled, we must 7 on developing meaningful relationships, pursuing our passions, and 8 to become the best version of ourselves. This requires self-reflection and self-improvement. 9 happiness comes from within and is not dependent on external factors such as possessions or wealth. It comes from living a life aligned with our values and finding fulfillment in the things that truly matter to us.It is 10 to sometimes be tempted by the notion that possessions can bring us happiness. However, it is important toremember that true happiness is not something that can be bought; it is something that comes from within.完形填空： 1. A. persuade 2. B. convince 3. D. inner 4. C. neutral 5. A. greedy 6. D. acquire 7. B. focus 8. A. striving 9. C. True 10. B. natural四、阅读理解1.原文： A 2016 study found that the average person spends nearly six hours a day on their phone. For many of us, our phone has become an extension of ourselves and a constant source of entertainment and distraction. However, what are the effects of this constant screen time on our mental health?One study conducted by researchers from the University of Pittsburgh found a correlation between increased social media use and feelings of depression and loneliness. The study followed over 1,700 adults and found that those who spent more time on social media platforms were more likely to report feelings of isolation and dissatisfaction with their lives.Another study published in the journal Computers in Human Behavior found that excessive smartphone use can lead to symptoms of addiction. Researchers surveyed over 300 college students and found that those who reported higher levels of dependence on their smartphones were more likely to experience symptoms of anxiety, depression, and loneliness.While smartphones and social media can provide us with a sense of connection and entertainment, it is important to bemindful of our usage. Excessive screen time can have negative effects on our mental health and well-being. It is essential to find a balance and engage in activities that promote our mental and emotional well-being.改写： According to a study conducted in 2016, the average person spends nearly six hours a day on their mobile phones. For many individuals, their phone has become an integral part of their lives, providing constant entertainment and distraction. However, what impact does this excessive screen time have on our mental health?Researchers from the University of Pittsburgh conducted a study that found a correlation between increased use of social media and feelings of loneliness and depression. The study, which involved over 1,700 adults, discovered that those who spent more time on social media platforms were more likely to feel isolated and dissatisfied with their lives.Another study published in the journal Computers in Human Behavior revealed that excessive use of smartphones can lead to symptoms of addiction. The study surveyed more than 300 college students and found that those who reported higher levels of smartphone dependency were more likely to experience symptoms of anxiety, depression, and loneliness.While smartphones and social media can offer a sense of connectivity and entertainment, it is crucial to be mindful of our usage. Spending excessive time on screens can have adverse effects on our mental health and overall well-being. Striking a balance and engaging in activities that promote our mental and emotional well-being is essential.2.原文： Growth and maturity involve taking responsibility for our actions and choices. As we grow older, we gain the autonomy to make decisions that shape our lives. This freedom comes with the need to take ownership of our actions and accept the consequences that result from them.Taking responsibility requires recognizing our role in the outcomes of our choices. It means acknowledging that the decisions we make have an impact on ourselves and those around us. By taking responsibility, we demonstrate our maturity and willingness to learn from our mistakes and grow as individuals.However, taking responsibility does not mean that we are entirely to blame for every negative outcome. It means understanding that we have the power to control how we respond to situations and make choices that align with our values and goals. It also means acknowledging that we have the ability to change and improve ourselves, even in challenging circumstances.Taking responsibility is a sign of personal growth and maturity. It allows us to demonstrate integrity, accountability, and resilience. By embracing responsibility, we develop a sense of ownership over our lives and take an active role in shaping our future.改写： Developing and maturing involves assuming responsibility for our actions and decisions. As we age, we obtain the independence to make choices that impact our lives. With this freedom comes the necessity to acknowledge the consequences that arise from our actions and accept them.Assuming responsibility entails understanding our involvement in the outcomes resulting from our decisions. It means recognizing that the choices we make have an influence on ourselves and those around us. By shouldering responsibility, we exhibit our maturity and willingness to learn from our errors and evolve as individuals.However, accepting responsibility does not imply that we bear full blame for every negative consequence. It means comprehending that we possess the power to control our responses to situations and make choices that are in line with our values and aspirations. It also means acknowledging our ability to adapt and better ourselves, even in the face of challenging circumstances.Taking responsibility signifies personal growth and maturity. It enables us to demonstrate integrity, accountability, and resilience. By embracing responsibility, we foster a sense of ownership over our lives and actively shape our own future.五、写作题目： Write an essay discussing the importance of personal growth and maturity in academic and professional settings.写作： In both academic and professional settings, personal growth and maturity play an indispensable role in our success and development. They not only shape our character but also determine our ability to handle challenges and make wise decisions.First and foremost, personal growth and maturity are fundamental for academic excellence. As students, we are constantly faced with the need to acquire new knowledge and skills. It is through personal growth that we can develop a thirst for learning, curiosity, and an open mind. By cultivating these qualities, we become more receptive to new ideas and perspectives, enhancing our ability to grasp complex concepts and apply them in academic endeavors.Furthermore, personal growth and maturity enable us to take responsibility for our academic progress. They teach us to prioritize our commitments, manage our time effectively, and persevere through obstacles. As we grow and mature, we recognize that success is not solely determined by intelligence but also by discipline and hard work. This self-discipline and work ethic become the driving forces behind our academic achievements.In addition to academic pursuits, personal growth and maturity are equally critical in professional settings. As professionals, we must navigate complex work environments, collaborate with diverse individuals, and handle challenging situations. Personal growth equips us with the necessary emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills to thrive in such environments.Moreover, personal growth encourages us to strive for continuous improvement in our professional lives. By being self-aware and open to feedback, we can identify areas for growth and actively seek opportunities for development. This may involve attending workshops, exploring new roles or responsibilities, or seeking guidance from mentors. Ultimately, personal growth and maturity enable us to adapt to evolving job demands and contribute meaningfully to our organizations.In conclusion, personal growth and maturity are essential components of success in academic and professional settings. They not only enhance our ability to acquire knowledge and overcome challenges, but also equip us with the skills necessary to excel in our chosen fields. By investing in our personal growth and embracing maturity, we position ourselves for an enriching and fulfilling academic and professional journey.。

Unit 3Preparatory work1. Deborah Tannen is University Professor and Professor of Linguistics at Georgetown University and author of many books and articles about how the language of everyday conversation affects relationships. She is best known as the author of You Just Don ‘t Un derstand: Women and Men in Conversation, which was on the New York Times best seller list for nearly four years, including eight months as No. 1, and has been translated into 31 languages. This is the book that brought gender differences in communication style to the forefront of public awareness. Her most recent book, You Were Always Mom’s Favorite! Sisters in Conversation Throughout Their Lives, also a New York Times best seller, received a Books for a Better Life Award and was featured on 20/20(美国电视节目）and NPR(National Public Radio)'s Morning Edition.Among her other books, You're Wearing THAT?: Understanding Mothers and Daughters in Conversation spent ten weeks on the New York Timesbest seller list; Talking from 9 to 5: Women and Men at Work was a New York Times Business best seller; The Argument Culture: Stopping America's War of Words received the Common Ground Book Award; and I Only Say This Because I Love You: Talking to Your Parents, Partner, Sibs, and Kids When You're All Adults received a Books for a Better Life Award.In addition to her seven books for general audiences, Tannen is author or editor of sixteen books and over one hundred articles for scholarly audiences. She has also published poems, short stories, plays and personal essays.Academic interests: gender and language, interactional sociolinguistics, conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow,1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.2）Edward SapirEdward Sapir (/səˈpɪər/; 1884–1939) was an American anthropologist-linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the early development of the discipline of linguistics. Sapir studied the ways in which language and culture influence each other, and he was interested in the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. This part of his thinking was developed by his student Benjamin Lee Whorf into the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.2) John Joseph GumperzJohn Joseph Gumperz (January 9, 1922 –March 29, 2013) was an American linguist and academic. Gumperz was, for most of his career, a professor at the University of California in Berkeley. His research on the languages of India, on code-switching in Norway, and on conversational interaction, has benefitted the studyof sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, linguistic anthropology, and urban anthropology.2) E. M. ForsterE.M. Forster, in full Edward Morgan Forster (born January 1, 1879, London, England—died June 7, 1970, Coventry, Warwickshire), British novelist, essayist, and social and literary critic. His fame rests largely on his novels Howards End （霍华德庄园）(1910) and A Passage to India （印度之旅）(1924) and on a large body of criticism. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.2) Robert KaplanAmerican applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric（对比修辞）, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and morethan 85 book reviews and other ephemeral（short-lived) pieces in various newsletters(时事通讯）, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere.3) pragmaticsPragmatics is a systematic way of explaining language use in context. It seeks to explain aspects of meaning which cannot be found in the plain sense of words or structures, as explained by semantics. As a field of language study, pragmatics is fairly new. Its origins lie in philosophy of language and the American philosophical school of pragmatism. As a discipline within language science, its roots lie in the work of (Herbert) Paul Grice on conversational implicature（会话含义）and the cooperative principle（合作原则）, J. L. Austin and John Searle on speech act（言语行为）, and on the work of Stephen Levinson, Penelope Brown and Geoff Leech on politeness.4) Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words,cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm.5) Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause（有声停顿）and unfilled or silent pause（无声停顿）. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er, and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization（发声）.Critical readingI. Comprehension CheckI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausingand in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision. Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in paras 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience.Section 2.3 is also organized in the order of “question-answer”.Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24).Section 2.5: example-discussion.Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation.Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese).Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience in a dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6) Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the order of importance, from the core of verbal communication to more peripheral (secondary) factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7) As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communication involves many hidden rules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions. In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate （阐明）abstract and difficult terms and add to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2). Falter: to become weaker and unable to continue in an effective way (Longman)（3）Which levels of communication difference are labeled automatic processing in the text? Why? Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when totalk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning（section 2.1&2.2）, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision(para. 20).Why pacing and pausing is automatic because we have got accustomed to it in our daily life and made it a truism or formula after practicing it again and again in our daily communication. We have remembered the subtle change of pacing and pausing（para 19）(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academic researches (e.g. in para 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-cultural communication can vary at many other levels, e.g., proxemics(人际距离学/亲近学) and turn-taking（话语轮次）in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the text in part two and they are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Now how many milliseconds shall I wait?”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topic of this section, what to say. It is a transition from section 2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It is asked simply to reinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of making indirect requests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability(Can you pass me the salt?).3) For example, introvert（内向的）people may be more tolerant of silence in face-to-face verbal interaction while extroverts（外向的）usually find silence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy people more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off (2) out (3) across (4) away (5) up (6) between, for (7) after (8) out of, into (9) off (10) up (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpretII. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk to people they do not know. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances. (2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked to achieve indirect functions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communication people should be direct and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true inbusiness and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore, all communication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, e.g. obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。

大学思辨英语教程精读教师用书集团档案编码：[YTTR-YTPT28-YTNTL98-UYTYNN08]U n i t3V e r b a l a n d N o n-v e r b a l C o m m u n i c a t i o nUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units.Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are (e.g., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesboth differences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writingIntercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectivesTeaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences (question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic (i.e., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), theteacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to: Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of Manners.Scientific American,192: 85-89.Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals: Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy ofOriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published by AkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactionalsociolinguistics, conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of?a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she?is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an?American?anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of?linguistic relativity?or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis. John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication",Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American?applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere.(3)Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of pragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012) Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012) Formly?incohesive?discourse?may?be?coherent?through?common?sense,?cultural?background,?contextual?information,?imagination,?logical?assump tion,?etc.?Husband:?That’s?the?telephone.?Wife:?I’m?in?the?bath.?Husband:?OK.?(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er,and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization.Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication. (2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication. (3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision. (4) Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section 2.3 is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section 2.5: example-discussion. Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in whichcompliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the orderof importance, from the core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communicationinvolves many hidden rules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions. In this sense all communication is cross-cultural. Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another culture.What to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talks”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract anddifficult terms and add to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academicresearches (e.g. in para 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-culturalcommunication can vary at many other levels, e.g., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the textin part two and they are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Now how many milliseconds shall I wait?”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topic of this section, what to say. It is a transition from section 2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It is asked simply to reinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of makingindirect requests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt?).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silencein face-to-face verbal interaction while extroverts usually findsilence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact. Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into; (9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context. II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk topeople they do not know. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances. (2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked toachieve indirect functions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communicationpeople should be direct and say no more or less than needed, andthat what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore,all communication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, e.g.obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。

Unit 3 Bereavement and GriefPreparatory Work(1) According to Britannica, Luigi Pirandello was winner of the 1934 Nobel Prize for Literature. With his invention of the “theatre within the theatre” in the play Seipersonaggi in cercad’autore(1921; Six Characters in Search of an Author), he became an important innovator in modern drama. Influenced by his catastrophic personal experiences, he developed a literary style characterized by “the exploration of the tightly closed world of the forever changeabl e human personality” (Britannica). “War” reflects this style of psychological realism, for instead of depicting external circumstances of the Great War, it chooses to underline the cruelty of war from the perspective of the soldiers’ anxious, grieving pare nts.(2) The story was set in a train carriage at dawn. The war referred to in the story is most probably World War I, for during this war the author himself was a psychologically tormented father, both of whose sons were captured as prisoners of war. The World War I was an international conflict that resulted from clashes of interest among the world’s economic great powers assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies (including the United Kingdom/British Empire, France and the Russian Empire) versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary, though it did not join the Central Powers (Willmott 15). It is generally believed by historians that World War I was “virtuall y unprecedented in the slaughter, carnage, and destruction it caused” (Britannica). It led to the fall of four great imperial dynasties (Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey), resulted in the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and, in its destabilization of European society, laid the groundwork for World War II.(3) Common symptoms of grief caused by bereavement include wistfulness, lethargy, hysteria, depression and so forth. According to the psychologist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, people who have lost someone close usually go through five emotional stages: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.(4) Luigi /luˈidʒi/Perandello/ˌpɪrənˈdɛloʊ; Italian ˌpi rɑnˈdɛllɔ/Fabriano/Italian ˌfabriˈaˌno/Sulmona /Italian sulˈmona/Critical ReadingI. Understanding the text1.(1) Their argument was about what attitude parents should take towards their childrengoing to war and killed in action. Of the passengers, the fat man appeared to have the strongest argument, who suggested that parents should withhold their own grief and feel proud and happy about their children who laid down their lives for the Country.(2) In Paragraphs 15 and 16, he is described as a “fat, red-faced man with blood-shoteyes of the palest gray”, who was “panting”, and “from [whose] bulging eyes seemed to spurt inner violence of an uncontrolled vitality which his weakened body could hardl y contain”. In Paragraph 17, it is revealed that his two front teeth are missing. His eyes are once again mentioned in Paragraph 29, described to be “bulging, horribly watery light grey”.These physical traits might suggest that the fat man was in poor health, and was grief-stricken by his son’s death.(3) The woman asked the question of the fat man because she was awed by his stoicresponse to his son’s death. She found it extremely diff icult to cope with her anxiety over her son’s departure for the front, and wished to confirm the fat man’s feelings so that she might derive some strength from his example. She was the one who asked the question, rather than one of the other passengers, because she,as a focalized character whose inner consciousness was explored at great length, was trying to emphasize with the fat man. The fat man reacted strongly to this question, stupefied, brought into painful awareness of his son’s death, and reduced to uncontrollable sobs. This reaction indicates that the fat man, instead of calmly accepting the fact of his son’s death as he claimed, had been desperately rejecting this horrible idea.2.(1) F(2) F(3) T(4) T3.(1) D(2) A(3) AII. Critiquing the Text(1) Instead of giving direct description of war action, the story depicts the emotionalturmoil on the part of the soldiers’ parents. The author intends to send a message about the cruelty of war, by showing that war imposes great suffering in more ways than one, not only on the soldiers who go to the battlefield, but also on their parents who are extremely worried about their safety and may have to endure the pain of loss.(2) The fat, red-faced man started his part of the argument by putting a stop to theother passengers’ debate over the correlation between the intensity of the parents’ anxiety and the number of children they have on the battlefield. He insisted that parents gave life to their children not for their own benefit, and that they should r espect their children’s wish to go to the front. He ended his argument by claiming that parents should accept their children’s death on the battlefield without grief, showing that he himself chose not to wear mourning for his son.His argument is inconsistent, for at first he mentions all the glamour of youthful life, including “girls, cigarettes, illusions, new ties”, but then he talks about dying “young and happy”, “without having the ugly sides of life, the boredom of it, the pettiness, the bitterness of disillusion”. The latter statement overlooks the good sides of life mentioned in the former one. His argument is also somewhat illogical, because the awareness that children do not belong to their parents does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that parents should not grieve over their children’s death. Therefore, the reason he gave for not grieving was unconvincing.His pause and hesitation in the middle of the sentence “Our sons are born because…well, because they must be born” might be seen as a rev elation of his checked impulse to articulate his paternal affection. It is as if he were to blurt out “Our sons are born because we love them”. He refrained from saying something like this probably for fear that he could not check his emotion once letting it out.(3) When he mentioned “girls, cigarettes, illusions, new ties”, he was referring to theelements of youthful life that were more alluring to young people than their parents’ affection. He was trying to say that young people had so much to enjoy that their lives would never be centered around their parents. His thoughts about being young can barely support his subsequent view that there should be no mourning for someone who died young and happy. On the contrary, the fact that young people have many good things in store for them makes their death all the more lamentable.(4)The fat man’s feeling for the “Country” was more likely to be a clichéconveniently used to advance his argument, for he used the “if” clause instead of stating it as a matter of course. This indicates his awareness that the Country being a natural necessity is merely a popular notion. However, there might be an element of sincerity in his feelings for the “Country”, as he repeatedly spoke of “decent boys” that chose to fight for their country. But on the whole, the notion of the Country might just be a convenient platitude to veil or suppress his bitterness about his son’s death.(5) The reasons offered by the fat man when he said a young man could die happywere poorly grounded and hardly convincing. He was indeed trying to rationalize the death of his son, so as to assuage his pain of bereavement, but the rationalization was too fragile to be of any comfort to him. The son might have mixed feelings about his father’s words. On the one hand, he might be able to understand his father’s inner struggle, but on the other, he might feel uncomfortable about his father saying he died satisfied.(6) The question is considered “silly” and “incongruous” from the passengers’ pointof view. In the eyes of other passengers, the fat man already made his point clearly, and the woman appeared absent-minded. Her question was considered silly because the answer was already evident. And it would seem incongruous with the whole atmosphere. While other passengers were voicing their agreement with the fat man, the woman’s question was abrupt and unexpected.This point of view has an emotional effect th at reinforces the fat man’s loneliness.He had to battle with his emotional turmoil all on his own, with all the other people believing he was coping really well.(7) All these four definitions are common denotations of the word patriotism, which isa controversial notion. It is morally valuable, for it can arouse noble sentiments ofheroism within people and unite them together as a whole nation. But whether it should be mandatory is disputable, for it may be pushed to an extreme and require people to sa crifice their personal interest for the “greater good” that might sometimes be questionable.(8) One possible version:January 1st, 1918 Dear Father,I wish you and Mother a happy new year. Perhaps you’re in no mood for celebrations for it has been almost three years since we celebrated the new year together as a family. I am in no festive mood either. The campsite here is cold and dreary, and is permeated with an atmosphere of mourning. I myself was lucky enough to survive the horrible battle in Caporetto, but hundreds of thousands of my comrades lost their lives in it. This is a nightmarish new year for me.Several years ago, I thought it a glorious thing to go to war in defense of our country. I would become a national hero if I fought valiantly. And now, I’ve come to realize that war is seldom about heroism; it is nothing but a massacre of innocent lives.I knew little about the enemies we killed, but I did know that some time before they had been allies with us. It is most likely that they, just like us, are innocent, naïve young people with an enthusiasm for heroic action.I used to say it would be a bliss to lay down my life for the Country. I still think so, but for a different reason. I never know when exactly I will get killed, but to be killed instantly is so much better than to take a bullet that cripples me for life, to get my face burnt beyond recognition, or to suffer any other kind of serious wounds with lifelong aftermaths. Such disasters happen to my comrades every single day, and I can only pray that they do not fall upon me. So, if I get killed someday, I will die satisfied at having ended my life in the best way I could wish.Remember me to all our friends back home, and do not wear mourning if I can never come back again.Your loving sonLanguage Enhancement5.(1) Pirandello employs the linear structure in the story, and develops the plot mostlythrough conversation. He includes so much conversation probably because he intends to “show more than tell”, to have the characters voice their own opinions instead of speaking for them himself. In this way, he can present a variety of clashing views and characterize each individual more effectively. The author’s narrative style can be characterized as internal focalization that places the woman at the center of consciousness. He describes the woman’s feelings and thoughts in great detail, while characterizing other passengers through external depictions. (2) The words that describe feelings and emotions include “sad” (Paragraph 6), “indistress” (Paragraph 18), “deep sorrow” (Paragraph 24), “harrowing, heart-breaking, uncontrollable sobs” (Paragraph 24), etc. Besides the use of adjectives, Pirandello builds up emotional intensity by delineating the gloomy setting (“stuffy and smoky second-class carriage” in Paragraph 2). Also, he does so by describing each character’s gestures and facial expressions. For example, the woman is portrayed as a pitiful sight, “twisting and wriggling, at times growling like a wild animal” (Paragraph 8), and the fat man “shook his light fawn coat” as to show he did not wear mourning, and “his livid lip over his missing teeth was trembling, h is eyes were watery and motionless, and soon after he ended with a shrill laugh which might well have been a sob” (Paragraph 22).Intercultural Reflection1. Grief is doubtless the dominant emotion in both Western and Chinese memorial services. Interestingly however, there is a difference as to whether grief is required to be displayed in public. In China, at least in the past, public demonstration of grief was considered mandatory for those in bereavement, especially for those who lost their spouses, parents or masters. There might even be professional mourners hired to weep funerals (take Grandfather Gao’s funeral in Ba Jin’s Family for example). It is extremely unorthodox behavior to replace heart-rending weeping with light-hearted rituals. Chuang-tzu’s affection for his wife was questioned when he played at a basin and sung after her death. RuanJi deliberately chose to conceal his grief and feast in front of mourners at his father’s funeral, an act that was considered eccentric. In the West, it is not a strict moral obligation to weep at funerals of one’s close relations. Upon Old Earnshaw’s death in Wuthering Heights, for example, each member of the younger generation had their own way of processing grief.Tomb-visiting is a common way to pay respects to the deceased both in China and the West. For example, Oskar Schindler’s grave was visited by the Jews whose lives he had saved. In “Thoughts on a Visit to an Ancient Battlefield”, Li Hua depicted scenes in which the dead soldiers’ families placed offerings and poured wine over imaginary graves while contemplating the distant horizon in tears (“布奠倾觞，哭望天涯”). There is a difference between these two mourning rituals, though. The Schindler Jews were to commemorate their deceased benefactor, while the dead soldiers’ families in Tang Dynasty wished to guarantee the well-being of the deceased in the underworld (“吊祭不至，精魂何依”). Tomb-visiting is also an effective way to cope with one’s own emotional problems, for the deceased can be regarded as an omniscient, non-judgmental listener. Zhang Wuji, hero of Jin Yong’s Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber, visited his parents’ grave after a severe fault in his decision-making. Christine Daye in The Phantom of the Opera also went to her father’s cemetery to assuage her emotional turmoil.Both Chinese and Western mourning customs would impose restrictions on entertainment. In The Dream of the Red Chamber, the domestic theatrical troupe of the Jia household was dismissed when an elder concubine passed away. In Gone with the Wind, Scarlet O’Hara was prohibited from wearing colorful clothing and dancing in public after her husband’s death, which was suffocat ing for her. This tradition is passed down to the modern era, though not as rigorous as before. After Wenchuan earthquake, for example, entertainment activities were suspended for three days in mourning for the deceased victims.2. 元缜《遣悲怀（其一）》谢公最小偏怜女，自嫁黔娄百事乖。

Unit 3 Verbaland Non-verbal CommunicationUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units.Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are ., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesbothdifferences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writingIntercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectivesTeaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences(question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic ., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), the teacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to:Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of American,192: 85-89. Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals:Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy ofOriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published by AkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactionalsociolinguistics, conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an American anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication", Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the . government and to governments elsewhere.(3) is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge ., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of p ragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012)Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012)Formly incohesive discourse may be coherent through common se nse, cultural background, contextual information, imagination, logical assumption, etc.Husband: That’s the telephone.Wife: I’m in the bath.Husband: OK.(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er,and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization.Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision.(4) Section starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and section the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section : example-discussion. Section : personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section : the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section : definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplifythe cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, ., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the orderof importance, from the core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communicationinvolves many hidden rules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions. In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talks”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract anddifficult terms and add to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academicresearches . in para 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-culturalcommunication can vary at many other levels, ., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the textin part two and they are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Nowhow many milliseconds shall I wait”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topicof this section, what to say. It is a transition from section to section .c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It isasked simply to reinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of makingindirect requests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silencein face-to-face verbal interaction while extroverts usually findsilence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into; (9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context. II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk topeople they do not know. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances. (2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked toachieve indirect functions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communicationpeople should be direct and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore,all communication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, .obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。

Unit 2 Functions of languageOverviewTo further explore the nature of language, we naturally come to the question of what language is for. This unit deepens our understanding of the basics of language by offering refreshing ideas about language functions, which pave the way for the investigation of language in use, language evolution, language acquisition, and other important issues in linguistics.Text ALanguage is used for so many purposes (e.g., expressing feelings, providing information, and conducting social talking, to name just a few) that it is difficult for us to identify which one is its most basic (perhaps also its) original use. However, a careful examination of what language is good/bad at today can hopefully provide some useful clues to its basic function(s). Contrary to the mainstream assumptions, it has been observed that among its multiple purposes, language is good at interaction and persuasion but poor at information exchange.Text BThe hammer (with an iron head and a handle) is shaped to fulfill its functions of pounding nails into and removing them out of wood. Likewise, the form of language is also motivated by its basic functions. As a form-function composite, a linguistic unit consists of two parts, the signifier and the signified. The bond between the two parts is both arbitrary and motivated. It is arbitrary because there is no inherent connection between the form of a sign and its meaning; it is motivated in the sense that the bond between the signifier and the signified is intentional instead of rigid or random.The two texts approach the same issue from different perspectives. Text A discusses how the basic functions of a language can be traced in the development of language, while Text B focuses on the intriguing relationship between the form and the functions of language.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural competence and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Distinguish between general and specific statementsScan for a global understanding of the textRead charts, graphs and tables to organize and interpret informationCommunicative competence:Illustrate your points with appropriate examplesUse figures of speech to help Illustrate your pointsDifferentiate informative and affective uses of languageCritical thinking:Evaluate the logical strengths of the author’s evidence and supportOrganize and present your reasoning using diagramsIdentify and critique assumptions behind statementsIntercultural competenceAppreciate linguistic and cultural diversityInterpret language differences culturallyHave curiosity in and be ready to explore other languages and culturesTeaching strategiesThe functions of language are an interesting yet rather difficult topic. To arouse students’ interest, the teacher can start with a direct question “What do you think is the function of language?” or a more interesting one “In what way is language similar to a hammer?”The questions in Critical reading and Intercultural reflection are mostly mini-research projects. To guarantee quality answers from students and to improve the classroom efficiency, it is recommended to divide the class into groups and assign different tasks to them in advance. Each group is required to do in-depth researches on a few of the questions.Further readings on functions of language:Jakobson, Roman. (1960). Closing statement: linguistics and poetics. In Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.). Style in Language, Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press. 350-377. Halliday, M.A.K. (1973). Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold.Coq, John P. (1955). The Function of Language. The Modern Language Journal, 39(4): 177-180.Jackson, Howard & Peter Stockwell. (2011). An introduction to the nature and functions of language. London & New York : Continuum.Preparatory work(1)Main publications:New media language. London and New York: Routledge, 2003.Words in the mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon. 3rd edition. Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 2003.The Articulate Mammal: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. 4th edition. London and New York: Routledge, 1998.The seeds of speech: Language origin and evolution. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996.Main research interests:1)(Socio-)historical linguisticsThe description, implementation and causation of language change, with particular reference to current changes.2)Language and mindLanguage acquisition, speech comprehension, speech production, with particular reference to lexical storage and retrieval.3)Language and the mediaThe language used by the media, and the effect of the media on language, with particular reference to language change, language and power, the relationship of media language to language in literature.(2)The whole book consists of four parts, namely, Puzzles, Origin, Evolution, and Diffusion. Text A “What is Language for” is from the first part Puzzles. The other three questions addressed in this part are: How did language begin? Why do languages differ so much? and Is language an independent skill?Part 2, 'Origin', explores how language probably originated. Chapter 5 outlines the 'East Side story', which suggests that humans separated from apes when they were stranded on the east side of Africa, after the Great Rift Valley split the terrain. Humans were forced to live on their wits in a harsh landscape, and began to develop language. Chapter 6 examines the prerequisites for language, which are shared with our ape cousins: first, friendly involvement with others and a predisposition for grooming; second, an aptitude for tactical deception, or lying, which depends on 'a theory of mind', and an ability to understand the intentions of others. Chapter 7 considers the basic requirements for speech, many of which are also present in other primates. For example, sound-receiving mechanisms are shared with apes, yet sound-producing ones differ, perhaps because of our upright posture, which in the long run enabled humans to produce a range of finely tuned sounds. Chapter 8 notes that ontogeny, the development of the individual, only sometimes correlates with phylogeny, the development of the species. Two ways in which these coincided were the lowering of the larynx and the development of the 'naming insight', an understanding of the power of naming.Part 3, 'Evolution', examines how language might have evolved. Chapter 9 looks at ways in which words could have been combined. At first, many sequences were possibly repetitive and inconsistent. But gradually, strong preferences may have become rules. These preferences were based on pre-linguistic 'mind-sets'. Chapter 10 looks at how language expanded and how it made use of the human body and its location in space for extending word meanings. The evolution of different parts of speech occurred probably via reanalysis: adjectives and prepositions both grew out of reinterpretation of nouns and verbs. Chapter 11 considers attachments to verbs. Verbs acquire attachments via grammaticalization, in which a full lexical item developed into a grammatical marker. Chapter 12 examines generativity, the use of finite resources to produce an infinite variety of sentences. Such structures arose from reanalysis of existing structures.Part 4, 'Diffusion', considers the spread of language over the world, and discusses why languages have not become unlearnably different from one another. Chapter 13 outlines the route taken as humans moved out of Africa, and considered the possibility of reconstructing glimpses of language as it might have been more than 30,000 years ago. Chapter 14 examines the difficulties and frustrations of hunting for language universals. Chapter 15 points out that looking for constraints, things that languages don't do might be more enlightening. Implicational links, it notes, are important for keeping language in check. Such links are partially due to processing needs, but partly also to the overall structure of the system. Chapter 16 outlines the different components within the language system, and emphasizes that these interacted with the usage of the system in a complex way.(3)John Locke, widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician. He was also memorized as one of the first British empiricists. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.Major works:A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)Two Treatises of Government (1689)An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693)(4)Lord Byron’s (1788-1824) two best known long narrative poems are Don Juan and Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. His other major poems include: Prometheus, She walks in Beauty, When we Two parted, Darkness, and And Thou art Dead, as Young and Fair. (5)Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) is remembered as the father of the functionalistschool of anthropology and for his role in developing the methods and the primacy of anthropological fieldwork as well. He first rose to prominent notice through his studies of Pacific Islanders, especially those conducted among the Trobriand Islanders whose marriage, trade and religious customs he studied extensively. His best known works include Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922),Crime and Custom in Savage Society (1926), The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia (1929), and the posthumously published Magic, Science, and Religion and Other Essays (1948). Malinowski helped develop the field of anthropology from a primarily evolutionary focus into sociological and psychological enquiries. Some of the noteworthy byproducts of his fieldwork in this direction include various evidence that debunked the Freudian notion of a universal Oedipal Complex and evidence that showed that so-called primitive peoples are capable of the same types and levels of cognitive reasoning as those from more "advanced" societies. Malinowski's ideas and methodologies came to be widely embraced by the Boasian school of American Anthropology, making him one of the most influential anthropologists of the 20th century.Source: /people/320/000099023/For more information about Malinowski, please refer to: Murdock, George(1943). Bronislaw Malinowski. American Anthropologist, 45:441-451./committees/commissions/centennial/history/095malobit.pdf Critical readingI. Understanding the text1. OutliningThesis: Among its multiple purposes, language is good at interaction and persuasion but poor at information talking.We would like to emphasize that what we have just provided is not the only answer to the outlining task. To start with, we can divide the text in different ways. For example, we can follow the traditional trichotomy and dividing it into introduction, main body and conclusion; we can also divide part III and part IV into further sections. The main idea of each part varies accordingly.2. Comprehension check(1)The transfer of information is not the only purpose of using language. In greetingsand some pointless chitchat, communicators use language primarily, if not exclusively, for constructing or maintaining certain social relationship. Even when information is the major concern, the speaker and hearer must take into consideration some other factors, such as politeness and aesthetics (cf. Paras. 22-22).(2)In Paragraph 6, Aitchison divides the question “what is language for” into twosub-questions: “For what purpose did language develop?” and “For what purpose is language used nowadays?” Since there are so many purposes of using language and the original one is difficult to identify, she argues in paragraph 8 that we can find clues by looking at what language is good at and what it finds difficult to express. The rest of the text (paras.9-28) provides discussion about and answers to these two questions.(3)According to Aitchison, the list of language functions in paragraph 7 is not exhaustive,and it is not clear which one is the most basic. Aitchison discusses in some detail thefollowing four functions, providing information, expressing feelings, influencing others and social talking, which are roughly organized in the order of importance in the traditional view.(4)Aitchison suggests that the early functions of language can be traced in the way weuse language today to some extent. The assumption behind is that the origin of language is accountable in its early function(s) and that the early function(s) must be reflected in what language is good at today. In other words, if language was created to perform a particular function, it must still be good at it nowadays.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Figure drawing(2)ExemplifyingAn utterance may serve more than one purpose simultaneously. Donking is used metalinguistically in example (6), but the whole sentence “Donking isn’t a word” is informative. We can provide information, express our feelings and initiate social talking by asking questions or giving commands.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Some scholars believe that language facilitates thinking and that our thinking wouldbe impossible without an inner language. In many cultures language is also used as a symbol of magic or as something that carries mysterious power (e.g., religious Taoism, couplets for Spring Festival). Different functions of language are not equally important. For example, the functions of communicating and of facilitating thinking are more fundamental while those of religious use and word play are more derivative.(2)Generally speaking, there are two different views on the relationship betweenlanguage and thinking. Some scholars claim that language restricts thinking.According to this view, people perceive the world through the language that they speak. It follows that people speaking different languages experience different worlds, just like people seeing different things with different eyes. Others believe that language and thinking are separate and should not be equated with each other. For example, even if a language does not have the word for chartreuse, people speaking the language can still perceive this color, think about it and even talk about it,using not a single word but a kind of paraphrase.(3)Some utterances may basically serve only one function. For example, people greeteach other saying “Hi!” or “Morning!” to neighbors to maintain social connections; inchurch, the priest pr eaches a sermon to call for piety to the Lord. But more often than not an utterance and its context produce some “side effects” and serve different functions simultaneously. In saying “It’s gonna rain. You’d better take an umbrella.”to a lady, the speaker not only provides information about the weather, but also shows his/her concern toward the addressee and enhances the solidarity.(4)Language changes for different reasons, e.g., language users’ a version to cliché andpreference to creativity, language contact, language planning and so on. While some changes may not be directly related to functions of language, others are indeed motivated by certain functions of language. For example, neologisms related to science and technology emerge primarily because there is a need to talk about such new things. In this case the function of providing information requires the creation of some new words.(5) The best-known examples for “phatic communion” in tradi tional Chinese society areprobably greetings such as “吃了吗？(have you had your meal?)”and “去哪儿啊？(where are you going?)”. Neither is considered imposing or offensive because in traditional Chinese society, it is more important to show mutual concern than respect for privacy. The British follow a different tradition. Brown and Levinson (1987) recognize two sides of face, a positive one and a negative one. Positive face refers to “the desire to be appreciated and approved” and negative face “the freedom of act ion and freedom from imposition”. For Chinese people (especially in traditional society), negative face is not as important as positive face. The British, on the other hand, value negative face more than positive face.Language EnhancementI. Words and phrases1. Word formationPart of speech:Nouns: Taking-off, air-traffic, take-off-point, London-York, two-thirds, real-life, non-reality, self-repetition, other-repetitionAdjectives: non-existentAdverbs: half-wayStructure:Noun-noun: air-traffic, London-York, self-repetition, other-repetitionAdjective-noun: real-lifeCardinal-ordinal numeral: two-thirdsPrefix-noun: non-realityGerund-adverb: Taking-offVerb-adverb-noun: take-off-point2. Articles and prepositions(1)/(2)/(3) a, the, with(4) /, the(5) /, the, the, on, a3.Verbs and phrases(1)convey, handle(2)convey(3)transfer(4)coincide(5)collide(6)date back to(7)originate fromII. Sentences and discourse1. Paraphrasing(1) Even when language is used simply to transfer information, the accuracy of the information transferred is still unlikely to reach 100%.(2) Less affirmative claims about the purpose of language may be at least superficially more acceptable: when early people found that facial expressions and body movements could not fully express themselves, they invented language to communicate their thoughts.(3) So long as the speaker is telling the truth, language is reasonably good at transferring sim ple pieces of factual information, such as “Bob is Petronella’s cousin.”(4) Even in cultures where lying is officially discouraged, people are still unwilling to tell the whole truth. A government official invented the phrase “being economic with the tru th” to deny that he was lying.(5) According to George Orwell, political language is designed to beautify horrible things and to tell lies.2. Translation(1) 英国哲学家约翰·洛克在其颇有影响的著作《人类理解论》(1690)中指出，语言是一个伟大的传输渠道，人类通过这一渠道相互传达各自的发现、推理和知识。

大学英语精读第1册（3）UNIT3TEXTThey say that blood is thicker than water, that our relatives are more important tous than others. Everyone was so kind to the old lady on her birthday. Surely herdaughter would make an even bigger effort to please her?The PresentPt was the old lady's birthday.She got up early to be ready for the post. From the second floor flat she could see the postman when he came down the street, and the little boy from the ground floor brought up her letters on the rare occasions when anything came.Today she was sure there would be something. Myra wouldn't forget her mother's birthday, even if she seldom wrote at other times. Of course Myra was busy. Her husband had been made Mayor, and Myra herself had got a medal for her work for the aged.The old lady was proud of Myra, but Enid was the daughter she loved. Enid had never married, but had seemed content to live with her mother, and teach in a primary school round the corner.One evening, however, Enid said, "I've arranged for Mrs. Morrison to look after you for a few days, Mother. T omorrow Ihave to go into hospital-just a minor operation. I'll soon be home."In the morning she went, but never came back-she died on the operating table. Myra came to the funeral, and in her efficient way arranged for Mrs. Morrison to come in and light the fire and give the old lady her breakfast.Two years ago that was, and since then Myra had been to see her mother three times, but her husband never.The old lady was eighty today. She had put on her best dress. Perhaps-perhaps Myra might come. After all, eighty was a special birthday, another decade lived or endured just as you chose to look at it.Even if Myra did not come, she would send a present. The old lady was sure of that. Two spots of colour brightened her cheeks. She was excited-like a child. She would enjoy her day.Yesterday Mrs. Morrison had given the flat an extra clean, and today she had brought a card and a bunch of marigolds when she came to do the breakfast. Mrs. Grant downstairs had made a cake, and in the afternoon she was going down there to tea. The little boy, Johnnie, had been up with a packet of mints, and said he wouldn't go out to play until the post had come."I guess you'll get lots and lots of presents," he said. "I did last week when I was six."What would she like? A pair of slippers perhaps. Or a new cardigan. A cardigan would be lovely. Blue's such a pretty colour. Jim had always liked her in blue. Or a table lamp. Or a book, a travel book, with pictures, or a little clock, with clear black numbers. So many lovely things.She stood by the window, watching. The postman turned round the corner on his bicycle. Her heart beat fast. Johnnie hadseen him too ad ran to the gate.Then clatter, clatter up the stairs. Johnnie knocked at her door."Granny, granny," he shouted, "I've got your post."He gave her four envelopes. Three were unsealed cards from old friends. The fourth was sealed, in Myra's writing. The old lady felt a pang of disappointment."No parcel, Johnnie?""No, granny."Maybe the parcel was too large to come by letter post. That was it. It would come later by parcel post. She must be patient.Almost reluctantly she tore the envelope open. Folded in the card was a piece of paper. Written on the card was a message under the printed Happy Birthday-Buy yourself something nice with the cheque, Myra and Harold.The cheque fluttered to the floor like a bird with a broken wing. Slowly the old lady stooped to pick it up. Her present, her lovely present. With trembling fingers she tore it into little bits.NEW WORDSRelative 亲属，亲戚Present gift 礼物，赠品Postman 邮递员Rare not happening often 罕见的；不常发生的Occasion special time; time when sth. Happens 时刻，时机；场合Mayor chief official of a city or town 市长Medal 奖章Aged oldContent satisfied; pleased 满意的；高兴的Primary first; earliest 首要的；最初的Arrange make preparations; plan 作安排，筹划Minor not serious or important 较小的；次要的Operate cut the body in order to set right or remove a diseased part 开刀，动手术Operating table a special table in a hospital, where operations are done手术台Funeral 葬礼Efficient able to plan and work well 效率高的Decade ten yearsEndure bear (pain, suffering, etc.)忍受，忍耐Spot a round area that is different from the main surface 点，斑点Brighten make bright or brighter 使发光，使发亮Cheek either side of the face below the eye 面颊Extra additional 额外的，外加的Clean cleaningBunch things of the same kind that are tied together 一）束，（一）串Marigold 万寿菊（花）Packet small parcel or box 小包（裹）Mint 薄荷糖Slipper 拖鞋Cardigan (羊毛)开衫Clatter a number of rapid short knocking sounds 咔嗒声Granny (colloq. For) grandmotherEnvelope a paper cover for a letter 信封Unsealed 未密封的SealSealed 密封的Writing handwriting 书法；笔迹Pang sudden, sharp pain 剧痛Disappointment sadness because one does not get what one hopes for 失望DisappointParcel 包裹Reluctantly unwillingly 不情愿地，勉强地ReluctantFold bend into two or more parts 折叠cheque 支票flutter move quickly to and fro in the air 飘动stoop bend the body forwards and downwards 弯腰tremble shake uncontrollably with quick short movements 颤抖PHRASES EXPRESSIONSAt other times on other occasions 在别的时候；平时Round/ around the corner very near in distance or time 在附近；即将来临After al in spite of everything; it must be remembered 毕竟，终究Be sure of 对... 有把握，确信Pick up take hold of and lift up from a surface 拿起，捡起PROPER NAMESMyra 迈拉（女子名）Enid 伊妮德（女子名）Morrison 莫里森（姓氏）Grant 格兰特（姓氏及男子名）Johnnie 约翰尼（john的呢称）Jim 吉姆（james的呢称）Harold 哈罗德（男子名）NOTES1 This text is adapted from New Horizons in English 6 edited by Lars Mellgren and Michael Walker.2 the ground floorNotice the difference in floor system between the United States and Britain:U.S. BritainThe first floor the ground floorThe second floor the first floor3 ... eighty was a special birthday, another decade lived or endured just as you chose to look at it:... eighty was a special birthday, because it meant that the old lady had lived another ten years, or you might say that she had suffered another ten years. It depended on how you would look at the life she had been living.4 a bunch of marigoldsSome nouns in English take a unit word. Besides marigolds (flowers), such nouns as keys, grapes, and bananas also take bunch as a unit word.There are some other unit words in this text:A packet of mintsA piece of paperA pair of slippers5 ... and in the afternoon she was going down there to tea.In England, tea(sometimes called afternoon tea) may be a light meal of bread and butter and cakes eaten between 4 P.m.and 5 P.m., or it may be a bigger meal with a cooked dish or cold meat, etc., in addition to bread or cakes. It is called high tea and is usually eaten at about 6 p.m.6 Jim had always liked her in blue.Jim had always liked her wearing blue clothes.Other examples:A girl in redA woman in whiteA man in slippers7 That was it: That was the reason why there was no parcel.STUDY PRACTICEWords to DrillArrange bunch content disappointment efficientEndure extra fold minor occasionOperate present primary rare reluctantlySpot trembleReading Aloud and Memorizing1 Read the following paragraphs until you learn them by heart, paying special attention to sense groups and the sentence stress:The `old `lady was `eighty to `day. //She had `put `on her `best `dress.// Per `haps --/ per `haps `Myra might `come.// After `all, / `eighty was a `special `birthday,/ a `nother `decade `I\lived or en `dured / `just as you `chose to `look at it .//Even if `Myra did `not `come,/ she would `send a `present.// The `old `lady was `sure of `that.//`Two `spots of `colour `brightened her `cheeks.// She was ex `cited--/ like a `child. // She would en `joy her `day.//Comprehension of the Text2 Answer the following questions:1. What was the special occasion? How old was the old lady?2. Did Myra and her husband often come to see the old lady?3. What had happened to Enid?4. Whom did the old lady love more, Myra or Enid? Why?5. Why was the old lady proud of Myra?6. The old lady lived alone. But do you think she was very lonely? Why or why not?7. Who was Jim? Was he still alive?8. Who was Johnnie? How old was he? What do you think of him?9. Why did the old lady tear the cheque into pieces?10.The story tells us that Myra had won a medal for her work with old people. Do you think she deserved the medal? Do you think she really cared about old people? Why or why not?Vocabulary3 Find in the text the words or expressions which fit the following descriptions:1. gift2. ten years3. satisfied4. make preparations for5. not important6. able to work well7. bear patiently 8. additional9. unwillingly 10. shake uncontrollably4 Fill in the blanks with proper unit words:1. a of flowers2. a of cigarettes(香烟)3. a of chalk4. a of boots(长统靴)5. a of news6. a of keys7. a of scissors(剪刀) 8. a of land9. a of bananas 10. a of needles(针)11. a of socks(短袜) 12. a of furniture5 Fill in the blanks with the words or expressions given below. Change the form wherenecessary.Minor content primary after allEfficient endure occasion round the cornerFold extra arrange for at other times1. If you have worked hard _______ , you won't have to sit up (熬夜)all night before the exam.2. I think we should let Mary go camping with her classmates. __________ She is a big girl now.3. Since you are so busy, you do need a very _______ secretary (秘书)4. As a fireman, you must be ready to _______ hardships (困苦) and even suffer death.5. They did a lot of _______ work but \refused to take any _______ pay.6. Let's go to the park. It's just ________ .7. Prof. Smith is not a stranger to us .We've met him on several _______ .8. Jim had a _______ problem with his car, but he fixed it himself.9. They've __________ her to be operated on by the best doctors.10.Our history professor explained the ________ cause of the First World War.11.The old couple seem ______ to sit in front of the television all evening.12.After writing the letter, John ______ it and put it in an envelope.6 Complete the following sentences, using the words given in brackets:1. Very few plants and animals ... heat or cold for a long time. (endure)2. This was given us as a present ... our silver wedding (银婚)（occasion）3. The old lady dropped her spoon and bent ... , causing her to feel a sharp pain in the back. (pick up)4. If you ... the word, look it up in the dictionary. (sure of)5. Mr. Park, a candidate for Mayor of Chicago, ... at losing the election. (disappointment)6. ... with life in his hometown, the young man moved away to the city at the earliest opportunity. (content)Word Building7 One who delivers （送） the post is a postman;One who works with his hands or with machines is a workman; so1. one who sells or delivers milk is a _______2. one who fights fires is a _______3. one who catches fish is a _______4. one who runs a business is a ______5. one who is a member of the police is a _______6. one who travels in outer (外部的) space is a _______7. one who reports weather conditions is a _______8. one who takes part in sports is a _______8 The suffix-en can be added to adjectives to form verbs, meaning "make" or "become", e. g.bright+-en->brighten: make or become bright or brighterNow complete the following sentences with verbs formed in this way from the adjectives given in brackets:1. The river _______ at its mouth where it meets the sea. (broad)2. His interests _______ as he grew up. (wide)3. We must _______ our steps if we don't want to be caught in the rain.(quick)4. As the storm approached(即将来临)，the sky _______ .(dark)5. This knife of yours needs _______ . ( sharp )6. This new highway the trip from this city to the capital. (short)9 Study the following words. Then use them correctly in the sentences below.Verbs Nouns Adjectives AdverbsParticiplesExcite excitement excited excitedlyExcitingDisappoint disappointment disappointedDisappointingPatience patient patientlyReluctance reluctant reluctantlyEfficiency efficient efficiently1. excite, excitement, excited, exciting, excitedly(1) The baby's first step caused great in the family.(2) After reading the novel he was too to go to sleep that night.(3) His report on the 26th Olympic Games(奥运会)was really .(4) The chickens fluttered when they saw the dog.(5) The news of victory everybody.(6) What are you so about?2. disappoint, disappointment, disappointed, disappointing(1) Hewas very much with his son, who had failed again in his final exams.(2) The weather this summer has been . We have had too much rain.(3) The book me. It was not half so good as I had expected.(4) To her great .her daughter didn't send her a real present for her eightieth birthday.(5) Jim had a very look when Tom told him Mary was not coming.3 patience, patient, patiently(1) The cat watched the mouse(老鼠) hole with great .(2) Enid was a good teacher. She was very with her pupils.(3) "Couldn't you explain the problem a little more ?" said Mary to her husband. "It's too difficult for Johnnic."(4) He can't be a good teacher. He has no with children.4 reluctance, reluctant, reluctantly(1) John was to go out in the storm, but he went anyway.(2) He went to the concert with much because he doesn't like pop music at all.(3) In the end he agreed to go with us.(4) I am get out of bed on cold mornings.5 efficiency, efficient, efficiently(1) The skilled carpenter(木匠) worked with great and finished the job quickly.(2) He did the work in a more way and saved a lot of time.(3) In the past two years the young man has made great progress and now he can work as as a skilled worker.(4) Our production will not increase unless we introducemore techniques.Structure10 Rewrite the following sentences after the given models:Model 1: The parcel was so large that it couldn't come by letter post.The parcel was too large to come by letter post.1.The bottle is so small that it can't hold so much water.2.He was so tired that he couldn't go any further.3.He is so proud that he doesn't see his own shortcomings(缺点).4.It's so late now that the bookstore can't be open.Model 2: Johnnie said he would go out to play only after the post had come.Johnnie said he would not go out to play until the post had come.1.They stopped working only after it became completely dark.2.He came only after the meeting was over.3.He said he would get married only after he had found a satisfactory job.4.He went to bed only after he had finished his reading his reading assignment.Cloze11 Fill in the missing words:(A)On the o_______(1) of the old lady's eightieth birthday, she waited eagerly (热切的) to see what kind of p____(2) her daughter, Myra, would send to her. Since her first daughter, Enid, had diedtwo years before, the old lady had e ___(3) the loneliness of living by herself. It was r ___(4) for Myra to visit her mother, but still the old lady was proud of her. She felt sure that her daughter would celebrate(庆祝) her birthday with something special. As she waited for the postman, the old lady t___ (5) with excitement because she was quite sure she would receive a lovely present. After a _____ (6) , she thought, even it Myra paid little attention to her mother a_____ o ______ t ___(7) , today was a very special day. However, when the postman came, the old lady found to her d ____(8) that, rather than choosing a special gift, Myra had simply sent her a cheque f ___(9) in a card.(B)1. Old age has always been thought of as the worst age to be; but it is not n __(1) for the old to be unhappy. With old age should come wisdom ____ (2) the ability to help others ____ (3) advice wisely given.______(4) old can have the joy ____(5) seeing their children making progress _____(6) life; they can watch their grandchildren ______(7) up around them; and, perhaps best of all, they can,_____(8) their life has been a useful _____(9) , feel the happiness of having come ____(10) the battle of life safely and of having reached a time _____(11) they can lie back and rest, leaving others to c _____(12) the battle.2. A Hollywood producer was determined to give his mothera birthday _____ (1) that would be better than _____ (2) his brothers were giving her. He heard about an amazing bird which _____(3) talk in twelve languages and ____(4) ten famous operas(歌剧). He immediately bought the bird and _____(5) it to his mother. It ____ (6) him $50,000.The day after her b _____(7) , he phoned his mother. "What did you think of the ______(8), Mother?" he asked eagerly. Hismother ______ (9), "Delicious!"Translation12 Translate the following sentences into English:1．那位名演员似乎很乐意在剧中扮演一个次要角色。

Unit 3 Verbaland Non-verbal CommunicationUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units.Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are (e.g., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communicationwhile Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesboth differences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writingIntercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectivesTeaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the twotexts by quoting anecdotes or relating t o students’own experiences (question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic (i.e., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), the teacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to:Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of Manners.Scientific American,192: 85-89.Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals:Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy ofOriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published by AkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactionalsociolinguistics, conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an American anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication", Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere./usia/E-USIA/education/engteaching/kap0299.htm(3)Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of pragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012)Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012)Formly incohesive discourse may be coherent through common se nse, cultural background, contextual information, imagination, logical assumption, etc.Husband: That’s the telephone.Wife: I’m in the bath.Husband: OK.(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah,er,and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization.Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision.(4) Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section 2.3 is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section 2.5: example-discussion. Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discu ssion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particularoccasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the order ofimportance, from the core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communication involvesmany hidden rules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions. In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another culture.What to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talks”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing,their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract anddifficult terms and add to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academicresearches (e.g. in para 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-culturalcommunication can vary at many other levels, e.g., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the textin part two and they are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Now ho w many milliseconds shall I wait?”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topicof this section, what to say. It is a transition from section2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It isasked simply to reinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of makingindirect requests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicativeends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt?).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silencein face-to-face verbal interaction while extroverts usually find silence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into; (9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context. II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk topeople they do not know. According to Scollon, this causes astrange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances. (2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked toachieve indirect functions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communicationpeople should be direct and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore,all communication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, e.g.obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。

Unit 1 Preparatory 1Preparatory 2 Preparatory 3Preparatory 4Preparatory 5 Understanding the textComprehensive questionsWords and phrases1. Word Formationnouns: unrest, unease, unbeliefverbs: untie, uncover, unearth, unbalance, unblock adjectives: unaccountable, unappreciated, unaccustomed, unworthy2. AntonymTranslation1 . Once we’ve learned a few thousand words, and learned the ways our language allows us to put them together into sentences, we can say things that nobody has ever said before.一旦我们掌握了数千个单词和语言所允许的将这些单词组合成句的方法，我们就可以说出别人从未说过的话。

2. When people use their faces or hands to show their feelings, they’re doing something that is very different from what they do when they speak, write, or use a deaf sign language.当人们用脸或手来表达情感的时候，他们所做的是一件与说话、书写或者使用聋人手语很不一样的事情。

3. Language allows us to talk about our experience ofthe world in a way that no other means of communication can.语言使我们能够以一种其他交际手段所不能比拟的方式谈论我们对世界的体验。

UNIT 1As we are at the start of the course, this seems a good moment to offer some advice on how to make the task of learning English easier.课程开始之际，就如何使学习英语的任务更容易提出一些建议似乎正当其时。

Some Strategies for Learning EnglishLearning English is by no means easy. It takes great diligence and prolonged effort.学习英语绝非易事。

它需要刻苦和长期努力。

Nevertheless, while you cannot expect to gain a good command of English without sustained hard work, there are various helpful learning strategies you can employ to make the task easier. Here are some of them.虽然不经过持续的刻苦努力便不能期望精通英语，然而还是有各种有用的学习策略可以用来使这一任务变得容易一些。

以下便是其中的几种。

1. Do not treat all new words in exactly the same way. Have you ever complained about your memory because you find it simply impossible to memorize all the new words you are learning? But, in fact, it is not your memory that is at fault. If you cram your head with too many new words at a time, some of them are bound to be crowded out. What you need to do is to deal with new words in different ways according to how frequently they occur in everyday use. While active words demand constant practice and useful words must be committed to memory, words that do not often occur in everyday situations require just a nodding acquaintance. You will find concentrating on active and useful words the most effective route to enlarging your vocabulary.1. 不要以完全同样的方式对待所有的生词。

Unit 3 Bereavement and GriefPreparatory Work(1) According to Britannica, Luigi Pirandello was winner of the 1934 Nobel Prize for Literature. With his invention of the “theatre within the theatre” in the play Seipersonaggi in cercad’autore (1921; Six Characters in Search of an Author), he became an important innovator in modern drama. Influenced by his catastrophic personal experiences, he developed a literary style characterized by “the exploration of the tightly closed world of the forever changeable human personality” (Britannica). “War” reflects this style of psychological realism, for instead of depicting external circumstances of the Great War, it chooses to underline the cruelty of war from the perspective of the soldiers’ anxious, grieving parents.(2) The story was set in a train carriage at dawn. The war referred to in the story is most probably World War I, for during this war the author himself was a psychologically tormented father, both of whose sons were captured as prisoners of war. The World War I was an international conflict that resulted from clashes of interest among the world’s economic great powers assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies (including the United Kingdom/British Empire, France and the Russian Empire) versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary, though it did not join the Central Powers (Willmott 15). It is generally believed by historians that World War I was “virtuall y unprecedented in the slaughter, carnage, and destruction it caused” (Britannica). It led to the fall of four great imperial dynasties (Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey), resulted in the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and, in its destabilization of European society, laid the groundwork for World War II.(3) Common symptoms of grief caused by bereavement include wistfulness, lethargy, hysteria, depression and so forth. According to the psychologist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, people who have lost someone close usually go through five emotional stages: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.(4) Luigi /luˈidʒi/Perandello/ˌpɪrənˈdɛloʊ; Italian ˌpi rɑnˈdɛllɔ/Fabriano/Italian ˌfabriˈaˌno/Sulmona /Italian sulˈmona/Critical ReadingI. Understanding the text1.(1) Their argument was about what attitude parents should taketowards their children going to war and killed in action. Of the passengers, the fat man appeared to have the strongest argument, who suggested that parents should withhold their own grief and feel proud and happy about their children who laid down their lives for the Country.(2) In Paragraphs 15 and 16, he is described as a “fat, red-facedman with blood-shot eyes of the palest gray”, who was “panting”, and “fr om [whose] bulging eyes seemed to spurt inner violence of an uncontrolled vitality which his weakened body could hardly contain”. In Paragraph 17, it is revealed that his two front teeth are missing. His eyes are once again mentioned in Paragraph 29, descr ibed to be “bulging, horribly watery light grey”.These physical traits might suggest that the fat man was in poor health, and was grief-stricken by his son’s death.(3) The woman asked the question of the fat man because she was awedby his stoic response to his son’s death. She found it extremely difficult to cope with her anxiety over her son’s departure for the front, and wished to confirm the fat man’s feelings so that she might derive some strength from his example. She was the one who asked the question, rather than one of the other passengers, because she,as a focalized character whose inner consciousness was explored at great length, was trying to emphasize with the fat man.The fat man reacted strongly to this question, stupefied, brought into painful awareness of his son’s death, and reduced to uncontrollable sobs. This reaction indicates that the fat man, instead of calmly accepting the fact of his son’s deat h as he claimed, had been desperately rejecting this horrible idea.2.(1) F(2) F(3) T(4) T3.(1) D(2) A(3) AII. Critiquing the Text(1) Instead of giving direct description of war action, the storydepicts the emotional turmoil on the part of the s oldiers’ parents. The author intends to send a message about the cruelty of war, by showing that war imposes great suffering in more ways than one, not only on the soldiers who go to the battlefield, but also on their parents who are extremely worried about their safety and may have to endure the pain of loss.(2) The fat, red-faced man started his part of the argument byputting a stop to the other passengers’ debate over the correlation between the intensity of the parents’ anxiety and the number of children they have on the battlefield. He insisted that parents gave life to their children not for their own benefit, and that they should respect their children’s wish to go to the front.He ended his argument by claiming that parents should accept their ch ildren’s death on the battlefield without grief, showing that he himself chose not to wear mourning for his son.His argument is inconsistent, for at first he mentions all the glamour of youthful life, including “girls, cigarettes, illusions, new ties”, but then he talks about dying “young and happy”, “without having the ugly sides of life, the boredom of it, the pettiness, the bitterness of disillusion”. The latter statement overlooks the good sides of life mentioned in the former one. His argument is also somewhat illogical, because the awareness that children do not belong to their parents does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that parents should not grieve over their children’s death. Therefore, the reason he gave for not grieving was unconvincing. His pause and hesitation in the middle of the sentence “Our sons are born because…well, because they must be born” might be seen as a revelation of his checked impulse to articulate his paternal affection. It is as if he were to blurt out “Our sons are born because we love them”. He refrained from saying something like this probably for fear that he could not check his emotion once letting it out.(3) When he mentioned “girls, cigarettes, illusions, new ties”, hewas referring to the elements of youthful life that were more alluring to young people than their parents’ affection. He was trying to say that young people had so much to enjoy that their lives would never be centered around their parents. His thoughts about being young can barely support his subsequent view that there should be no mourning for someone who died young and happy.On the contrary, the fact that young people have many good things in store for them makes their death all the more lamentable.(4)The fat man’s feeling for the “Country” was more likely to be acliché conveniently used to advance his argument, for he used the “if” clause instead of stating it as a matter of course.This indicates his awareness that the Country being a natural necessity is merely a popular notion. However, there might be an element of sincerity in his feelings for the “Country”, as he repeatedly spoke of “decent boys” that chose to fight for their country. But on the whole, the notion of the Country might just be a convenient platitude to veil or suppress his bitterness about his son’s death.(5) The reasons offered by the fat man when he said a young man coulddie happy were poorly grounded and hardly convincing. He was indeed trying to rationalize the death of his son, so as to assuage his pain of bereavement, but the rationalization was too fragile to be of any comfort to him. The son might have mixed feelings about his father’s words. On the one hand, he might be able to understand his father’s inner struggle, but on the other, he might feel uncomfortable about his father saying he died satisfied.(6) The question is considered “silly” and “incongruous” from thepassengers’ point of view. In the eyes of other passengers, the fat man already made his point clearly, and the woman appeared absent-minded. Her question was considered silly because the answer was already evident. And it would seem incongruous with the whole atmosphere. While other passengers were voicing their agreement with the fat man, the woman’s question was abrupt and unexpected.This point of view has an emotional effect that reinforces the fat man’s loneliness. He had to battle with his emotional turmoil all on his own, with all the other people believing he was coping really well.(7) All these four definitions are common denotations of the wordpatriotism, which is a controversial notion. It is morally valuable, for it can arouse noble sentiments of heroism within people and unite them together as a whole nation. But whether it should be mandatory is disputable, for it may be pushed to an extreme and require people to sacrifice their personal interest for the “greater good” that might sometimes be questionable.(8) One possible version:January 1st, 1918 Dear Father,I wish you and Mother a happy new year. Perhaps you’re in no mood for celebrations for it has been almost three years since we celebrated the new year together as a family. I am in no festive mood either. The campsite here is cold and dreary, and is permeated with an atmosphere of mourning. I myself was lucky enough to survive the horrible battle in Caporetto, but hundreds of thousands of my comrades lost their lives in it. This is a nightmarish new year for me.Several years ago, I thought it a glorious thing to go to war in defense of our country. I would become a national hero if I fought valiantly. And now, I’ve come to realize that war is seldom about heroism; it is nothing but a massacre of innocent lives. I knew little about the enemies we killed, but I did know that some time before they had been allies with us. It is most likely that they, just like us, are innocent, naïve young people with an enthusiasm for heroic action.I used to say it would be a bliss to lay down my life for the Country. I still think so, but for a different reason. I never know when exactly I will get killed, but to be killed instantly is so much better than to take a bullet that cripples me for life, to get my face burnt beyond recognition, or to suffer any other kind of serious wounds with lifelong aftermaths. Such disasters happen to my comrades every single day, and I can only pray that they do not fall upon me. So, if I get killed someday, I will die satisfied at having ended my life in the best way I could wish.Remember me to all our friends back home, and do not wear mourning if I can never come back again.Your loving sonLanguage Enhancement5.(1) Pirandello employs the linear structure in the story, anddevelops the plot mostly through conversation. He includes so much conversation probably because he intends to “show more than tell”, to have the characters voice their own opinions instead of speaking for them himself. In this way, he can present a variety of clashing views and characterize each individual more effectively. The author’s narrative style can be characterized as internal focalization that places the woman at the center ofconsciousness. He describes the woman’s feelings and thoughts in great detail, while characterizing other passengers through external depictions.(2) The words that describe feelings and emotions include “sad”(Paragraph 6), “in distress” (Paragraph 18), “deep sorrow”(Paragraph 24), “harrowing, heart-breaking, uncontrollable sobs”(Paragraph 24), etc. Besides the use of adjectives, Pirandello builds up emotional intensity by delineating the gloomy setting (“stuffy and smoky second-class carriage” in Paragraph 2). Also, he does so by describing each character’s gestures and facial expressions. For example, the woman is portrayed as a pitiful sight, “twisting and wriggling, at times growling like a wild animal” (Paragraph 8), and the fat man “shook his light fawn coat” as to show he did not wear mourning, and “his livid lip over his missing teeth was trembling, his eyes were watery and motionless, and soon after he ended with a shrill laugh which might well have been a sob” (Paragraph 22).Intercultural Reflection1. Grief is doubtless the dominant emotion in both Western and Chinese memorial services. Interestingly however, there is a difference as to whether grief is required to be displayed in public. In China, at least in the past, public demonstration of grief was considered mandatory for those in bereavement, especially for those who lost their spouses, parents or masters. There might even be professional mourners hired to weep funerals (take Grandfather Gao’s funeral in Ba Jin’s Family for example). It is extremely unorthodox behavior to replace heart-rending weeping with light-hearted rituals. Chuang-tzu’s affection for his wife was questioned when he played at a basin and sung after her death. RuanJi deliberately chose to conceal his grief and feast in front of mourners at his father’s funeral, an act that was considered eccentric. In the West, it is not a strict moral obligation to weep at funerals of one’s close relations. Upon Old Earnshaw’s death in Wuthering Heights, for example, each member of the younger generation had their own way of processing grief.Tomb-visiting is a common way to pay respects to the deceased both in China and the West. For example, Oskar Schindler’s grave was visited by the Jews whose lives he had saved. In “Thoughts on a Visit to an Ancient Battlefield”, Li Hua depicted scenes in which the dead soldiers’ families plac ed offerings and poured wine overimaginary graves while contemplating the distant horizon in tears (“布奠倾觞，哭望天涯”). There is a difference between these two mourning rituals, though. The Schindler Jews were to commemorate their deceased benefactor, while the dead soldiers’ families in Tang Dynasty wished to guarantee the well-being of the deceased in the underworld (“吊祭不至，精魂何依”). Tomb-visiting is also an effective way to cope with one’s own emotional problems, for the deceased can be regarded as an omniscient, non-judgmental listener. Zhang Wuji, hero of Jin Yong’s Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber, visited his parents’ grave after a severe fault in his decision-making. Christine Daye in The Phantom of the Opera also went to her father’s cemetery to assuage her em otional turmoil.Both Chinese and Western mourning customs would impose restrictions on entertainment. In The Dream of the Red Chamber, the domestic theatrical troupe of the Jia household was dismissed when an elder concubine passed away. In Gone with the Wind, Scarlet O’Hara was prohibited from wearing colorful clothing and dancing in public after her husband’s death, which was suffocating for her. This tradition is passed down to the modern era, though not as rigorous as before. After Wenchuan earthquake, for example, entertainment activities were suspended for three days in mourning for the deceased victims.2. 元缜《遣悲怀（其一）》公最小偏怜女，自嫁黔娄百事乖。

Unit 3 Verbaland Non-verbal CommunicationUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of h uman language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units.Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are (e.g., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesboth differences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomouslearning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writingIntercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectives Teaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences (question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic (i.e., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can bedivided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), the teacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to:Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of Manners.Scientific American,192: 85-89.Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals:Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published byAkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactional sociolinguistics,conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an American anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication", Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere./usia/E-USIA/education/engteaching/kap0299.htm(3)Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of pragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentio ns, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012)Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a pieceof spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012)Formly incohesive discourse may be coherent through common sense, cultural backgr ound, contextual information, imagination, logical assumption, etc.Husband: That’s the telephone.Wife: I’m in the bath.Husband: OK.(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er, and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization.Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision.(4) Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) res earch findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section 2.3 is also organized in the or der of “question-answer”. Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section 2.5: example-discussion. Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men,women, Greek and Japanese). Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the order of importance, fromthe core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communication involves many hiddenrules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions.In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another culture.What to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talk s”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherenceand cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract and difficult terms andadd to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academic researches (e.g. inpara 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-cultural communication can vary atmany other levels, e.g., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the text in part two andthey are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Now how many milliseconds shall I wait?”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topic of this section,what to say. It is a transition from section 2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It is asked simply toreinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of making indirectrequests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt?).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silence in face-to-faceverbal interaction while extroverts usually find silence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into;(9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context.II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk to people they do notknow. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances.(2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked to achieve indirectfunctions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communication people should bedirect and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore, allcommunication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use oflanguage, e.g. obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。

Unit3Growth and MaturityPre-class ExplorationSuggestions for instructors:Start the class with one of the pre-class activities and encourage the students to brainstorm of the setting described in the activity and the characters that are appropriate for the specific setting:What would be the key elements in those settings?What adjectives would the students use to describe a specific setting?What images or associations would that specific setting evoke?What would be some“typical”characters in these settings? Transfer to the Skills Section:(45minutes)Highlight the key points in setting section and analyze the setting in the activities.Part I:Learning the SkillsActivity1Read the following story and discuss with your partner the techniques used in developing the character Beaver.Activity2The following two passages are about two best friends,Deanna and Beverly.Read the two passages carefully and discuss with your partner the techniques the authors use to develop the characters in each passage.In Passage2,highlight those sentences that can correspond to the sentences([1],[2],[3]and[4])in Passage1and think about the impact of these differences on readers’impressions of the two characters.Activity3Read the excerpt from“Beauty and the Beast”by Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont and discuss the following questions with your partner:1)1)What happened to the character?He got lost in a forest and accidentally entered a splendid castle.2)How do you feel about the place that the character accidentally entered?It was like a fairy world.3)What is the role of the setting in this story?The sharp contrast between the snowy forest and the magnificence of the warm and cozy castle showed the readers a different world—a world that magic(or spell)might be working.4)What elements should be considered if you want to write a good setting?CharacterSuggestions for instructors：The settings of the merchant(Beauty’s father)were inReading the first four paragraphs,ask students to underline the words or phrases that indicate the setting such as“the forest,deep snow,bitter frost,only shelter was the hollow trunk of a great tree,howling of the wolves,falling snow covered up every path,rough,slippery”When he started to encounter the magical world:“a splendid castle,no snow had fallen in the avenue of orange trees,covered with flowers and fruits,several splendidly furnished rooms,pleasant warmth of the air,nobody in all this vast and splendid palace,deep silence reigned everywhere,empty rooms and galleries,a room where a clear fire was burning,a couch was drawn up cozily before it…”Ask the students to free write for10minutes about a setting that they are interested in and discuss with in groups about their writing before introducing how to craft an effective setting by offering sensory details.Activity4The following passage is the opening of Johnny Tremain by Esther Forbes.The author’s style is very descriptive and detailed,which helps readers picture the story in their mind and fully understand what is happening.Read it and discuss the following questions with your partner: 1)What is the setting?An early morning in Boston.2)What words and phrases describe SOUNDS in this place?Sound:(gulls)scream and quarrel,(cocks)cried,(hens)clucking,(horses)whinnied,(bells) cling-clanged.3)What can you TOUCH in this place?Touch:(gulls)icy(eyes).4)What can you SEE in this place?Sight:Gulls,cocks,cats,horses,cows,the morning sunlight,bells.5)What can you TASTE in this place?Taste:salty air.6)What can you SMELL in this place?Smell:the first dead fish,first bits of garbage,all kinds of animal smells.Activity5The following passages are developed on the basis of the setting“There is an air of mystery in the house.”Read and highlight the words and phrases that describe sounds,feelings,smells and sights,and discuss with your partner how these words and phrases can help demonstrate the character’s inner world in the setting.Passage1I shivered terribly at the sight of the deserted mansion that stood on the hilltop.With much curiosity,I treaded gingerly towards the mansion.Suddenly,I heard a distant howl that pierced through the silent night.At my wit’s end,I slowly walked towards mansion.My face turned ashen and my hair stood on ends when I got a better view of the spooky mansion.The wind sent chills down my spine as I walked slowly towards the gigantic door.Passage2Behind the dark alley,it stood a deserted house.I stood meekly outside the haunted house with my jaws hung open.Suddenly,I saw a silhouette of a person in the house.Shivers ran down my spine as I approached the house cautiously.When I reached the doorstep,I was paralyzed withfear.I muttered uneasily to myself about what was going to happen next as I could feel cold air blowing towards me.My face turned ashen when the door opened itself.Passage3I crept behind the house since the door was left ajar.The whole place was covered with dust and cobwebs.I stood meekly all alone when a big strong wind caused the wooden door to slam hard.I was paralyzed with fear.I picked up my courage and continued walking until I reached a smaller silver door.An eerie scream came from the door and soon,it turned into a howl.I decided to put a brave front and walk into the room…Passage4Benjamin’s hair stood on ends as the eerie scream pierced through the still night.The howling of dogs made him stood meekly.He treaded gingerly through the dark and scary corridor.He saw a trail of bloodstains on the wall and maggots were crawling all over the place.What Benjamin saw later will be forever etched in his mind.It was the toilet’s light flickering.The continuous switching of the switch could be heard even when no visible being could be seen doing it.He then smelt a strong stench of urine coming from the toilet bowl.Activity6Read the following short story“The Flowers”by Alice Walker and discuss the following questions with your partner:1)What is the setting?What are the elements in this setting?The woods behind her house.The elements of the setting include locale of the story(near her home vs.deeper into the woods);time(summer morning);mood and atmosphere (beautiful,light,good,vs.strangeness,gloomy,damp air,close and deep silence).2)How does the setting influence the characterization and the plot?The beautiful and peaceful part of the woods Myop explored was a sharp contrast with what she found deep in the woods—a man’s skeleton,probably a black male who was lynched. 3)What does the author mean by saying“And the summer was over”?The ten-year-old black girl lost her innocence when she witnessed this harsh scene and realized the racism so close to her.Activity7Read the following excerpt from Chapter6of The Secret Garden.Mary went to live with her uncle Mr.Archibald Craven in a big house after her parents died.She was exploring the rooms in the house when she heard someone’s crying.Pay attention to how the setting adds to the mystery of the big house and thus enhances the characterization of another character in the story:Colin Craven,the son of Mr.Craven,who is going to be introduced in the following chapters.Mary spent a long time examining all those many rooms in the big house—which is like a big maze.It showed the portrait of the family members with no one living in any of those rooms.It creates a mysterious and queer feeling as Mary felt.Her wanderings in the house led to more of her discoveries.Suggestions for instructors:Broader setting background:in1803,the territory of United Stated expanded greatly through the Louisiana Purchase.To encourage people move to West,the Homestead Act of1862 guaranteed that a settler could earn farmland just by living on it for five years and improving it.A lot people headed west in their dream of searching for a better life.But it was harder than many people had expected.Part II:Case AnalysisActivity8Read Text A and consider how the author establishes the settings for the story.Task1Understanding the textFigure out the settings for the story and consider how the characters behave in each setting. Then discuss your answers with your partner.Setting1:Mary was picked up.Pa didn’t want her,but Mary stood up to him without fear.Setting2:_When Pa headed to town to get food,Mary was left to take care of the children.Setting3:When the food was all gone,Mary found some mushroom and tried herself first before letting the children eat.Task2Responding to the textWrite your answer to each question in full sentences.Then discuss your answers with your partner.1)What is the personality of Mary?Independent,responsible,caring,brave,2)How do you think Mary’s character is shown through various settings:a.On prairie,she stood up to Pa without fear when she asked to travel alongb.In the mountains,she helped take care of the girls and cook________c.After Pa left,_she was in charge and risked her own life by trying the mushroom herself first before letting the children eat.3)In your opinion,did the eleven-year-old narrator become“too soon a man”as well?How did his attitude change under various circumstances?a.On prairie,he walked with his dad while his sisters could sit on the wagon.b.He worried about Mary when he understood her intentions of not allowing them to eat.4)What effect do the sentences:“Mary came out of the cabin then,walking sedately.As she came toward us,the sun began to shine”create?These sentences are symbolic,which showed the hope and the positive change in their lives.5)The text has also been published under the title“The Day the Sun Came Out.”Which title do you like better?Why?Answers may vary.6)Have you ever been given more responsibility than is usual for someone your age?Describe your experience being“too soon a woman”or“too soon a man.”How did it change you?(If you prefer,describe an experience someone you know or know about has had.)Answers may vary.Activity9Read Text B and consider the setting the author establishes for the story.What is the role of the setting in developing the story?Task1Understanding the textWrite your answer to each question in full sentences.Then discuss your answers with your partner.1)When and where did this story take place?This story is set at nights and in the narrator’s home.2)What did the father do in the darkness?And what did the son do?He would sit in the dark and smoke and think.His son was quite worried about his father. 3)At what point in the story did the son begin to understand his father’s habit?When his father told him that he can’t get used to lights.4)What words or sentences in the story tell the reader that the son was needlessly worrying about his father?He kept asking his father“why don’t you go to bed?”and he was“afraid,worried,angry, curious”and felt“unless I get an answer I will go crazy”,etc.Part III:Language StudyActivity10Read Text A and Text B and find expressions related to five senses(smell,taste,touch,sound and sight)or others(such as emotion).Discuss with your partner how these words are helpful to demonstrate the characters’personalities.Text A Text BSMELL She sliced that big,solidmushroom and heated greasein a pan.The smell of itbrought the little girls out oftheir quilt,TASTE Then she fried slices of themushroom while the little girlsdanced with anxiety.Wefeasted,we three,my sistersand I,…Soon I become thirsty.(I drink a lot of water.)I go to the kitchen for a drink.TOUCH She got up and rummagedaround in the grub box.I climb the steps softly, skipping the ones that creak. He is sitting in the same chair,his elbows on his knees,his cold pipe in his teeth,his unblinking eyes staring straight ahead.SOUND It was near dark when therewas an answer to my yelling,and Mary came into theclearing.The ticking of the alarm clock on the ice box.The low hum of an automobile passing many blocks away.The swish of papers moved along the street by the breeze.A whispering rise and fall of sound,like low breathing.It is strangely pleasant.SIGHT Mary stood in thedoorway for a while,lookingout at the dripping world as ifshe found it beautiful.The dim shadow of light that comes through the window from the street lamp only makes the room seem darker.Mary roasted it in chunks over the fire,half crying with the smoke.The dryness in my throat reminds me.I step briskly into the kitchen.Activity11Read Text A and Text B.Find more examples of concrete words in describing the settings and share with your partner your comments about the effects of these concrete words on the plot of each story.Text A Text BActivity12Look carefully at the picture below and think about how you would describe the house.1)What is your impression of the house respectively when reading these two descriptions?The first is pleasant while the second is spooky.2)Write down some expressions in the two descriptions which help to create the two different atmospheres.DescriptionsDescription1Description2always very pleasant stood alonethick,cold stoneStone which kept out the cold in winter andthe heat in summerWindows shone;doors opened invitingly Roof shone blackly,freezing rain,windowsshook and rattled;doors locked with big,heavy chainsLittle white waves Waves crashed angrily against the cliffCool blue sea,sunny sky Wind blew over the empty fields。

现代大学英语精读(1)U n i t3课文-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1Lesson ThreeTEXT AMessage of the Land Pira SudhamPre-class Work IRead the text once for the main idea. Do not refer to the notes dictionaries or the glossary yet.Yes, these are our rice fields. They belonged to my parents and forefathers. The land is morethan three centuries old. I'm the o nly daughter in our family and it was I who stayed with myparents till they died. My three brothers moved out to their wives' h ouses when they gotmarried. My husband moved into our house as is the way with us in Esarn. I was then eighteenand he was nineteen. He gave me six children. Two died in infancy from sickness. The rest, twoboys and two girls, went away as soon as we could afford to buy jeans for them. Our oldestson got a job as a gardener in a rich man's home in Bangkok but later an employ ment agencysent him to a foreign land to work. My other son also went far away.One of our daughters is working in a textile factory in Bangkok, and the other has a job in astore. They come home to see us no w and then, stay a few days, and then they are off again.Often they send some money to us and tell us that they are doing well.I know this is notalways true. Sometimes, they get bullied and insulted, and it is like a knife piercing my heart. It'seasier for my husband. He has ears which don't hear, a mouth which doesn't speak, and eyesthat don't see. He has always been patient and s ilent, minding his own life.All of them remain my children in spite of their long absence. Maybe it's fate that sent themaway from us. Our piece of land is s mall, and it is no longer fertile, bleeding year after yearand, like us, getting old and exhausted. Still my husband and I work on t his land. The soil is notdifficult to till when there is a lot of rain, but in a bad year, it's not only the ploughs that breakbut our he arts, too.No, we two haven't changed much, but the village has. In what way? Only ten years ago, youcould barter for things, but now it' s all cash. Years ago, you could ask your neighbors to helpbuild your house, reap the rice or dig a well. Now they'll do it only if y ou have money to paythem. Plastic things replace village crafts. Men used to make things with fine bamboo pieces,but no long er. Plastic bags litter the village. Shops have sprung up, filled with colorful plastic things and goods we have no use for. The youn g go away to towns and cities leaving us oldpeople to work on the land. They think differently, I know, saying that the old are ol d-fashioned. All my life, I have never had to go to a hairdresser, or to paint my lips or nails. These rough fingers and toes are for w orking in the mud of our rice fields, not for looking pretty. Nowyoung girls put on jeans, and look like boys and they think it is fa shionable. Why, they are willing to sell their pig or water buffalo just to be able to buy a pair of jeans. In my day, if Iwere to put on a pair of trousers like they do now, lightning would strike me.I know, times have changed, but certain things should not change. We should offer food tothe monks every day, go to the temp le regularly. Young people tend to leave these things toold people now, and that's a shame.Why, only the other day I heard a boy shout and scream at his mother. If that kind of thinghad happened when I was young, th e whole village would have condemned such an ungratefulson, and his father would surely have given him a good beating.As for me, I wouldn't change, couldn't change even if I wanted to. Am I happy or unhappy This question has never occurred to me. Life simply goes on. Yes, this bag of bones dressed inrags can still plant and reap rice from morning till dusk. Disease, woun ds, hardship and scarcity have always been part of my life. I don't complain.The farmer: My wife is wrong. My eyes do see—they see more than they should. My ears dohear—they hear more than is good for me. I don't talk about what I know because I know toomuch. I know for example, greed, anger, and lust are the root of all evils.I am at peace with the land and the conditions of my life. But I feel a great pity for my wife. Ihave been forcing silence upon her all these years, yet she has not once complained ofanything.I wanted to have a lot of children and grandchildren around me but now cities and foreign landshave attracted my children awa y and it seems that none of them will ever come back to live hereagain. To whom shall I give these rice fields when I die? For hu ndreds of years this strip of landhas belonged to our family. I know every inch of it. My children grew up on it, catching frogsan d mud crabs and gathering flowers. Still the land could not tie them down or call them back.When each of them has a pair of je ans, they are off like birds on the wing.Fortunately, my wife is still with me, and both of us are still strong. Wounds heal over time.Sickness comes and goes, and we ge t back on our feet again. I never want to leave this land.It's nice to feel the wet earth as my fingers dig into the soil, planting rice , to hear my wifesighing,"Old man, if I die first, I shall become a cloud to protect you from the sun." It's goodto smell the scent of ripening rice in Novem ber. The soft cool breeze moves the sheaves, which ripple and shimmer like waves of gold. Yes, I love this land and I hope one of my childrencomes back one day to live, and gives me grandchildren so that I can pass on the land's secretmessages to them. Read the text a second time. Learn the new words and expressions listed below.Glossaryagencyn. 机构；代理处；这里指职业介绍所bamboon. 竹Bangkokn. 曼谷（泰国首都）barterv. to exchange goods for other goods 以货易货breezen. a light gentle windbuffalon. 美洲野牛；water ～ : 水牛bullyv. to threaten to hurt sb. who is smaller or weaker 欺负（弱小）condemnv. to express strong disapproval谴责crabn. 蟹craftn. handmade items 手工艺术（这里指手工产品）duskn. the time before it gets dark 黄昏Esarnn. a village in Thailandeviln. bad or harmful influence or effect 邪恶exhaustedadj. tired outfashionableadj. popular合时尚的；时髦的faten. 命运fertileadj. ～ land is land able to produce good crops 肥沃的；富饶的forefathersn. people (especially men) who were part of your family a long time ago 祖先frogn. 蛙gardenern. a person who takes care of a gardengreedn. a strong desire for more money, power etc. than you need 贪婪hairdressern. a person who cuts and shapes your hair in a particular style 理发师hardshipn. difficult condition of life, such as lack of money to become healthy again, to recover from awound, especially to grow new ski n 愈合infancyn. early childhood; babyhoodinsultv. to say or do sth. that is rude or act offensively to someone 侮辱jeansn. （常用复数）牛仔裤litterv. to leave (plastic bags, bits of waste paper etc.) on the ground in a public place 扔得到处都是lustn. very strong desire for sex, money or power 淫欲；金钱欲；权力欲old-fashionedadj. not fashionable老式的，过时的monkn. 和尚，僧人nailn. 指甲piercev. to make a hole through something; to ～ one's heart: to make one feet very sadreapv. to cut and gather a crop such as rice or wheat收割replacev. to take the place of 替代ripenadj. mature成熟的ripplev. to move in very small waves 在微风中摆动scarcityn. a lack; not having enough, especially foodscentn. a pleasant smellsheavesn. (sheaf 的复数), measure of quantity in farming 捆，束shimmerv. to shine with a soft trembling light 发微光，闪烁sicknessn. illnesssighv. 叹息stripn. a narrow piece of 细长片templen. a place for the worship of a god or gods 寺庙，庙宇tendv. If sth. ～ s to happen, it means that it is likely to happen quite often, especially sth. bad or unpleasanttextilen. any material made by weaving 纺织品ungratefuladj. not showing thankswoundn. injury 伤口；（感情上的）痛苦TEXT BThe Son from America lsaac Bashevis SingerLsaac Bashevis Singer (1904—1991) was born in a Jewish village in Poland. In 1935 heimmigrated to New York.Singer wrote many stories and novels, as well as books for juveniles and four autobiographies(including Lost in America, 1981). In 1978 his work received world attention when he wasawarded the Noble Prize in Literature.The village of Lentshin was tiny. It was surrounded by little huts with thatchad roofs. Betweenthe huts there were fields, where the owners planted vegetables or pastured their goats.In the smallest of these huts lived old Berl, a man in his eighties, and his wife Berlcha. Old Berlwas one of the Jews driven from Russia who had settled in Poland. He was short, broad-shouldered, and had a small white beard, and in summer and winter he wore a sheepskin hat, apadded cotton jacket, and stout boots. He had a half acre of field, a cow, a goat, and chickens.The couple had a son, Samuel, who had gone to America forty years ago. It was said inLentshin that he became a millionaire the re. Every month, the Lentshin letter carrier brought oldBerl a money order and a letter that no one could read because many of the words wereEnglish. How much money Samuel sent his parents remained a secret. They never seemed touse the money. W hat for? The garden, the cow, and the goat provided most of their needs.No one cared to know where Berl kept the money that his son sent him. The hut consisted ofone room, which contained all the ir belongings: the table, the shelf for meat, the shelf for milkfoods, the two beds, and the clay oven. Sometimes the chickens ro osted in the woodshed andsometimes, when it was cold, in a coop near the oven. The goat, too, found shelter insidewhen the weather was bad. The more prosperous villagers had kerosene lamps, but Berl and hiswife did not believe in new gadgets. Only for the Sabbath would Berlcha buy candles at thestore. In summer, the couple got up at sunrise and retired with the chickens. I n the long winterevenings, Berlcha spun flax and Berl sat beside her in the silence of those who enjoy theirrest.Once in a while when Berl came home from the synagogue, he brought news to his wife. InWarsaw there were strikers who de manded that the czar abdicate. Somebody by the name ofDr. Herzl* had come up with the idea that Jews should settle again inPalestine. Berlcha listenedand shook her head. Her face was yellowish and wrinkled like a cabbage leaf. She was half deaf.Berl had to repeat each word he said to her.Here in Lentshin nothing happened except usual events: a cow gave birth to a calf, a youngcouple got married. Actually, Lentshi n had become a village with few young people. The youngmen left for Zakroczym, for Warsaw, and sometimes for the United St ates. Like Samuel, theysent letters and photographs in which the men wore top hats and the women fancy dresses.Berl and Berlcha also received such photographs. But their eyes were failing and neither he norshe had glasses. They could bare ly make out the pictures. Samuel had sons and daughters—and grandchildren. Their names were so strange that Berl and Berlcha could never rememberthem. But what difference do na mes make? America was on the other side of the ocean, at theedge of the world. A talmud* teacher who came to Lentshin had said that Americans walkedwith their heads down and their feet up. Berl and Berlcha could not grasp this. How was itpossible? But since the teacher said so it must be true.One Friday morning, when Berlcha was kneading the dough for the Sabbath loaves, the dooropened and a nobleman entered. He was so tall that he had to bend down to get through thedoor. He was followed by the coachman who carried two leather sui tcases. In astonishment Berlcha raised her eyes.The nobleman looked around and said to the coachman in Yiddish,"Here it is." He took out asilver ruble and paid him. Then he said, "You can go now."When the coachman closed the door, the nobleman said, "Mother, it's me, your son Samuel-Sam."Berlcha heard the words and her legs grew numb. The nobleman hugged her, kissed herforehead, both her cheeks, and Berlcha began to cackle like a hen,"My son!" At that momentBerl came in from the woodshed, his arms piled with logs. The goat followed him. When he sawa no bleman kissing his wife, Berl dropped the wood and exclaimed, "What is this"The nobleman let go of Berlcha and embraced Berl. "Father! "For a long time Berl was unable to utter a sound. Then he asked, "Are you Samuel""Yes, Father, I am Samuel. ""Well, peace be with you." Berl grasped his son's hand. He was still not sure that he was notbeing fooled. Samuel wasn't as tall and heavy as this man, bu t then Berl reminded himself thatSamuel was only fifteen years old when he had left home. Berl asked,"Why didn't you let usknow that you were coming""Didn't you receive my cable"Samuel asked.Berl did not know what a cable was.Berlcha had scraped the dough from her hands and enfolded her son."I never thought I could live to see this. Now, I am happy to die," Berlcha said. Berl wasamazed. These were just the words he c ould have said earlier. After a while Berl came to himselfand said,"Pescha, you will have to make a double Sabbath pudding in addition to the stew."It was years since Berl had called Berlcha by her given name. Only now did Berlcha begin to cry.Yellow tears ran from her eyes, and everything became dim. Then she called out, "It's Friday—Ihave to prepare for the Sabbath." Yes, she had to knead the dough for the loaves. With such aguest, she had to make a larger S abbath stew. The winter day is short and she must hurry.Her son understood what was worrying her, because he said, "Mother, I will help you."The nobleman took off his jacket and remained in his vest, on which hung a solidgold-watchchain. H rolled up his sleeves. "Mother, I was a baker for many years in New York," he said, andhe began to knead the dough.Berlcha wept for joy. Her strength left her, and she slumped onto the bed.Berl said,"Women will always be women." And he went to the shed to get more wood. Thegoat sat down near the oven; she gazed with surprise at this strange man.The neighbors had heard the good news that Berl's son had arrived from America and theycame to greet him. The women bega n to help Berlcha prepare for the Sabbath. Some laughed,some cried. The room was full of people, as at a wedding. After Berlch a lit the candles, fatherand son went to the little synagogue across the street. A new snow had fallen. The son tooklarge steps, but Berl warned him, "Slow down."In the synagogue the Jews sang their prayers. All the time, the snow outside kept falling. WhenBerl and Samuel left the Holy Pla ce, the village was unrecognizable. Everything was covered insnow. One could see only the contours of the roofs and the candle s in the windows. Samuelsaid, "Nothing has changed here."Berlcha had prepared fish, chicken soup with rice, meat, carrot stew. The family ate and drank,and when it grew quiet for a whi le one could hear the chirping of the house cricket.After the final prayer Samuel asked, "Father, what did you do with all the money I sent you"Berl raised his white brows. "It's here.""Didn't you put it in a bank""There is no bank in Lentshin.""Where do you keep it"Berl hesitated. "One is not allowed to touch money on the Sabbath, but I will show you."Hecrouched beside the bed and began to shove something heavy. A boot appeared. Its top wasstuffed with straw. Berl remov ed the straw and the son saw that the boot was full of goldcoins. He lifted it."Father, this is a treasure!" he called out."Well.""Why didn't you spend it""On what? Thank God, we have everything.""Why didn't you travel somewhere""Where to? This is our home."The son asked one question after the other, but Berl's answer was always the same: They hadeverything. The garden, the cow, the goat, the chickens provided them with all they needed.The son said,"If thieves knew about this, your lives wouldn't be safe.""There are no thieves here.""What will happen to the money""You take it."Slowly, Berl and Berlcha grew accustomed to their son and his American Yiddish. Berlcha couldhear him better now. She even r ecognized his voice. He was saying, "Perhaps we should build alarger synagogue.""The synagogue is big enough," Berl replied."Perhaps a home for old people.""No one sleeps in the street."The next day after the Sabbath meal was eaten, Berl and Berlcha lay down for a nap. They soonbegan to snore. The goat, too, d ozed off. The son put on his cloak and his hat and went for awalk. He strode with his long legs across the marketplace. He stretc hed out a hand and touched a roof. He had a desire to talk to someone, but it seemed that the whole of Lentshinwas asleep. Samuel returned home. Dusk had fallen. Berl went to the synagogue for the evening prayersand the son remained with his mot her.In the twilight Samuel put his hand into his jacket pocket and touched his checkbook, hisletters of credit. He had come here wit h big plans. He had a suitcase filled with presents for hisparents. He wanted to help the village. He brought not only his own mo ney but funds from theLentshin Society in New York. But this village needed nothing. From the synagogue one couldhear peopl e chanting. The cricket, silent all day, started again its chirping. Berlcha began to sway and utter holy rhymes inherited from mo thers and grandmothers.Notes:Dr. Herzl: Theordore Herzl (1860—1904), the founder of ZionismTalmud: the collection of rabbinic writings that constitute the basis of traditional Judaism。

大学思辨英语教材精读1unit1大学思辨英语教材精读1 Unit 1Unit 1: The Power of StoriesIntroduction:In this unit, we will explore the theme of storytelling and its significant role in human society. Stories have been passed down through generations, and they play a crucial part in shaping our understanding of the world. By analyzing various aspects of storytelling, we can enhance our critical thinking skills and broaden our perspectives.Section 1: The Art of StorytellingStorytelling is an ancient art form that has been used to convey knowledge, entertain, and inspire. It is a powerful tool for communication and has the ability to capture the attention of the audience. A good storyteller knows how to engage listeners and create a connection between the story and their own experiences.Section 2: The Impact of Stories on SocietyStories have the power to shape society and influence people's beliefs, values, and behaviors. They often reflect the cultural, social, and political contexts in which they are created. Through stories, we can gain insight into different perspectives and develop empathy for others. Stories also have the potential to challenge societal norms and promote social change.Section 3: The Role of Stories in EducationStories have been used in education for centuries to transmit knowledge and teach moral values. They provide a context for learning and make complex concepts more accessible. When students engage with stories, they are more likely to remember and understand the content. Additionally, stories can foster creativity and critical thinking skills, as students analyze characters, plot development, and underlying themes.Section 4: Analyzing Stories from Different CulturesBy studying stories from different cultures, we can develop a broader understanding of the world and appreciate diverse perspectives. Each culture has its unique storytelling traditions, incorporating its history, beliefs, and values. Examining these stories helps us challenge stereotypes and promotes intercultural understanding and respect.Section 5: The Evolution of Storytelling in the Digital AgeWith the advent of technology, storytelling has taken on new forms in the digital age. From books to films, to interactive websites and virtual reality, storytelling has embraced various mediums. Digital storytelling allows for immersive experiences and engages audiences in novel ways. However, it is important to critically evaluate the impact of technology on traditional storytelling methods.Conclusion:Storytelling is a powerful tool that has shaped human society throughout history. From its role in communication and education to its influence on beliefs and values, stories hold immense power. By studying and analyzing stories, we can enhance our critical thinking skills and cultivate a broaderworldview. In the digital age, it is crucial to adapt storytelling methods while also preserving traditional forms. As we navigate through the rest of this textbook, let us continue to explore the captivating world of stories and their impact on our lives.。

⼤学思辨英语精读备课Unit1Unit 1 Trust and CharacterText A Do You Like It Here? (The story was published in 1939)Words and phrases expected of students to understandphooey: int. (informal): used to express disgust or contempteyeshade: a visor worn on heard for protection against glareen suite: adj. adv. in or as a part of a setmake rounds of: to go from place to place (for inspection)bawl out (at sb)swing around: turn around (as if on a hinge or pivot)torture tactics:proceed: go onhalt: stop or pausethrow in: to insert or introduce into the course of somethinggratuitously：free of charge; (unnecessarily, without apparent reason) certified public accountant (CPA)peripatetic: walking or travelling abouton account of: because of, for the sake ofimposing: very impressivein some small measureabiding: lasting for a long time, enduringinstitute (a search)(turn)yellow: (slang) cowardlygivesb one’s word of honor: solemn promise, a verbal commitment agreeing to do or not to do sth. in the future Preparatory Work1.John O’Hara (1905-1970),a keen observer of social status and class differences,and wrote frequently about the socially ambitious. His father died at that time, leaving him unable to afford Yale, the college of his choice. By all accounts, this disappointment affected O'Hara deeply for the rest of his life and served to hone the keen sense of social awareness that characterizes his work. He worked as a reporter for various newspapers. He garnered much critical acclaim for his short stories, more than 200 of which, beginning in 1928, appeared in The New Yorker.In 1934, O'Hara published his first novel, Appointment in Samarra, which was acclaimed on publication. This is the O'Hara novel that is most consistentlypraised by critics. Ernest Hemingway wrote: "If you want to read a book by a man who knows exactly what he is writing about and has written it marvelously well, read Appointment in Samarra." Harold Bloom named it to the Western canon. On the other hand, writing in the Atlantic Monthly of March 2000, critic Benjamin Schwarz and writer Christina Schwarz claimed: "So widespread is the literaryworld's scorn for John O'Hara that the inclusion ... of Appointment in Samarra on the Modern Library's list of the 100 best [English-language] novels of thetwentieth century was used to ridicule the entire project."The epitaph on his tombstone, which he wrote himself, reads: "Better than anyone else, he told the truth about his time. He was a professional. He wrote honestly and well." Of this, Gill commented: "From the far side of the grave, he remains self-defensive and overbearing. Better than anyone else? Not merely better than any other writer of fiction but better than any dramatist, any poet, any biographer, any historian? It is an astonishing claim." (extracted from Wikipedia)John O'Hara2.A conversational style and dispassionate voice.3.Psychological bullying is often difficult to ignore. Bullies torment their victims in many ways. Tormenting them is not enough, they have to humiliate them and ridicule their victims as well. Bullies use words to destroy their victims, and these words can hurt worse than a physical blow. People often say, “Sticks and stones may hurt my bones, but words will never hurt”. In today’s society, this phrase is simply not true. Words do hurt, and they do destroy lives. Psychological bullying destroys the character of their victim. The bully makes the victim the center of his abuse. In other words, the bully takes his or her anger and frustration out on the victim.4. The Phi Beta Kappa key is one of this nation's most distinctive symbols and, in fact, traces its origins to the era of the American Revolution. Conceived in 1776 by a group of talented undergraduates at the College of William and Mary as an emblem of their secret "philosophical society," the key proclaims Phi Beta Kappa's centuries-old conviction that "The love of wisdom (is) the guide of Life." As the Society they created encompassed more of the nation's finest colleges and universities, its key became a universally recognized mark of academic achievement in the liberal arts and sciences.the third degree: a situation in which someone tries to find out information by asking you a lot of questionseg. If I'm even half an hour late she gives me the third degree.I got the third degree from my dad when I got in last night.give(someone) the lowdown on (something): To provide someone with specific or comprehensive details about someone, something, or some situation.eg. Give me the lowdown on what the boss is planning to do about the company's falling profits.I'm waiting for my brother to give me the lowdown on Geoffrey before I go on a date with him.There's been a shakeup in the company's upper management, but we won't know how we're affected until the boss gives us the lowdown.West Point: A US military installation in southeast New York on the western bank of the Hudson River north of New York City. It has been a military post since 1778 and the seat of the US Military Academy since 1802.Second Form: an English term for an equivalent of the 7th or 8th grade in American schools. (also see sixth form: the term refers to the final two years of secondary education in the education system of England and other commonwealth countries)day school:as opposed to a boarding school, it is an institution where children (or high-school age adolescents) are given educational instruction during the day, after which children return to their homes.boarding school:a school where some or all people study and live during the school year with their fellow students and possibly teachers and/or administrators. The word 'boarding' is used in the sense of "bed and board," i.e., lodging and meals. Many independent (private) schools in the Commonwealth of Nations are boarding schools. Boarding school pupils (a.k.a. "boarders") normally return home during the school holidays and, often, weekends, but in some cultures may spend the majority of their childhood and adolescent life away from their families. In the United States, boardingschools comprise various grades, most commonly grades seven or nine through grade twelve - the high school years.I Understanding the text1. Questions(1) a boarding school/prep (dormitory, a stepping stone to higher education)(2) Mentioned four times. First at the beginning. The dorm door had to be kept open during study period so that there was no knock (apparent reason and a convenient excuse. But in another sense, a suggestion of no privacy, convenient for Van Nessto look in (introduce the idea of “panopticon”). Then there’s the mention of Van Ness’s half-open door. His privilege, authority (needs to knock before being permitted to go in). After Roberts went in, he was ordered to close the door, an indication of Van Ness’s auth ority. Also a closed space might have some psychological impact on Roberts—getting him trapped. Finally at the end of the story. Roberts not sure whether to leave it open or to close it but decided to leave it open. The door symbolizes Van Ness’s power or authority. The act of Roberts’s leaving it open might be an indication of his attempt to challenge the authority, even though feebly.(3) Not really. He hated Hughes. Wearing eye-shade during study time. Van Ness making rounds of the rooms, meting out punishments.(4)manipulative, sadistic, self-important, pompous, sarcastic2. True or false(1)F(2)T(3)T(4)F(5)T3. Multiple choices(1) B (2) D(3) B(4) DII Critiquing the text(1)Roberts’s parents divorced when he was ten, moved a lot,had to go to manyschools, unpleasant experiences, lonely and without a sense of belongingVan Ness saw the boy as susceptible to moral corruption (dishonest, sneaky, unruly)(2) Self-important/smug, overbearing/sadistic, ,show-rather-than-telltechnique(3)Not easy for Roberts to detect Van Ness’s intentions,Van Ness using torture tactics, effective to some extent, making Roberts upset, baffled, and frustrated（4）By this time he had guessed what it was all about. Hewas relieved because he had a clear conscience. He didn’t have to lie when confronted with the question about the watch. Previously he probably did have to lie when saying he liked it here.（5）Van Ness was convinced that Roberts was the thief and expected that he would certainly deny his stealing the watch. He would think Roberts would be devastated by his interrogation and that was exactly what he wanted. He had everything under control.（6）The “bastard” could refer to Van Ness or Hughes. Roberts was angry at first, then he knew it was no use fighting back as he had learned it from his previous experiences. Things always ended like this.（7）The title: colloquial, dramatic. Turns out to be a malicious question.（8）Robert s’ point of view. If it were the first-person narration, the tone would be angry, it would be more about clearing the name, a case of being wronged.From Van Ness’s point of view, it would be about how he ran the school and how he would teach Roberts a moral lesson.Language EnhancementI Words and phrases1.(1) occupation(2) occupant (3) preoccupy(4) contempt(5) contemptible(6) contempt2. “peri-” :enclosing, encircling, or aroundperipheral; perinatal(relating to the period around childbirth); perimeter;periodic;periphrastic“-tic”: pertaining totherapeutic; static; paralytic; dramatic; pathetic3.(1) institute(2) urge(3)transfer(4) institute(5)transferred (6) urging4.(1) innate(2) intrinsic(3) inherent(4) scheme(5) tactic (6) strategy5.(1) in some measure(2) on account of(3) at any rate(4) all right (adv. meaning without doubt)(5) thrown in(6) go with(7) bawl out (8) throw inII Sentences and rhetoric1.Paraphrase（1）Well, tell me about your life before you decided to do us the honor of having you as a student here.（2）D on’t be too modest to suppress your desire to tell the good stuff about yourself.（3）Chicago, Illinois! Well, a bit of geographical knowledge for my benefit, right, Roberts? And free of charge.（4）But I swear, however difficult it is I’m going to find out who the thief is. 2.Translation(1)如果他在什么事情上要训斥你，⽆关紧要的事情，他会查看他带在⾝边的⼀张单⼦，然后他会到你房间⾥把你训斥⼀通，并告诉你会有什么相应的惩罚。

大学思辨英语教程精读1Unit2教师用书0809Unit 2 Functions of languageOverviewTo further explore the nature of language, we naturally e to the question of what language is for. This unit deepens our understanding of the basics of language by offering refreshing ideas about language functions, which pave the way for the investigation of language in use, language evolution, language acquisition, and other important issues in linguistics.Text A Language is used for so many purposes (e.g., expressing feelings, providing information, and conducting social talking, to name just a few) that it is difficult for us to identify which one is its most basic (perhaps also its) original use. However, a careful examination of what language is good/bad at today can hopefully provide some useful clues to its basic function(s). Contrary to the mainstream assumptions, it has been observed that among its multiple purposes, language is good at interaction and persuasion but poor at information exchange.Text B The hammer (with an iron head and a handle) is shaped to fulfill its functions of pounding nails into and removing them out of wood. Likewise, the form of language is also motivated by its basic functions. As a form-function posite, a linguistic unit consists of two parts, the signifier and the signified. The bond between the two parts is both arbitrary and motivated. It is arbitrary because there is no inherent connection between the form of a sign and its meaning; it is motivated in the sense that the bond between the signifier and the signified is intentional instead of rigid or random.The two texts approach the same issue from differentperspectives. Text A discusses how the basic functions of a language can be traced in the development of language, while Text B focuses on the intriguing relationship between the form and the functions of language.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, municative petence, critical thinking, intercultural petence and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills: Distinguish between general and specific statements Scan for a global understanding of the textRead charts, graphs and tables to organize and interpret informationmunicative petence: Illustrate your points with appropriate examples Use figures of speech to help Illustrate your points Differentiate informative and affective uses of language Critical thinking: Evaluate the logical strengths of the a uthor’s evidence and support Organize and present your reasoning using diagrams Identify and critique assumptions behind statementsIntercultural petence Appreciate linguistic and cultural diversity Interpret language differences culturally Have curiosity in and be ready to explore other languages and cultures Teaching strategiesThe functions of language are an interesting yet rather difficult topic. T o arouse students’ interest, the teacher can start with a direct question “What do you think is the functi on of language?” or a more interesting one “In what way is language similar to a hammer?”The questions in Critical reading and Intercultural reflectionare mostly mini-research projects. To guarantee quality answers from students and to improve the classroom efficiency, it is re mended to divide the class into groups and assign different tasks to them in advance. Each group is required to do in-depth researches on a few of the questions.Further readings on functions of language: Jakobson, Roman. (1960). Closing statement: linguistics and poetics. In Thomas A.Sebeok (ed.). Style in Language, Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press. 350-377. Halliday, M.A.K. (1973). Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: EdwardArnold. Coq, John P. (1955). The Function of Language. The Modern Language Journal, 39(4):177-180. Jackson, Howard & Peter Stockwell. (2011). An introduction to the nature and functionsof language. London & New York : Continuum.Preparatory work(1) Main publications:New media language. London and New York: Routledge, 2003. Words in the mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon. 3rd edition. Oxford and NewYork: Basil Blackwell, 2003. The Articulate Mammal: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. 4th edition. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. The seeds of speech: Language origin and evolution. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996.Main research interests: 1) (Socio-)historical linguistics The description, implementation and causation of language change, with particular reference to current changes. 2) Language and mind Language acquisition, speech prehension, speechproduction, with particular reference to lexical storage and retrieval. 3) Language and the media The language used by the media, and the effect of the media on language, with particular reference to language change, language and power, the relationship of media language to language in literature.(2) The whole book consists of four parts, namely, Puzzles, Origin, Evolution, and Diffusion. Text A “What is Language for” is from the first part Puzzles. The other three questions addressed in this part are: How did language begin? Why do languages differ so much? and Is language an independent skill?Part 2, 'Origin', explores how language probably originated. Chapter 5 outlines the 'East Side story', which suggests that humans separated from apes when they were stranded on the east side of Africa, after the Great Rift Valley split the terrain. Humans were forced to live on their wits in a harsh landscape, and began to develop language. Chapter 6 examines the prerequisites for language, which are shared with our ape cousins: first, friendly involvement with others and a predisposition for grooming; second, an aptitude for tactical deception, or lying, which depends on 'a theory of mind', and an ability to understand the intentions of others. Chapter 7 considers the basic requirements for speech, many of which are also present in other primates. For example, sound-receiving mechanisms are shared with apes, yet sound-producing ones differ, perhaps because of our upright posture, which in the long run enabled humans to produce a range of finely tuned sounds. Chapter 8 notes that ontogeny, the development of the individual, only sometimes correlates with phylogeny, the development of the species. Two ways in which these coincided were the lowering of the larynx and the development of the 'naming insight', anunderstanding of the power of naming.Part 3, 'Evolution', examines how language might have evolved. Chapter 9 looks at ways in which words could have been bined. At first, many sequences were possibly repetitive and inconsistent. But gradually, strong preferences may have be e rules. These preferences were based on pre-linguistic 'mind-sets'. Chapter 10 looks at how language expanded and how it made use of the human body and its location in space for extending word meanings. The evolution of different parts of speech occurred probably via reanalysis: adjectives and prepositions both grew out of reinterpretation of nouns and verbs. Chapter 11 considers attachments to verbs. Verbs acquire attachments via grammaticalization, in which a full lexical item developed into a grammatical marker. Chapter 12 examines generativity, the use of finite resources to produce an infinite variety of sentences. Such structures arose from reanalysis of existing structures.Part 4, 'Diffusion', considers the spread of language over the world, and discusses why languages have not be e unlearnably different from one another. Chapter 13 outlines the route taken as humans moved out of Africa, and considered the possibility of reconstructing glimpses of language as it might have been more than 30,000 years ago. Chapter 14 examines the difficulties and frustrations of hunting for language universals. Chapter 15 points out that looking for constraints, things that languages don't do might be more enlightening. Implicational links, it notes, are important for keeping language in check. Such links are partially due to processing needs, but partly also to the overall structure of the system. Chapter 16 outlines the different ponents within the language system, and emphasizes that these interacted withthe usage of the system in a plex way.(3) John Locke, widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician. He was also memorized as one of the first British empiricists. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.Major works: A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) Two Treatises of Government (1689) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693)(4) Lord Byron’s (1788-1824) two best known long narrative poems are Don Juan and Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. His other major poems include: Prometheus, She walks in Beauty, When we Two parted, Darkness, and And Thou art Dead, as Young and Fair.(5) Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) is remembered as the father of the functionalist school of anthropology and for his role in developing the methods and the primacy ofanthropological fieldwork as well. He first rose to prominent notice through his studies of Pacific Islanders, especially those conducted among the Trobriand Islanders whose marriage, trade and religious customs he studied extensively. His best known works include Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922),Crime and Custom in Savage Society (1926), The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia (1929), and the posthumously published Magic, Science, and Religion and Other Essays (1948).Malinowski helped develop the field of anthropology from a primarily evolutionary focus into sociological and psychologicalenquiries. Some of the noteworthy byproducts of his fieldwork in this direction include various evidence that debunked the Freudian notion of a universal Oedipal plex and evidence that showed that so-called primitive peoples are capable of the same types and levels of cognitive reasoning as those from more "advanced" societies. Malinowski's ideas and methodologies came to be widely embraced by the Boasian school of American Anthropology, making him one of the most influential anthropologists of the 20th century. Source: :// .nndb. /people/320/000099023/For more information about Malinowski, please refer to: Murdock, George(1943). Bronislaw Malinowski. American Anthropologist, 45:441-451. :// /doc/cc2245125.html,/ mittees/ missions/centennial/history/095malobit.pdfCritical readingI. Understanding the text1. Outlining Thesis: Among its multiple purposes, language is good at interaction and persuasion but poor at information talking.Part ParasMain ideaI 1 - 5 Introducing the question: what is language for?II 6 - 8 Multiple purposes: interpreting the questionIII 9 - 20 Answering the first question: what is difficult to express?IV 21-26 Answering the second question: what is language good at?V 27-28 Conclusion: questions related to the functions of languageWe would like to emphasize that what we have just provided is not the only answer to the outlining task. To start with, we can divide the text in different ways. For example, we can follow the traditional trichotomy and dividing it into introduction, main body and conclusion; we can also divide part III and part IV into further sections. The main idea of each part varies accordingly.2. prehension check (1) The transfer of information is not the only purpose of using language. In greetingsand some pointless chitchat, municators use language primarily, if not exclusively, for constructing or maintaining certain social relationship. Even when information is the major concern, the speaker and hearer must take into consideration some other factors, such as politeness and aesthetics (cf. Paras. 22-22). (2) In Paragraph 6, Aitchison divides the question “what is language for” into two sub-questions: “For what purpose did language develop?” and “For what purpose is language used nowadays?” Since there are so many purposes of using language and the original one is difficult to identify, she argues in paragraph 8 that we can find clues by looking at what language is good at and what it finds difficult to express. The rest of the text (paras.9-28) provides discussion about and answers to these two questions. (3) According to Aitchison, the list of language functions in paragraph 7 is not exhaustive, and it is not clear which one is the most basic. Aitchison discusses in some detail thefollowing four functions, providing information, expressing feelings, influencing others and social talking, which are roughly organized in the order of importance in the traditional view. (4) Aitchison suggests that the early functions of language can be traced in the way we use language today tosome extent. The assumption behind is that the origin of language is accountable in its early function(s) and that the early function(s) must be reflected in what language is good at today. In other words, if language was created to perform a particular function, it must still be good at it nowadays.II. Evaluation and exploration 1. Evaluating the text (1) Figure drawing(2) Exemplifying An utterance may serve more than one purpose simultaneously. Donking is used metalinguistically in example (6), but the whole sentence “Donking isn’t a word” is informative. We can provide information, express our feelings and initiate social talking by asking questions or giving mands.2. Exploring beyond the text (1) Some scholars believe that language facilitates thinking and that our thinking would be impossible without an inner language. In many cultures language is also used as a symbol of magic or as something that carries mysterious power (e.g., religious Taoism, couplets for Spring Festival). Different functions of language are not equally important. For example, the functions of municating and of facilitating thinking are more fundamental while those of religious use and word play are more derivative. (2) Generally speaking, there are two different views on the relationship between language and thinking. Some scholars claim that language restricts thinking. According to this view, people perceive the world through the language that they speak. It follows that people speaking different languages experience different worlds, just like people seeing different things with different eyes. Others believe that language and thinking are separate and should not be equated with each other. For example,even if a language does not have the word for chartreuse, people speaking the language can still perceive this color, think about it and even talk about it,using not a single word but a kind of paraphrase. (3) Some utterances may basically serve only one function. For example, people greet each ot her saying “Hi!” or “Morning!” to neighbors to maintain social connections; inchurch, the priest preaches a sermon to call for piety to the Lord. But more often than not an utterance and its context produce some “side effects” and serve different functio ns simultaneously. In saying “It’s gonna rain. You’d better take an umbrella.” to a lady, the speaker not only provides information about the weather, but also shows his/her concern toward the addressee and enhances the solidarity.(4) Language changes for different reasons, e.g., language users’ aversion to cliché and preference to creativity, language contact, language planning and so on. While some changes may not be directly related to functions of language, others are indeed motivated by certain functions of language. For example, neologisms related to science and technology emerge primarily because there is a need to talk about such new things. In this case the function of providing information requires the creation of some new words.(5) The best-know n examples for “phatic munion” in traditional Chinese society are probably greetings such as “吃了吗？(have you had your meal?)” and “去哪儿啊？(where are you going?)”. Neither is considered imposing or offensive because in traditional Chinese society, it is more important to show mutual concern than respect for privacy. The British follow a different tradition. Brown and Levinson (1987) recognize twosides of face, a positive one and a negative one. Positive face refers to “the desire to be appreciated and approved” and negative face “the freedom of action and freedom from imposition”. For Chinese people (especially in traditional society), negative face is not as important as positive face. The British, on the other hand, value negative face more than positive face.Language Enhancement I. Words and phrases 1. Word formation Part of speech: Nouns: Taking-off, air-traffic, take-off-point, non-reality, self-repetition, other-repetition Adjectives: non-existent Adverbs: half-wayLondon-York,two-thirds,real-life,Structure: Noun-noun: air-traffic, London-York, self-repetition, other-repetition Adjective-noun: real-life Cardinal-ordinal numeral: two-thirds Prefix-noun: non-reality Gerund-adverb: Taking-off Verb-adverb-noun: take-off-point2. Articles and prepositions (1)/ (2)/ (3) a, the, with (4) /, the (5) /, the, the, on, a3. Verbs and phrases (1) convey, handle (2) convey (3) transfer (4) coincide (5) collide (6) date back to (7) originate from II. Sentences and discourse 1. Paraphrasing (1) Even when language is used simply to transfer information, the accuracy of the information transferred is still unlikely to reach 100%. (2) Less affirmative claims about the purpose of language may be at least superficially more acceptable: when early people found that facial expressions and body movements could not fully express themselves, they invented language to municate their thoughts.(3) So long as the speaker is telling the truth, language is reasonably good at transferring simple pieces of factual information, such as “Bob is Petronella’s cousin.” (4) Even in cultures where lying is officially discouraged, people are still unwilling to tell the whole truth. A government official invented the phrase “being economic with the truth” to deny tha t he was lying. (5) According to George Orwell, political language is designed to beautify horrible things and to tell lies.2. Translation (1) 英国哲学家约翰·洛克在其颇有影响的著作《人类理解论》(1690)中指出，语言是一个伟大的传输渠道，人类通过这一渠道相互传达各自的发现、推理和知识。

Unit 1 Preparatory 1Preparatory 2 Preparatory 3Preparatory 4Preparatory 5 Understanding the textComprehensive questionsWords and phrases1. Word Formationnouns: unrest, unease, unbeliefverbs: untie, uncover, unearth, unbalance, unblock adjectives: unaccountable, unappreciated, unaccustomed, unworthy2. AntonymTranslation1 . Once we’ve learned a few thousand words, and learned the ways our language allows us to put them together into sentences, we can say things that nobody has ever said before.一旦我们掌握了数千个单词和语言所允许的将这些单词组合成句的方法，我们就可以说出别人从未说过的话。

2. When people use their faces or hands to show their feelings, they’re doing something that is very different from what they do when they speak, write, or use a deaf sign language.当人们用脸或手来表达情感的时候，他们所做的是一件与说话、书写或者使用聋人手语很不一样的事情。

3. Language allows us to talk about our experience ofthe world in a way that no other means of communication can.语言使我们能够以一种其他交际手段所不能比拟的方式谈论我们对世界的体验。