日耳曼语言学导论7Syntax

Syntax（句法学）%26Semantics（语义）（第五章,第七章）Syntax1.Syntax（句法）is a branch of linguistics that studies howwords are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.IC analysis（直接成分分析） is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are.3.The term “category”（范畴）in some approaches refers toclasses and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.Semantics1. Semantics（语义学）----the study of language meaning. Meaning is central to the study of communication.2. Word meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study ofword meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense（意义）---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract.Reference（指称）----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Major sense relations3.1 SynonymySynonymy（同义词）refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.3.2 Antonymy （反义）a. Gradable antonyms（可分级反义词）----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …b. Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …c.Relational opposites（关系对⽴反义词）----exhibits thereversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …d. Reversive（可逆性反义词）3.3 Hyponymy （上下关系）Hyponymy （上下关系）----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.a. Superordinate（上义词）: the word which is more general in meaning.b. Hyponyms（下义词）: the word which is more specific in meaning.c. Co-hyponyms（同级下义词）: hyponyms of the same superordinate.e.g. Superordinate: furnitureHyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …3.4 Polysemy （⼀词多义）----the same one word may have more than one meaning.3.5 HomonymyHomonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone（同⾳异义词）---- when two words are identical insound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh（同形异义词）---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling4. Componential analysis（成分分析）---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Pragmatics语⽤学Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning, contextualmeaning, how more gets communicated than is said.The originSemanticsContext considered Context unconsideredPragmatics Traditional semanticsSentence and utterance话语The relation: Meaning of a sentence is abstract anddecontextualized while meaning of an utterance isconcrete and context-dependent. The meaning of anutterance is based on a sentence meaning and therealization of the abstract meaning of a sentencein a real situation of communication.Example: My bag is heavy. (utterance meaning: a statement,indirec t or polite request, declining someone’s requestfor help)Cooperative Principles and violation of the conversation maxims合作原则和准则的违反The maxim of quantity 数量准则Make your utterance as informative as required. No more and no less.The maxim of quality 质量准则Do not say what you believe to be false and do not saywhat you lack evidence for.The maxim of relation 关系准则Be relevantThe maxim of manner ⽅式准则Avoid obscurity, ambiguity. Be brief and orderly Violation of the maxims and revealing conversation implicature 会话含义The use of the terms principle and maxim does not meanthat the CP and its maxims will be followed by everybody all the time. People do violate them and tell lies. In fact, the significance CP lies in the violations.Examples of the violations of the maxims:1) Violation of the Maxim of QuantityA: What are you readingB: A book.A: Do you know where Dr. Townsend livesB: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city. (saidwhen it is known to both A and B that B has Dr. Townsend’s address)2)Violation of the Maxim of QualityA: Would you like to come to our party tonightB: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.(said when it is known to both A and B thatB is feeling perfectly well)3) Violation of the Maxim of RelationA: What time is itB: Well, the paper’s already come.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you thinkB: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t theyA: What do you think of the lectureB: He’s a good cook.4) Violation of the Maxim of MannerA: Let’s stop and get something to eat.B: Okay, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s.A: What did your sister buy at Sears yesterdayB: She bought a red dress, she bought a green dress, and she bought a blue dress.。

一、D: language acquisition device 语言习得机制2. Displacement: Displacement is that language can refer to the contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 移位法3、cultural transmission：文化传递性Animals call systems are genetically transmitted. Human languages are culturally transmitted.4. Interpersonal function: 人际关系Interpersonal function is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. In addition, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves indicate the various types of interpersonal relations. Finally, language marks our identity.5.Linguistics: Linguistics is defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language 语言学6、Applied linguistics: Applied linguistics is a branch of study which apply linguistics to the research of other areas. 应用语言学7、Syntax: Syntax studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. 句法学8. morphology: Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes. 形态学二、1. Language acquisition and language learningLanguage acquisition is to get a language subconsciously and naturally with no great effort. Language learning is to get a language consciously with great efforts and usually under the teachers’ instruction.For instance, for most Chinese, their knowledge about their mother tongue-Chinese, is language acquisition, while their knowledge about English is language learning.2. Foreign language and second languageA language has gained official status in certain region or country is called second language, while foreign language has not.For example, for most Indians, English is their second language since English has gained official status in their country while English is regarded as foreign language in China.3. Expressive function and Evocative functionExpressive function is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. In this function, language is used to evaluate, appraise and assert the speaker’s attitudes, etc.Evocative function is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. It aims to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry or please.4. Phonetics and Phonology.Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, thedescription and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.5. Semantics and PragmaticsSemantics studies the meaning of languagePragmatics is the study of meaning in context.6. Synchronic and DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.7. Langue and paroleLangue is the linguistic competence of the speaker. It refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole is the actual phenomena or data of linguistics. It refers to the actualized language.Langue is abstract, stable, systematic and not actually spoken by anyone. Parole is specific, personal, subject to personal and situational constraints and always a naturally occurring event.petence and performance(语言能力和语言运用）A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules iscalled his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.简答题:1. What are the design features of language?Arbitrariness任意性Duality二元性Creativity创造性Displacement移位性Culture transmission文化传递性Interchangeability互换性2. What is morpheme? Morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning. For example，“purify”consist of “pur” and“ify”，and the noun“disappearance” consist of three morphemes: appear, dis and ance. They all have meanings, and cannot be divided any more.3. What is phoneme? Example. Phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. E.g.：/b/ /p/ /k/ /g/.4. What is the performative function of human language? Supply example s to illustrate.The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons .It can also extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religions occasion .For example ,language is always used in the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children and the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony.5. What are the basic three branches of phonetics?Articulatory phonetics, Acoustic phonetics, Auditory phonetics.6. Giving four branches of macrolinguistics.Psycholinguistics心理语言学sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Computational linguistics 计算语言学.7. What are the seven function of language.Informative信息功能interpersonal function人际功能performative 施为功能Emotive function感情功能phatic communion寒暄功能recreational function娱乐功能metalingual function元语言功能。

《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。

一、语言学总论1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例：书, book, livre喜欢，like，aimer2）Duality（二层性）:定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4）Displacement（替代性、移位性）:定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5）Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例：印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive （描述性）vs. Prescriptive （规定性）Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例：Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic（共时性）vs. Diachronic （历时性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue（语言）& parole （言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence（语言能力）and performance （语言运用）theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress （重音）举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如meintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=derivational affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性：en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级：-er, -est如何区分派生词（derivational word）和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。

Chapter 5: SyntaxLearning Objectives⏹I. Syntax the field⏹II. The Traditional Approach⏹III. The Structuralist Approach⏹IV. The Generative Approach⏹V. The Systemic Functional Approach⏹VI. The Textual ApproachI. Defining Syntax⏹The word comes from Ancient Greek - syn-, "together", and táxis, "arrangement")⏹The definition:❑The study of the internal structure ofsentences and the rules that govern theformation of sentences.⏹What is grammar?❑morphology + syntax = grammar Autonomy of syntax⏹Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.⏹This is a very interesting sentence,because it shows that syntax can beseparated from semantics—that form canbe separated from meaning. The sentencedoesn’t seem to mean anything coherent,but it sounds like an English sentence.——Howard Lasnik,The Human LanguageClassification of sentences⏹ E.g.1 Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.⏹ E.g.2 *Furiously sleep ideas green colorless.⏹ E.g.3 He walked quickly.Criteria:⏹ 1. Conforms to the grammatical rules of a specific language or not;(Grammaticality/well-formedness)⏹ 2. Conforms to the worldly common sense knowledge.Sentence classificationII. The Traditional Approach⏹ A Syntactic Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same orsimilar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or averb.⏹When words are grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, they arecalled syntactic categories.1. Lexical Categories⏹In grammar, a lexical category (also word class, lexical class, or in traditionalgrammar part of speech) is a linguistic category of words, or more precisely lexicalitems.⏹Major lexical categories❑Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition⏹Minor lexical categories❑Determiner, Auxiliary, Conjunction, Infinitive, Negative2. Phrasal Categories⏹Word level categories can be extended to phrasal categories with heads :3. Syntactic Functions⏹Subject: in nominative case, doer of the action.❑ E.g. She slapped him.❑ E.g. He was slapped by her.⏹Grammatical subject vs. logical subject⏹Object: accusative case, receiver or goal of an action.⏹ E.g. He was slapped by her.⏹ E.g. I gave my sister a doll.Ind. Obj. Dir. Obj.⏹ E.g. I gave a doll to my sister.Dir. Obj. Ind. Obj.Sentence division⏹Binary analysis:❑Predicate + Subject = Sentence⏹ E.g. The man is eating dinner.⏹ E.g. John broke the door.⏹ E.g. Alice must be out of her mind.⏹Predicator: verb included in a predicate4. Syntactic Features5．Sentence types:traditional approachsimpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundBasic sentence types by Bolinger⏹ 1. Mother fell.⏹ 2. Mother is young.⏹ 3. Mother loves Dad.⏹ 4. Mother fed Dad breakfast.⏹ 5. There is time.⏹Question: What are the abstract grammatical representations?Bolinger’s idea⏹Mother fell. (Nominal + intransitive verbal)⏹Mother is young. (Nominal + copula + complement)⏹Mother loves Dad. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal)⏹Mother fed Dad breakfast. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)⏹There is time. (There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: Quirk⏹Seven sentence types:❑SVC❑SV A❑SV❑SVO❑SVOC❑SVOA❑SVOOQuirk’s idea⏹SVC Mary is kind. / a nurse.⏹SV A Mary is here. / in the house.⏹SV The child is laughing.⏹SVO Somebody caught the ball.⏹SVOC We have proved him wrong. / a fool.⏹SVOA I put the plate on the table.⏹SVOO She gives me expensive presents.III. The Structuralist Approach1. Syntactic Relations⏹Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:❑relations of position❑relations of substitutability❑relations of co-occurrenceRelations of Position⏹All languages have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases thatcan occur in a clause.⏹The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object⏹Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, r efers to the sequential arrangement of wordsin a language.⏹Question: If word order is not followed, what would happen?❑ungrammatical or nonsensical❑semantic change⏹The boy kicked the ball❑*Boy the ball kicked the❑*The ball kicked the boy⏹The teacher saw the students.⏹The students saw the teacher.⏹Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relationsobserved by F. de Saussure.⏹They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.⏹Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and arealclassifications) to classify languages in the world:❑SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.❑English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.Relation of Substitutability⏹The ________ smiled.menboysgirlsmonkeys⏹The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable foreach other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.⏹It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man❑The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.❑He went there last week.the day before.⏹This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure,and Paradigmatic Relations byHjemslev.❑To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.Relation of Co-occurrence⏹Words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a wordof another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.⏹What are the co-occurred word sets for nominal phrases?❑preceded by a determiner and adjective(s)❑followed by a verbal phrase.⏹Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly toparadigmatic relations.2. Constituents and Phrase Structure⏹Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form aconstruction:❑the girl (NP)❑ate the apple (VP)❑the girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis) by BloomfieldPhrase StructureTree diagramBracketing⏹Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representingthe constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))Comparing IC analysis and PS analysis⏹beautiful girl’s dress“They can fish” is ambiguous⏹IC analysis⏹What are the possible phrase structure trees?3. Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions⏹Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to thatof one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.⏹Which constructions are endocentric?❑noun phrases❑Intransitive verb phrases❑adjective phrases⏹Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where noneof the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head”.⏹Which constructions are exocentric?❑basic sentence❑prepositional phrase❑predicate (verb + object) construction❑connective (be + complement) construction⏹The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as awhole.)⏹He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)⏹He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)⏹John seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4. Coordination and Subordination⏹Constructions can also be categorized into two main types, depending on the relationbetween constituents: Coordination and SubordinationCoordination⏹Coordination:❑grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or.❑Coordinated constituents have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally⏹Coordination of NPs:❑[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]⏹Coordination of VPs:❑[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]⏹Coordination of PPs:❑[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]⏹Coordination of APs:❑[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]⏹Coordination of Ss:❑[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination⏹Subordination：refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.❑The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head.Consequently, they can be called modifiers.⏹two dogsHead⏹(My brother) can drink (wine).Head⏹Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head⏹(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.HeadSubordinate clauses⏹Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types ofsubordinate clauses:❑complement clauses❑adjunct (or adverbial) clauses❑relative clauses⏹ 1. John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complementclause)⏹ 2. Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner]. (adverbial clause)⏹ 3. The woman [that I love] is moving to the south. (relative clause)IV. The Generative Approach⏹Phrase Structure Rules (PS Rules)❑smile❑the smile❑the beautiful smile❑the beautiful smile to meWhat about the possible VP structure?⏹laugh⏹play in the garden⏹often play in the garden⏹often happily play in the garden (happily)The AP structure?⏹polite⏹very polite⏹very polite to youThe PP structure?⏹about⏹mainly about⏹mainly about the storySentence structure?⏹The wind blows.⏹The cat ate the fish.⏹The man came with a stick.Exercises: Please draw the phrase structure tress of the following sentences⏹ 1. The jet landed.⏹ 2. A journalist wrote the article.⏹ 3. Jerome is tired of his job.⏹ 4. He gave the Red Cross some blood.⏹ 5. The customer asked for a cold beer.⏹ 6. John will play the trumpet and the drums in the orchestra.1.2.4.5.“The man came with a stick”Structural Ambiguity“The man killed the boy with a knife”“The man killed the boy with a knife”More examples of ambiguity⏹ 1. Flying planes can be dangerous.❑ Flying planes is dangerous. ❑ Flying planes are dangerous.⏹ 2. Visiting scholars can be interesting.❑ Visiting scholars is interesting. ❑ Visiting scholars are interesting.Modifier: specify optionally expressible properties of headsWhat are the possible PStrees?⏹The data:❑The dog ate the bone happily.❑The dog happily ate the bone.❑Probably the dog ate the bone.⏹How to represent them with tree diagrams?“The dog ate the bone happily.”“The dog happily ate the bone.”“Probably the dog ate the bone.”Transformational Rules⏹The boy is sleeping. Is the boy sleeping?⏹The boy has slept. Has the boy slept?⏹The boy will sleep. Will the boy sleep?⏹The boy can sleep. Can the boy sleep?⏹The Rule:❑Move Aux❑Move the Aux to adjoin to SExercise⏹What is your comment on the rule “move the Aux to adjoin to S”?❑ E.g. You know those women.❑ E.g. Sara should be going to Chicago.❑ E.g. Anyone that can lift 500 pounds is eligible for our club.“The boy can sleep.”“Can the boy sleep?”“The boy picked up the book.”“The boy picked the book up.”“Some people who were wearing boots came in.”“Some people came in who were wearing boots.”Chomsky’s Generative GrammarLanguageFacultyUniversal Grammar⏹ Plato ’s Problem⏹ Poverty of the Stimulus--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------⏹ Features of First Language Acquisition❑ Uniformity❑ Rapidity⏹ Chomsky ’s Innateness Hypothesis:❑ The course of language acquisition is determined by a biologically endowedinnate Language Faculty within the brain, which makes it possible for children to acquire a language on the basis of their linguistic experience .⏹ Language Faculty must incorporate a theory of Universal Grammar / UG whichenables the child to develop a grammar of any natural language on the basis of suitable linguistic experience.⏹ UG is composed of Principles and Parameters .⏹ Children ’s Task?❑ Parameter setting ❑ Lexical learning⏹ Principles and Parameters Theory:❑ Government & Binding Theory ❑ The Minimalist ProgramV . The Systemic Functional Approach⏹ Systemic Functional Grammar has its roots in the work of the British linguist J. R.Firth . The mastermind behind the systemic-functional perspective is M. A. K. Halliday .⏹ SF Linguists are interested in relating the various kinds of linguistic structures andpatterns to the functions that language serves and to the social settings in which it is used.Language functionsTheoretically speakingEmpirically speaking Grammar of L Experience of L⏹ Three metafunctions:❑ Ideational function ❑ Interpersonal function ❑ Textual functionIdeational function⏹ The function in which we conceptualize theworld for our own benefit and that of others is called ideational function.⏹ Conceptualization of the world:❑ representation of the world❑ The bringing of the world into being linguisticallyData⏹ A. The man kicked the dog.⏹ B. The woman hated the old clothes. ⏹ C. David is homeless. ⏹ D. The girl laughed.⏹ E. The visitor said “Hello ”. ⏹ F. There is a cat over there.1. The man kicked the dog.⏹ KICK is a material process . Material processes are characterized by “doing ” verbs,such as running , dressing , climbing , etc.⏹ Halliday describes the man as the actor (the person responsible for the action), andthe dog as the goal (the thing which is acted upon).2. The woman hated the old clothes.⏹ The predicator has something to do with feeling and thinking, which is internalrather than external, thus the name mental process .⏹ Verbs such as hate , love , know , think and understand belong to this category. ⏹ Halliday: sensor + phenomenon3. David is homeless.⏹ It is relational in that its main purpose is to relate the two participants together. ⏹ Relational verbs are be , become , appear , etc. ⏹ Halliday: carrier + attribute4. The girl laughed.⏹ The predicator falls into a category of verbs such as cough , yawn , and smile whichHalliday calls them as behavioral .⏹ The behavioral processes are similar to material processes in that they describephysical actions of some kind but they are different in that the action isnotperformed on anything. ⏹ Halliday: behaver.5. The visitor said “Hello ”.⏹ Halliday calls this category as the verbal process .⏹ Verbal processes include words like say , report , claim , question , and explain . ⏹ Halliday: sayer + target6. There is a cat over there.⏹ Existential process . ⏹ Hailliday: the existentInterpersonal function⏹ Language serves to set up and maintain social and personal relations , and to expressthe language user ’s own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance. This function is called interpersonal function. ⏹ The study of mood and modality.⏹ A. Pass the salt.⏹ B. Please pass the salt. ⏹ C. Can you pass the salt?⏹ D. Could you possibly pass the salt?⏹ E. You couldn ’t possibly pass the salt, could you? ⏹ A general rule:❑ The more indirect the demand, the more polite it is felt to be.Textual function⏹ If you find a bird outside the classroom window, which sentence would you use?❑ A. There is a bird on the tree. ❑ B. A bird is on the tree.⏹ Information structure:Transitivi ⏹ Material process(The man kicked the dog.) ⏹ Mental process (The woman hated the old clothes.) ⏹ Verbal process (The visitor said “Hello ”) ⏹ Behavioural process (The girl laughed) ⏹ Relational process (David is homeless.) ⏹ Existential process (There is a cat over there.)❑old information + new information⏹According to Halliday:❑theme + rheme⏹Theme: the first constituent, and it denotes the starting point of the clause—what itis going to be about.⏹Rheme: the rest of the clause; the information that is new.⏹1A. Gas explosion killed thousands.⏹1B. Thousands were killed by gas explosion.⏹2A. The rain came down.⏹2B. Down came the rain.⏹The propositional meaning is the same, but the thematic difference exists.❑1A. Theme: gas explosion—what the sentence is about❑1B. Theme: thousands—what the sentence is aboutVI. The Textual Approach⏹The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntaxbeyond the traditional sentence boundary.⏹Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraphor chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence o f text linguistics and discourse analysis.Sentential Connection⏹Hypotactic (cf. subordinate clauses):❑You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.❑We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.⏹Paratactic (cf. coordinate clauses):❑In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.❑He dictated the letter. She wrote it.❑The door was open. He walked in.Cohesion and cohesiveness⏹Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refersto relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.⏹Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:❑conjunction❑ellipsis❑lexical collocation❑lexical repetition❑reference❑substitution, etc.Some examples⏹“Did she get there at six?”“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)⏹“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. I can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)⏹He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight. (Reference)⏹“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)⏹I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late. (Logical connection)Exercise-IProduce the surface structures from the following deep structures.❖ 1. Neg she past work last week❖ 2. policemen past be-en beat John❖ 3. Q the professor pres be angry SOME REASON❖ 4. Q he past do SOMETHING❖ 5. Imp you pres will wash you❖ 6. the girl [the girl pre be beautiful] pre be from ChinaReference Answer⏹ 1. She didn’t work last night.⏹ 2. The policemen were beaten by John.⏹ 3. Why is the professor angry?⏹ 4. What did he do?⏹ 5. Wash yourself.⏹ 6. The girl who is beautiful is from China.Exercise-IIComment on the following pair of sentences.❖ a. John is easy to please.❖ b. John is eager to please.Reference answer⏹The two sentences have similar surface structure, but the grammar of the two isdifferent. John has a different logical relationship to please in the two sentences.⏹The two sentences have different deep structures:❑ a. (Someone pleases John) is easy.❑ b. John is eager (John pleases someone).Exercise-IIIPlease draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.❖ 1. Maria never ate a brownie.❖ 2. That shelf will fall.❖ 3. The student lost the debate.❖ 4. The manager may offer a raise.❖ 5. A psychic will speak to this group.❖ 6. Mary could become quite fond of Larry.Exercise-IVThe following data are from Korean. You may ignore the nominative and accusative markers for the purposes of this question.❖ 1. Terry-ka ku yeca-lul coahanta.❖Terry-Nom that girl-Ac likes❖‘Terry likes that girl.’❖ 2. I noin-I hakkyo ey kassta.❖this man-Nom school to went❖‘This man went to school.’❖ 3. Sue-ka chinkwu eykey chayk-ul ilkessta.❖Sue-Nom friend to book-Ac read❖‘Sue read the book to a friend.’❖I. Based on this data, what is the XP rule for Korean?❖II. Draw the tree structure for each of the sentence.。

Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language研究语言变化的目的和意义The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。

历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。

历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。

syntax语言学英语定义Syntax is the way words and phrases are put together to form meaningful sentences in a language. It's like the rules of the road for sentences, telling us which words can go together and in what order.Without syntax, languages would be a mess of words floating around without any structure. Syntax helps us understand who's doing what, when, and where. It's the glue that holds sentences together.Sometimes syntax can be tricky, especially when you're learning a new language. But once you get the hang of it,it's like riding a bike – you don't even have to think about it anymore. You just know instinctively how to arrange words to get your point across.Syntax is also fun to play with. You can rearrange the same words in different ways to create completely different meanings. It's like a puzzle where you have to figure outthe right combination of words to make a sentence that sounds right and makes sense.In summary, syntax is essential for communication in any language. It's the backbone of how we express ourselves and understand each other. So, whether you're speaking, writing, or just thinking, make sure you're following the rules of syntax to get your message across clearly and effectively.。