最新语言学第二章

一、名词解释：1、符号：符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号或标记，符号的构成包括两个方面的形式和意义，形式是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，具有物质性。

意义是符号形式所代表的内容。

符号的最大特征是形式和意义的联系完全是社会成员约定俗成的，由社会习惯决定的。

2、符号的任意性：语言符号的任意性是就语言符号的音与义的相互关系来说的。

语言的声音和意义之间没有必然的、本质的联系，他们之间的结合是不可论证的，完全是社会约定俗成的，这是语言符号最大的特点。

3、语言符号的系统性：所谓系统，是指同类事物按一定的关系组成的整体。

语言符号系统是说语言符号中的要素，并不是杂乱无章的堆积在一起，而是按照一定的秩序组织起来，形成一个有机的整体；系统中的各个要素之间存在着种种规律性的联系，并且彼此相互制约。

语言符号系统可以概括为：语言是一种分层装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来运转。

4、组合关系：又叫句段关系，是指符号组合起来的关系，不同的结构单位按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。

5、聚合关系：又叫联想关系，是指在语言组合结构的某一位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用的符号之间的关系，简单的说，语言符号的类聚（类别）关系。

二、判断题1、语言符号具有任意性的特点，我们平时说话用什么样的语音代表什么样的意义是自由的，因此，如果我们愿意，把“袜子”说成“鞋子”也可以。

答：错。

原因：①符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号或标记。

语言符号音与义的结合是社会约定俗成的。

“鞋子”和“袜子”的音义结合是社会约定俗成的，不能把“袜子”说成是“鞋子”。

②语言符号的任意性是就语言符号的音与义的相互关系来说的。

语言的声音和意义之间没有必然的、本质的联系，他们之间的结合是不可论证的，完全是社会约定俗成的，“鞋子”和“袜子”的音和义是社会约定俗成的，不能把“袜子”说成是“鞋子”。

③语言符号是任意性与强制性的辨正统一，强制性是指语言符号一旦进入交际，也就是某一语言形式与某一种意义结合起来，表示某一特定的对象以后，对使用的人来说就有强制性，即只有接受的权利，没有随意更改的权利。

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎  ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐   ❆ ♦  ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak/☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in theword like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。

第二章语言是符号系统一、填空1、说出的话语句子是无限的,但无限多的句子都是由有限的（词 )和（规则）组装起来的。

2、符号包含（形式 )和（意义 )两个方面，二者不可分离。

3、语言符号的意义是对它所指代的一类（心理现实 )的概括.4、我们是通过（听话)认识到“孔子是中国古代的思想家”这个( 心理现实 )的。

5、语言的表达是对心理现实的（编码 ).6、心理现实是存在于（客观现实）和（语言符号）之间的人脑中的信息存在状态。

7、语言符号的（任意性）和（线条性），是语言符号的基本性质.8、语言符号二层性的一大特点是（音位）层的最小单位一定大大少于（符号）层的最小单位。

9、（组合关系）和( 聚合关系 )是语言系统中的两种根本关系。

10、动物无法掌握人类的语言，从生理基础看是不具有（大脑的结构）和( 功能 )。

二、判断正误（对）1、一种语言可说出的句子是无限的。

（错）2、语言是一种社会规约,所以每个人说话是不自由的。

（对）3、符号的形式和意义都具有一般性。

（对 )4、语言是丰富人的心理现实的重要途径。

( 错 )5、心理现实是对客观现实的认知，与客观现实是等同的。

（对）6、语言符号形式与意义的关联很大程度上受制于它所属的符号系统。

（错）7、现实中的句子是无穷的,所以组合关系也是无限的。

（错）8、音位和音位组合构成语素。

（错）9、句子是比词组高一层级的符号单位，所以句子的长度一定大于词组。

（错）10、“飞鸟”和“小鸟”具有同样的组合关系。

三、思考题1、听到一个熟人在说话，就能判断出是谁在说话，这个过程是语言符号在传递信息吗？为什么？这是语言符号在传递信息。

因为符号存在形式和意义两个方面，语言符号传递信息都是通过将意义与形式组合的。

但是语言符号的形式与一般符号的形式不同，它是一种声音实体.每个人说话都有自己独特之处,如音高、响亮度等发音的特点，我们听一个人说话，长时间地接触后，就将这种声音特点与意义结合了起来，从而理解了这种声音所传送的意义。

第二章语言是符号系统一、填空1、说出的话语句子是无限的，但无限多的句子都是由有限的(词）和( 规则 )组装起来的。

２、符号包含( 形式 )和(意义）两个方面,二者不可分离。

３、语言符号的意义是对它所指代的一类(心理现实）的概括。

４、我们是通过（听话)认识到“孔子是中国古代的思想家”这个( 心理现实）的。

5、语言的表达是对心理现实的（编码）。

6、心理现实是存在于( 客观现实）和(语言符号 )之间的人脑中的信息存在状态．7、语言符号的（任意性）和（线条性 )，是语言符号的基本性质。

8、语言符号二层性的一大特点是（音位）层的最小单位一定大大少于（符号 )层的最小单位。

9、( 组合关系）和（聚合关系）是语言系统中的两种根本关系。

１０、动物无法掌握人类的语言,从生理基础看是不具有(大脑的结构 )和( 功能）．二、判断正误（对）１、一种语言可说出的句子是无限的。

( 错)2、语言是一种社会规约,所以每个人说话是不自由的。

（对)3、符号的形式和意义都具有一般性.( 对）4、语言是丰富人的心理现实的重要途径。

( 错）５、心理现实是对客观现实的认知，与客观现实是等同的。

（对）６、语言符号形式与意义的关联很大程度上受制于它所属的符号系统。

( 错 )7、现实中的句子是无穷的，所以组合关系也是无限的。

( 错）8、音位和音位组合构成语素。

( 错 )９、句子是比词组高一层级的符号单位,所以句子的长度一定大于词组。

（错）10、“飞鸟”和“小鸟"具有同样的组合关系。

三、思考题１、听到一个熟人在说话,就能判断出是谁在说话,这个过程是语言符号在传递信息吗？为什么?这是语言符号在传递信息。

因为符号存在形式和意义两个方面，语言符号传递信息都是通过将意义与形式组合的。

但是语言符号的形式与一般符号的形式不同,它是一种声音实体。

每个人说话都有自己独特之处，如音高、响亮度等发音的特点，我们听一个人说话，长时间地接触后，就将这种声音特点与意义结合了起来,从而理解了这种声音所传送的意义.2、语言符号如何增进人的认识客观现实的能力?心理现实为语言符号的最初编码提供了初步的材料。

英语语言学第二章讲课课件一、教学内容本节课我们将学习英语语言学第二章，主要内容包括：语系与语言分类、语音学与音系学基础、以及词汇学初步。

具体涉及教材第二章的13节，重点探讨语言的起源、语言如何通过语音和词汇表达意义，以及不同语言之间的相似与差异。

二、教学目标1. 理解世界主要语系的特点及其分类依据，能列举至少三种语系并说明其代表性语言。

2. 掌握语音学基本概念，识别不同语音特征，并能在实际语境中进行应用。

3. 运用词汇学知识分析词语构成，提高词汇理解和运用能力。

三、教学难点与重点重点：语音学基本概念、词汇学的主要理论。

难点：语音的发音规则、词汇在不同语境中的应用。

四、教具与学具准备教具：PPT展示、录音机、语音示例CD。

学具：笔记本、词典、语音学基础教材。

五、教学过程1. 导入（5分钟）：通过展示世界地图，引入不同地区语言的多样性，激发学生对语言起源和分类的兴趣。

2. 理论讲解（20分钟）：介绍语系分类、语音学基础和词汇学构成，结合教材第二章13节内容。

3. 实践情景引入（10分钟）：播放不同语言的问候语录音，让学生体验语言差异。

4. 例题讲解（15分钟）：讲解语音学中元音、辅音的分类及发音规则，通过例词进行示范。

5. 随堂练习（10分钟）：分组进行语音模仿和词汇构造练习。

六、板书设计1. 语系与语言分类印欧语系汉藏语系阿尔泰语系2. 语音学基础元音与辅音发音规则3. 词汇学初步词根、词缀词语构成七、作业设计beautifulunderstand2. 答案：beautiful: beauty, beautifully, beastunderstand: understanding, understandable, misunderstand八、课后反思及拓展延伸1. 反思：关注学生在课堂上的参与度，针对语音模仿环节进行教学调整，提高学生的发音准确性。

2. 拓展延伸：鼓励学生课下阅读更多关于语音学和词汇学的资料，了解语言的发展趋势及其背后的文化因素。