语言学2

1.Three adequacies in linguistic study (Pg.23)1)Observational adequacyA research should exhaust all the relevant materials observable, but any statistically ignorable exception is still allowed unless it leads to a new conclusion and thus contradict or falsifies the present results.2)Descriptive adequacyA research is descriptively adequate provided it gives a principled account of the native speaker’s intuitions about the structure of the linguistic phenomena observed and there is no contradiction between different parts of the statement.3)Explanatory adequacyA research is explanatorily adequate provided that it gives a descriptively adequate grammar for every natural language, and does so in terms of a maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation. (Radford, 1988)TaskAnalyze the mental state of the woman who is of “slightly poor mentality”. Is she really mentally poor?2.Some basic conceptual distinctions in linguisticslangue and paroleIf we could collect the totality of word pattern stored in all those individuals, we should have the social bond which constitutes their language [langue]. It is a fund accumulated by the members of the community through the practice of speech [parole], a grammatical system existing potentially in every brain, or more exactly in the brains of a group of individuals; for the language [langue] is never complete in any single individual, but exists perfectly only in the collectivity.By distinguishing between the language itself [langue] and speech [parole], we distinguish at the same time: (1) what is social from what is individual, and (2) what is essential from what is ancillary and more or less accidental. (Saussure, 2001 [1983]:13-14)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized language or realization of langue. (Hu et al., 1988:27)a. “Langue is abstract; parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs”.b. “Langue is not actually spoken by anyone; parole is always a naturally occurring event.”c. “Langue is relatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.”(Hu et al., 1988:27)2)competence and performanceWe thus make a fundamental distinction between competence (the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language) and performance (the actual use of language in concrete situations) (Chomsky, 1965:3-4; for reference, see Widdowson, 2000[1996]:92)But we must bear in mind that Chomsky’s speaker-hearer is:an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogenous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) inapplying his knowledge of the language in actual performance.And the task for the linguist is todetermine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the speaker-hearer and that he puts to use in performance3)metalanguage and object languageA metalanguage is the language that a linguist uses to carry out his linguistic study.An object language is the language studied by a linguist.3.The “tourist map”of linguistics in the textbook (Pg.25-27)PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds___ their articulation, description, classification and transcription.2)PhonologyPhonology studies the sound patterns of a particular language____ how speech sounds are arranged into meaningful units3)MorphologyMorphology is the study of word structure____ how morphemes are arranged into words and word-formation processes.4)SyntaxSyntax is the study of how sentences are structured ____ the rules that generate infinite well-formed sentences.5)SemanticsSemantics claims its territory of language meaning usually without the constraints of contexts.6)PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in use, and meaning and context are two key factors in pragmatics.7)PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is the study of the mental processes in language production, perception, comprehension and acquisition.8)SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics studies language use constrained by social variables, for example, social position, gender.9)Language typologyLanguage typology is the study of language universals by the empirical method of induction from a sample of diverse languages.10) Applied linguisticsApplied linguistics is the study of second language learning and teaching in its narrow sense as well as the application of the methods and results of linguistic research to all kinds of practical areas in its broad sense.。

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案Study Guide for New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition AnswersIntroductionThe New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition is a comprehensive guide to the study of the English language. This study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the textbook, helping students to better understand the concepts and theories discussed in each chapter.Chapter 1: Introduction to Linguistics1.1 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.2 What are the subfields of Linguistics?The subfields of linguistics include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.3 What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar?Prescriptive grammar is concerned with rules for what is considered "correct" language use, while descriptive grammar describes how language is actually used by speakers.Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, including their production, transmission, and reception.2.2 What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound system of a language, including the patterns and rules that govern the pronunciation of words.2.3 What is the difference between consonants and vowels?Consonants are speech sounds that are produced with some degree of obstruction in the vocal tract, while vowels are speech sounds that are produced without obstruction.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1 What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes to form a complete word.3.3 What is the difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes?Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical function of a word (e.g., tense, number), while derivational morphemes create new words or change the meaning of existing words.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and how words are combined to create meaningful phrases and sentences.4.2 What is the difference between phrases and clauses?Phrases are groups of words that function as a single unit within a sentence, while clauses are larger structures that contain a subject and a predicate.4.3 What is the difference between syntax and semantics?Syntax deals with the structure of language, while semantics is concerned with the meaning of language.Chapter 5: Semantics and Pragmatics5.1 What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey meaning.5.2 What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language, including the social and cultural factors that affect communication.5.3 What are speech acts?Speech acts are actions that are performed through speech, such as making a request or giving an order.ConclusionThis study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition, helping students to deepen their understanding of the core concepts and theories in the study of English linguistics. By using this guide, students can enhance their knowledge andskills in the field of linguistics and improve their overall comprehension of the English language.。

Chapter 2Revision exercises reference1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one isprimary and why?Refer to section 2.1The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Of the two, speech is considered primary for the following reasons: 1) from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always a later invention. 2) In everyday communication, speech conveys a greater amount of information than writing. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later as part of formal education.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Refer to section 2.2.2 (1)V oicing is a phonetic feature of some speech sounds. It is caused by the vibration of the speaker's vocal cords when he produces a certain sound. If a sound bears this feature, it is voiced. If such a feature is absent in the pronunciation of a sound, it is voiceless. All vowels in English are voiced; and some consonants in English are voiced such as [d] and [v] while others are voiceless such as [p] and [s].3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcriptiondiffer.Both broad and narrow transcriptions are ways to transcribe speech sounds, i.e.ways of using written symbols to represent speech sounds. In broad transcription, only the letter symbols are used, and the principle is to use one letter for onesound, such as [P] and [I]. In narrow transcription, a set of symbols calleddiacritics are added to the letter symbols to show the finer differences between similar sounds, such as[P h] and [ɫ].4.How are the English consonants classified?As in the pronunciation of consonants the air stream coming from the lungs is somehow obstructed, it is possible and also necessary to classify them in terms of manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner of obstruction, the consonants are classified into the following groups: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of obstruction, the consonants are classified into the following groups: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?To classify the English vowels, the following criteria can be applied: position of the tongue, openness of the mouth, length of the vowels, and the shape of the lips.According to the position of the tongue, the vowels are classified into front, central and back vowels; according to the openness of the mouth, the vowels are classified into close, semi-close, semi-open, and open vowels; and according to the length of the vowels, they are classified into long vowels and short vowels;and according to the shape of the lips, and the vowels are classified into rounded and unrounded vowels.6.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate--- [dʒ]2)voiceless labiodental fricative---[f]3)voiced alveolar stop---[d]4)front, close, short---[i]5)back ,semi-open, long ---[ɔ:]6)voiceless bilabial stop---[p]Given the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1)[d]---voiced alveolar stop2)[l]---voiced alveolar liquid3)[tʃ]---voiceless palatal/alveolar affricate4)[w]---voiced bilabial glide5)[u]---back,close,short(rounded)6)[æ]---front,short,open(unrounded)7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do youthink will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l]and[ɫ], [pʰ]and[P],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Refer to section 2.3.1Though both dealing with speech sounds, phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study in that the former focuses on the speech sounds themselves, their ways of pronunciation, their differences, their classifications, etc., while the latter focuses on the sound system of particular languages and the role sounds play in conveying meaning. Therefore, a phonetician will be more interested in the difference between two sounds.8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophonesrelated to a phoneme?Refer to section 2.3.2A phone is simply a speech sound, every actual sound we use or hear inmeaningful linguistic communication. For example, in pronouncing the two words “feel” and “leaf”, we actually use or hear four phones:[f][i:][l]and[~l].A phone differs from a phoneme in that the former is an actual sound we hear andit is the unit of study in phonetics, and the latter is not an audible sound, but an abstract entity, a collection of phonetic features, used as a unit of study in phonology. Take the “feel” and “leaf” example again. While four phones are used or heard in the pronunciation of these two words, only three phonemes are involved, i.e. /f/ /i: / and /l/.A phoneme, though as an abstract entity, is realized as different phones indifferent phonetic contexts. All these different phones are called the allophones of the same one phoneme. For example, the aspirated [pʰ] and the unaspirated [p] are allophones of the same phoneme/p/.9.Explain with examples the sequential rules, the assimilation rule, and thedeletion rule.Sequential rules are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. For exam ple, why “klib” is a permissible combination of the four sounds in English and why “kbli” is not can only be accounted for by a sequential rule.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, the actual pronunciation of the letter “n” in the word “ incorrect” is not the alveolar [n] but the velar nasal [ŋ] is a manifestation of the assimilation rule at work.The deletion tells us when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example, in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letterg. But in their corresponding noun forms signature, designation and paradigmatic,the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced.10.What are Suprasegmental features? How do the major Suprasegmentalfeatures of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to those phonological features occurring above the sound segment level. The major Suprasegmental features in English are stress and intonation. The shift of word stress may change the part of speech of words of the same spelling, such as “'progress n.” and “pro'gress v.” , and different stress may cause difference in the meaning of some compound nouns and noun phrases with the same components, such as “'hotdog” and “hot 'dog”. Stressing words that are normally unstressed in a sentence may convey some extra meaning by the speaker.For exam ple, by stressing the pronoun “my” in the sentence “He is driving 'my car” the speaker is emphasizing the fact that the car he is driving is no one else`s but the speaker`s.The three often-used intonations in English are the falling tone, the rising tone, and the fall-rise tone. The basic role they each play is that the falling tone states a fact, the rising tone raises a question, and the fall-raise tone implies some meaning not literally expressed. For example, the same sentence “That`s not the book he w ants” said in the three different intonations convey three different meanings.Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguishmeaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.2. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.3.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.4.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.5.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amountof information conveyed.6.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds whicha speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.7.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat,the mouth and the chest.8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.9.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of thetongue that is raised the highest.10.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can beclassified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.11.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.12.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or morephonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:13. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.14.The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______sounds.15.S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.16.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____rules.17.P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language andhow sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.18.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: wordstress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:19.Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords20.__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/21.Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they candistinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair22. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highestposition.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle23.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemicsegments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. Suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features24.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection ofdistinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme。

语言学2章测试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学的主要研究对象是什么？A. 语言的起源B. 语言的结构C. 语言的演变D. 语言的使用答案：B2. 下列哪项不是语言学的分支学科？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 心理学D. 语义学答案：C3. 索绪尔认为语言符号是由哪两部分组成的？A. 语音和语义B. 符号和意义C. 能指和所指D. 形式和内容答案：C4. 语言的最小意义单位是什么？A. 音素B. 词C. 语素D. 句子5. 语言的交际功能不包括以下哪一项？A. 信息传递B. 情感表达C. 思维工具D. 艺术创作答案：C6. 语言的规范性主要体现在哪个方面？A. 发音B. 语法C. 词汇D. 所有选项答案：D7. 语言的多样性主要体现在哪些方面？A. 语言结构B. 语言使用C. 语言发展D. 所有选项答案：D8. 语言的演变不包括以下哪一项？A. 语音变化B. 词汇变化C. 语法变化D. 语言消亡答案：D9. 以下哪种现象不属于语言接触？B. 融合C. 分化D. 同化答案：C10. 语言的标准化通常不涉及以下哪一项？A. 发音规范B. 词汇规范C. 语法规范D. 语言的起源答案：D二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学研究的两个主要对象是______和______。

答案：语言；言语2. 索绪尔将语言符号分为______和______。

答案：能指；所指3. 语言的三个基本功能包括______、______和______。

答案：表达功能；交际功能；思维功能4. 语音学研究的是______和______。

答案：语音的产生；语音的感知5. 语用学研究的是______和______。

答案：语境；意义6. 语言的演变包括______、______和______。

答案：语音变化；词汇变化；语法变化7. 语言的接触现象包括______、______和______。

答案：借用；融合；同化8. 语言的多样性表现在______、______和______。

新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2简介《新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2》是一本系统介绍英语语言学的教材。

本教材由专业的语言学家和教育学家编写，旨在帮助学习者深入了解英语语言学的基本概念和原理。

本文档将简要介绍本教材的内容，并对其中重要概念进行概述。

第一章：语言学导论第一章主要介绍了语言学的基本概念和研究对象。

在本章中，学习者将了解什么是语言学，以及语言学的研究范围和方法论。

同时，还提供了一些语言学研究的历史背景和经典理论。

本章的目的是给学习者提供一个全面的语言学导论，为后续章节的学习做好铺垫。

第二章：语音学第二章主要介绍了语音学的基本概念和方法。

学习者将了解语音学的研究对象——音素以及音素的分类和描述方法。

在本章中，还将介绍音系和音位的概念，并讨论语音的产生和感知。

此外，还将讨论音位对语言的重要性以及音系和音位在不同语言间的差异。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将对语音学的基本理论和方法有一个初步了解。

第三章：音系学第三章主要介绍了音系学的研究内容和方法。

在本章中，学习者将学习语音学中的重要概念：音位、语音环境和音变规律。

此外，还将介绍音系学的研究方法，如音位的调查和描述。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解音系学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何通过音系学方法来分析和描述不同语言的音系。

第四章：词汇学第四章主要介绍了词汇学的研究内容和方法。

在本章中，学习者将学习词汇学的基本概念，如词汇的定义和分类。

同时，还将介绍词汇的形态结构和词性。

本章还将介绍词汇的意义和语义关系，并讨论词汇的产生和变化。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解词汇学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何进行词汇的分析和研究。

第五章：句法学第五章主要介绍了句法学的研究内容和方法。

在本章中，学习者将学习句法学的基本概念，如句子的组成和句子的结构。

同时，还将介绍句法分析的方法和理论，如短语结构文法和依存句法。

本章还将讨论句法的意义和句法的变化。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解句法学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何进行句法的分析和研究。