英语语言学大全

现代语言学术语总结Aabbreviation缩写法acculturation语言文化移入acoustic phonetics声学语言学acronym词首字母缩略词address term称谓语addresser发话人addressee受话人adjacency毗邻Adjacency Condition毗邻条件Adjacency Parameter毗邻参数Affix词缀Affixation加词缀法Affricate塞擦音Afroasiatic非亚语系agreement rule一致关系规则allophone音位变体alveolar齿龈音alveolus齿龈angular gyrus角形脑回antonymy反义现象antonym反以词apocope词尾音脱落aphasia失语症aphasic失语症患者applied linguistics应用语言学arbitrariness任意性argument论元articulatory phonetics发音语音学articulatory variable发音变项aspiration送气assimilation同化approximation近似化auditory phonetics听觉语音学Austronesian…语系BBabbling咿呀学语back-formation逆向构词法back vowel后元音Behaviorism行为主义Behaviorist learning theory行为主义学习理论Behaviorist Psychology行为主义心理学Bilabial双唇音Bilingualism双语现象Black English黑人英语Blending混合法Borrowing借用bound morpheme黏着语素brain lateralization大脑左右半球侧化branching node分叉点broad transcription宽式音标Broca’s area布罗卡区Ccaretaker speech保姆语case格Case Condition格条件case marking格标志causative verb使役动词central vowel中元音cerebral cortex大脑皮层cerebral plasticity大脑弹性channel渠道classical language古典语言clipping略写法closed class word封闭类词code代码code-switching代码切换cognate同源词co-hyponyms并列下义词coinage创新词color word色彩词combinational rule组合规则commissives承诺类communicative competence交际能力comparative reconstruction比较重建法competence语言能力complement补语complement construction补足语complementarity互补性反义现象complementary distribution互补分布complex sentence复合句componential analysis成分分析法components of meaning意义成分compound word复合词compounding复合法computational linguistics计算语言学conceptualist view意念观consonant辅音constituent成分constituent structure成分结构constraint制约construction结构content word实词context语境;上下文contextualism语境论Contrastive Analysis对比分析法conversational implicature会话含义co-operative principle合作原则coordinate sentence并列句creativity创造性critical period关键期;临界期cultural transmission文化传播Ddeclaration宣告类deep structure深层结构dental齿音derivation派生法derivational morpheme派生语素derivative派生词descriptive linguistics描写语言学design feature识别特征determiner限定词diachronic linguistics历时语言学diacritics变音符号dialect方言dialectal synonym方言同义词dichotic listening test两耳分听测试diglossia双言现象diphthong复合元音Directionalilty Parameter方位参数Directives指令类Displacement不受时空限制的特性distinctive feature区别性特征D-structure深层结构duality of structur结构二重性e double articulation结构二重性Eembedded clause子句emotive meaning表情意义entity实体epenthesis插入音Error Analysis错误分析法euphemism委婉语evaluative meaning评价意义expressives表达类Ffactive predicate叙述性谓词family tree谱系树feature symbol特征标记features of meaning意义特征finite clause定式字句finite verb定式动词formalize形式化fossilization语言僵化framework框架free morpheme自由语素fricative擦音front vowel前元音function word虚词functional shift功能性转换functor element起功能作用成分Ggender性Generative Grammar生成语法Generative Semantics生成语义学genetic predispotion基因先天条件genetic relationship亲缘关系glide滑音glottal喉音glottis声门graddabl opposites可分等级的反义词grammaticality语法性grammatical meaning语法意义Great V owel Shift元音大变位Hhard palate硬腭head核心词hemispheric dominance for language大脑半球的语言优势hierarchical structure层次结构high variety高层次变体historical comparative linguistics历史比较语言学historical linguistics历史语言学holophrastic sentence独词句homography同形homonymy同音异义；同形异义homophony同音异义hyponymy下义关系hyponym下义词Iidiolect个人语言特点illocutionary act言外形为inconsistency自相矛盾Indo-European印欧语系infinitive marker不定式标记inflection曲折变化inflectional morpheme曲折语素input输入instrumental motivation工具性学习动机intake接受integrativ emotivation介入性学习动机interference干扰interlanguage语际语internalize内在化International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标interpersonmal communication人际交际intuition语调Llabeled (unlabeled) tree diagram加标记树形图labial唇音LAD语言习得机制language acquisition语言习得language behavior语言行为language center语言中枢language faculty语言机制language family语系language perception语言感知language planning语言规划language variation语言变异larynx喉lax vowel松元音level层；平面level of language语言层次lexical category词类lexical structure词汇结构lexicology词汇学lexicon词汇linear structure线性结构linguistic competence语言能力linguistic determinism语言决定论linguistic lateralization语言侧化linguistic performance语言运用linguistic relativism语言相对论linguistic repertoire全部语言变体linguistic taboo禁忌语linguistics语言学liquid流音loan word外来词localization定位locutionary act言内行为low variety低层次变体Mmanner of articulation发音方法matrix clause主句maxim of manner方式准则maxim of quality质量准则maxim of quantity数量准则maxim of relation关联准则meaning意义meaningfulness有意义meaning relation意义关系mentalism心理主义mentalistic theory精神论message信息metathesis语音变位Middle English中世纪英语minimal pair最小对立对Modern English现代英语Monophthong单元音Morpheme词素morphlogical rule形态学规则morphology形态学mother tongue母语Move α移动α规则movement rule移位规则Nnaming theory命名论narrow transcription严式音标narrowing of meaning词义缩小nasal cavity鼻腔nasality鼻音化nasalize鼻音化natural route of development自然发展轨道negator否定词neurolinguist神经语言学家neuron神经元no-place predication空位述谓结构Oobject宾语Old English古英语one-place predication一位述谓结构optimum age最佳学习年龄oral cavity口腔overextension扩展过度overgeneralization概括过度overt thought有声思维Ppalatal腭音paralinguistic副语言学的parameter参数performance语言运用performance error语言运用错误perlocutionary act言后行为pharyngeal cavity咽腔phone音素phoneme音位phonemic contrast音位对立phonetic feature语音特征phonetics语音学phonological rule音位规则phonology音位学phrasal category词组类phrase structure rule短语结构规则pidgin洋泾浜语place of articulation发音部位plosive爆破音polysemy多义性postpone后移prepose前移postvocalic元音后的pragmatics语用学predicate谓语predication述谓结构predication analysis述谓结构分析prefix前缀presprictive (grammar)规定语法presupposition前提proposition命题prepositional content命题内容protolanguage原始语psycholinguistics心理语言学puberty青春期Qqualifying predication修饰性述谓结构RReceived Pronunciation标准发音Recursiveness循环性Reference所指语义referring expression所指名词register语域relational opposites关系反义词representation表达；呈现representatives阐述类response反应retroflex卷舌音rewrite rule重写规则rounded vowel圆唇元音SSAE标准美国英语sapir-Whorf hypothesis…假设second language acquisition第二语言习得segment切分成分semantic anomaly语义异体semantic deviation语义变异semantic broadening语义广义化semantic narrowing语义狭义化semantic shift语义演变semantics语义学semantic structure语义结构semantic triangle语义三角sense意义sequential rule序列规则setting背景；环境sexist language性别歧视语sibilant咝音simple sentence简单句Sino-Tibetan汉藏语系situational dialect语域方言sociolect社会方言sociolinguistics社会语言学soft palate软腭species-specific capacity物种特有能力specifier指示语spectrograph频谱仪speech act言语行为speech community言语社区speech variety言语变体S-structure表层结构standard language标准语stem词干stimulus刺激stop爆破音stress重音structural constituency结构成分性structural linguistics结构主义语言学subject主语subordinate predication主从述谓性结构subscript下标subvocal predication无声言语suffix后缀superordinate上坐标词suprasegmental feature超切分特征surface structure表层结构synchronic linguistics共时语言synonymy同义词syntactic ambiguity句法歧义syntactic category句法类型syntactic rule句法规则syntax句法Ttaboo word禁忌词target language目标语tautology同义反复teeth ridge齿龈隆骨telegraphic speech电报式言语tense and aspect时和体tense vowel紧元音tone音调；声调tone language声调语言topic话题；主题transfer转移Transformational-Generative Grammar转换生成语法transformational rule转换规则tree diagram树形图two-place predication双位述谓结构Uunaspirated不送气underextension扩展不足Universal Grammar普遍语法Utterance话语utterance meaning话语意义uvula小舌Vvalidity有效性variable变项velar软腭音velum软腭vernacular本地话；本国语vocal cord声带voiced浊音化的voiceless不带音的，清音的voicing带音化，浊音化vowel元音WWernicke’s area韦尼克区widening of meaning词义扩大XX-bar theory X标杆理论。

语言学术语(英—汉对照）表Glossary and IndexAabbreviation 缩写词，略语 3。

3.1Abercrombie 10.3。

2ablative 夺格，离格 4.1.1abstractness 抽象性 1。

3.2accent 重音（符）2.4。

4；2.4.5accuracy 正确性 11。

6.4accusative 宾格 4。

1。

1achievement test 成绩测试 11。

6.3acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 1。

7。

1；2.1 acquisition 习得 6.1.2acronym 缩略语 3。

3.1action process 动作过程 12。

2。

3actor 动作者 4.4.2；12。

2.3addition 添加 3.3。

2address form 称呼形式 7.2。

3addressee 受话人 1。

4；9。

4.1addresser 发话人 1。

4;9.4。

1adjective 形容词 3.1.2；4。

1。

1；5.5。

2adjunct 修饰成分；附加语 12.2.3adverb 副词 3.1。

2affix 词缀 3。

2.1affix hopping 词缀跳跃 4.3。

1affixation词缀附加法 7。

1.4affricate 塞擦音 2.4。

3；2。

4.5；2.9.1agreement 一致关系 4。

1.3airstream 气流 2alliteration 头韵 9.3。

2；9。

3。

6allomorph 词/语素变体 3.2。

4；4。

3。

1allophone 音位变体 2。

8allophonic variation 音位变体 2.8。

3allophony音位变体现象 2。

8。

3alveolar ridge 齿龈 2。

2alveolar 齿龈音 2。

4。

4；2.4。

5ambiguity 歧义 4.2。

2；4。

3.1；6.2.3；8.2。

2;8。

100个最常用的语言学术语（“欧美语言学”课）1.语言language2.语言学linguistics3.语言学家linguist；philologist4.语法grammar5.语法单位grammatical unit6.语法形式grammatical form7.语法意义grammatical meaning8.语法手段grammatical device9.语法范畴grammatical category10.元音vowel11.辅音consonant12.语文学philology13.传统语法traditional grammar14.历史比较语言学historical comparative linguistics15.转换生成语法transformational generative grammar16.结构主义语言学structural linguistics17.应用语言学applied linguistic18.方言dialect19.语言教学language teaching20.语言规划language planning21.语言政策language policy22.语言学习策略language learning strategy23.发现程序discovery procedure24.语境context；language environment25.中介语interlanguage26.音位phoneme27.音节syllable28.语素morpheme29.词法morphology30.句法syntax31.交际法communicative approach32.认知cognition33.习得acquisition34.第二语言second language35.第二语言习得second language acquisition （SLA）36.自由语素free morpheme37.黏着语素bound morpheme38.复合词compound word39.普遍语法universal grammar，UG40.词类part of speech41.直接法direct method42.认同identification43.语言能力language competence44.语言机能language faculty45.交际能力communicative competence46.人工语言artificial language47.外语foreign language48.术语terminology；technical terms49.比较comparison50.对比语言学contrastive linguistics51.词典学lexicography52.母语mother tongue；native language53.语感linguistic intuition54.语料库corpus55.句子sentence56.前缀prefix57.结构structure58.希腊语Greek59.拉丁语Latin60.梵语Sanskrit61.语音学phonetics62.词汇学lexicology；lexics63.语用学pragmatics64.语源学（词源学）etymology65.词典学lexicography66.地理语言学geographic linguistics67.儿童语言学the study of child language68.翻译学translatology69.机器翻译machine translation70.计算语言学computational linguistics71.目的语target language72.普通语言学general linguistics73.社会语言学sociolinguistics74.实验语音学experimental phonetics75.缩略语abbreviation76.统计语言学statistical linguistics77.外来词/外语词loanword；foreign words78.网络语言cyber language；language used on the Internet79.文化语言学cultural linguistics80.心理语言学psycholinguistics81.音译词transliterated word82.语言信息处理language information processing83.语言哲学philosophy of language84.自然语言natural language85.格case86.逻辑学logic；logistics87.修辞学rhetoric88.词word89.相关性relativity90.黏着agglutination91.语言类型学linguistic typology92.音位学phonology；phonemics；phonematics93.构拟reconstruction94.组合关系syntactic relations；syntagma95.聚合关系paradigmatic relations96.功能function97.变体variant98.屈折inflection99.派生derivation100.直接成分immediate constituents （IC）。

语言学词汇分类汇总语言学词汇分类汇总（按字母顺序排列）abbreviation缩写法acculturation语言文化移入acousticphonetics声学语言学acronym词首字母缩略词addressterm称谓语addresser发话人addressee受话人adjacency毗邻adjacencycondition紧邻条件adjacencyparameter紧邻参数affix词缀affixation加词缀法affricate塞擦音afro-asiatic非亚语系agreementrule一致关系规则allophone音位变体alveolar齿龈音alveolus齿龈angulargyrus角形脑回antonymy反义现象antonym夏斯利词apocope词尾音脱落aphasia失语症aphasic失语症患者appliedlinguistics应用领域语言学arbitrariness任意性argument论元articulatoryphonetics发音语音学articulatoryvariable发音变项aspiration送气assimilation同化approximation近似化auditoryphonetics听觉语音学austronesian…语系babbling咿呀学语back-formation逆向构词法backvowel后元音behaviorism行为主义behavioristlearningtheory行为主义自学理论behavioristpsychology行为主义心理学bilabial双唇音bilingualism双语现象blackenglish黑人英语blending混合法borrowing借予boundmorpheme黏着语素brainlateralization大脑左右半球侧化branchingnode锯齿点broadtranscription宽式音标broca’sarea布罗卡区caretakerspeech保姆语case格casecondition格条件casemarking格标志causativeverb使役动词centralvowel中元音cerebralcortex大脑皮层cerebralplasticity大脑弹性channel渠道classicallanguage古典语言clipping略读法closedclassword封闭类词code代码code-switching代码转换cognate同源词co-hyponyms并列下义词coinage创新词colorword色彩词concept概念conceptualistview意念观consonant辅音constituent成分constituentstructure成分结构constraint制约construction结构contentword实词context语境;上下文contextualism语境论contrastiveanalysis对比分析法conversationalimplicature会话含义co-operativeprinciple合作原则coordinatesentence并列句creativity创造性criticalperiod关键期;临界期culturaltransmission文化传播declaration宣告类deepstructure深层结构dental齿音derivation衍生法derivationalmorpheme派生语素derivative派生词descriptivelinguistics描绘语言学designfeature辨识特征determiner限定词diachroniclinguistics历时语言学diacritics变音符号dialect方言dialectalsynonym方言同义词dichoticlisteningtest两耳分听测试diglossia双言现象diphthong复合元音directionaliltyparameter方位参数directives指令类displacement不受时空限制的特性distinctivefeature区别性特征d-structure深层结构dualityofstructur结构二重性edoublearticulation结构二重性embeddedclause子句emotivemeaning表情意义entailment含义entity实体epenthesis填入音erroranalysis错误分析法euphemism直截了当语evaluativemeaning评价意义expressives表达类factivepredicate叙述性谓词familytree谱系树featuresymbol特征标记featuresofmeaning意义特征finiteclause定式字句finiteverb定式动词formalize公理化fossilization语言理性化framework框架freemorpheme民主自由语素fricative擦音frontvowel前元音functionword虚词functionalshift功能性转换functorelement起功能作用成分gender性generativegrammar分解成语法generativesemantics分解成语义学geneticpredispotion基因先天条件geneticrelationship亲缘关系glide滑音glottal 喉音glottis声门graddablopposites可分等级的反义词grammaticality语法性grammaticalmeaning语法意义greatvowelshift元音小变位hardpalate硬腭head核心词hemisphericdominancelanguage大脑半球的语言优势hierarchicalstructure层次结构highvariety高层次变体historicallinguistics历史语言学holophrasticsentence独词句homography同形homonymy同音异义；同形异义homophony同音异义hyponymy下义关系hyponym下义词idiolect个人语言特点illocutionaryact言外形为inconsistency自相矛盾indo-european印欧语系infinitivemarker不定式标记inflection曲折变化inflectionalmorpheme坎坷语素input输出instrumentalmotivation工具性学习动机intake接受integrativemotivation介入性学习动机interference干扰interlanguage语际语internalize内在化internationalphoneticalphabet国际音标labeled(unlabeled)treediagram加标记树形图labial唇音lad语言习得机制languageacquisition语言习得languagebehavior语言犯罪行为languagecenter语言中枢languagefaculty语言机制languagefamily语系languageperception语言认知languageplanning语言规划languagevariation语言变异larynx喉laxvowel松元音level层；平面leveloflanguage语言层次lexicalcategory词类lexicalstructure词汇结构lexicology词汇学lexicon词汇mannerofarticulation发音方法matrixclause主句maximofmanner方式准则maximofquality质量准则maximofquantity数量准则maximofrelation关联准则meaning 意义meaningfulness有意义meaningrelation意义关系mentalism心理主义mentalistictheory精神论message信息metathesis语音变位middleenglish中世纪英语minimalpair最小对立对modernenglish现代英语monophthong单元音morpheme词素morphlogicalrule形态学规则morphology形态学mothertongue母语moveα移动α规则movementrule移位规则namingtheory命名论narrowtranscription严式音标narrowingofmeaning词义缩小nasalcavity鼻腔nasality鼻音化nasalize鼻音化naturalrouteofdevelopment自然发展轨道negator否定词neurolinguist神经语言学家neuron神经元no-placepredication空位述谓结构object宾语oldenglish古英语one-placepredication一位述谓结构optimumage最佳自学年龄oralcavity口腔overextension拓展过度overgeneralization归纳过度overtthought有声思维palatal腭音paralinguistic副语言学的parameter参数performance语言运用performanceerror语言运用错误perlocutionaryact言后行为pharyngealcavity咽腔phone音素phoneme音位phonemiccontrast音位矛盾phoneticfeature语音特征phonetics语音学phonologicalrule音位规则phonology音位学phrasalcategory词组类phrasestructurerule短语结构规则pidgin洋泾浜语placeofarticulation发音部位plosive爆破音polysemy多义性postpone后移prepose前移postvocalic元音后的pragmatics语用学predicate谓语predication述谓结构predicationanalysis述谓结构分析prefix前缀presprictive(grammar)规定语法presupposition前提proposition命题prepositionalcontent命题内容protolanguage原始语psycholinguistics心理语言学puberty青春期qualifyingpredication润色性述谓结构receivedpronunciation标准发音recursiveness循环性reference所指语义referringexpression所指名词register语域relationalopposites关系反义词representation抒发；呈现出representatives阐述类response反应retroflex卷舌音rewriterule重写规则roundedvowel圆唇元音sae标准美国英语sapir-whorfhypothesis…假设secondlanguageacquisition第二语言习得segment切分成分semanticanomaly语义异体semanticdeviation语义变异semanticbroadening语义广义化semanticnarrowing语义狭义化semanticshift语义演变semantics语义学semanticstructure语义结构semantictriangle语义三角sense意义sequentialrule序列规则setting背景；环境sexistlanguage性别歧视语sibilant咝音simplesentence简单句sino-tibetan汉藏语系situationaldialect语域方言sociolect社会方言sociolinguistics社会语言学softpalate软腭species-specificcapacity物种特有能力structuralconstituency结构成分性structurallinguistics结构主义语言subject主语subordinatepredication主从述谓性结构subscript下标subvocalpredication无声言语suffix后缀superordinate上坐标词suprasegmentalfeature逊于切割特征surfacestructure表层结构synchroniclinguistics共时语言synonymy同义词syntacticambiguity句法歧义syntacticcategory句法类型syntacticrule句法规则syntax句法tabooword禁忌词targetlanguage目标语tautology同义反复teethridge齿龈隆骨telegraphicspeech电报式言语tenseandaspect时和体tensevowel紧元音tone音调；声调tonelanguage声调语言topic话题；主题transfer转移transformational-generativegrammar切换分解成语法transformationalrule转换规则treediagram树形图two-placepredication双位述谓结构unaspirated不声母underextension拓展严重不足universalgrammar广泛语法utterance话语utterancemeaning话语意义uvula小舌validity有效性variable变项velar软腭音velum软腭vernacular本地话；本国语vocalcord声带voiced浊音化的voiceless不拎音的，清音的voicing拎音化，浊音化vowel元音wernicke’sarea韦尼克区wideningofmeaning词义扩大x-bartheoryx标杆理论。

Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。

Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences→semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language useSociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychology Applied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors. Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett②tone（词汇层面）English is not a tone languageChinese is a typical tone language:Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the fourth fall③intonation（句子层面）English has four basic types of intonation:The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone问题：What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?Speech and writingSpeechBecause from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.问题：What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Chapter 3 Morphology 词法形态学1 定义和知识点：①the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure②the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.③it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.④it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaning and syntactic function.⑤four facets:Sounds (phonology)Constructions (syntax)Meanings (semantics)Forms of words2 词性分类①open class words:名、动、形、副are the content words of a language②closed class words: 连、介、冠、代are small and stable since few new wordsare added3 词素有关❶ Morpheme: 词素构成单词的最小意义单位，包括声音和意义，abstract units(任意性)❷ Morph: 形素the sound of a morpheme 声音❸ Allomorphs: 语素变体The variant forms of a morpheme4 分类morphemes① Free morpheme(自由词素): A morpheme which can be a word by itself② bound morpheme(粘着词素)：A morpheme that must be attached to another one③ lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes(派生词素,包括前后缀): They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes④ inflectional morphemes(屈折词素)：词类不发生变化5 单词定义：WordA word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are6 lexical meaningSense and referenceSense 定义:It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. (Dictionary compilers are interested in)每个单词都有它的意义（sense）Reference 定义：It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.不是所有单词都有语义（reference）Major sense relations:❶synonymy 同义关系synonyms①dialectal synonyms 方言同义词（British English and American English）Girl------lass/lassie (Scottish dialect)Liquor-------whiskey (Irish dialect)B AAutumn fallLift elevatorLuggage baggageLorry truckPetrol gasolineFlat apartmentWindscreen windshieldTorch flashlight②stylistic synonymsWords having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formalityE.g. old man/daddy/dad/father/male parentStart/begin/commenceKid/child/offspringKick the bucket/pop off/die/pass away/decease③synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluation meaningCollaborator / accomplice④collocational synonyms 短语同义词Accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke…forRotten tomatoes/addled eggs/rancid bacon/sour milk⑤semantically different synonyms语义上不同的同义词Amaze/astoundDrift/float❷polysemy 一词多义❸homonymy 同音异义①identical in sound(homophones): Rain/reign night/knight piece/peace leak/leek②identical in spelling(homographs): Bow/bow tear/tear lead/lead③identical in both sound and spelling(complete homonyms): Fast/fast scale/scale❹hyponymy 下义关系①It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.②superordinate 上坐标词③hyponyms 下义词④co-hyponyms 共同下义词E.g. Flower: rose/tulip/carnation/lily/morning gloryAnimal: dog/cat/tiger/lion/wolf/elephant/fox/bearFurniture: bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/settee❺antonymy 反义关系①gradable antonyms 等级反义词②complementary antonyms 互补反义词（不能共存，非此即彼）③relational opposites 反向反义关系（相反的两个极端但可共存）7 sense relations between sentences①X is synonymous with Y.(X真，Y真；X假，Y假)②X is inconsistent with Y.(X 真，Y假；X假，Y真)③X entails Y.(X真，Y一定真；X假，Y可真可假)④X presupposes Y.(X真，Y一定真；X假，Y仍为真)⑤X is a contradiction. (X永远假)⑥X is semantically anomalous.语义破格句8 analysis of meaning❶componential analysis----a way to analyze lexical meaning(成分分析) Semantic features语义特征：The word “man” comprises the features of +HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE❷predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning(述谓结构分析)The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up the meanings of all its constituent words.There are two aspects to sentence meaningGrammatical meaning: grammatical well-formednessThe grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.Semantic meaning:Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(选择限制).(constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.)注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比Predication analysis:proposed by the British linguist G. Leech.Predication: it is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s)(变元) and predicate(谓词)E.g. TOM(SMOKE)KID, APPLE(LIKE)(BE HOT)(SNOW)Argument(s)(变元)定义：。

语言学总结一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征：Designoffeaturesof?language??任意性?arbitrariness?指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系??二重性?duality?指语言由两层结构组成??创造性?creativity?指语言可以被创造??移位性?displacement?指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能（不是很重要）??????????????3????????????4??计5????????语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用：performance真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支??发音语音学articulatoryphonetics研究语言的产生??声学语言学acousticphonetics研究语音的物理属性??听觉语音学auditoryphonetics研究语言怎样被感知2IPA（国际音标）是由danielJones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimalpairs2、音位phoneme3?音位变体allophones4?互补分布complementarydistribution5?自由变体?freevariation6?区别特征?distinctivefeatures7?超音段特征suprasegmentalfeature??音节syllable重音stress语调tone声调intonation四形态学1?词的构成??语素morpheme自由语素freemorpheme粘着语素boundmorpheme主位与述位themeandrheme主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known，述位：与说话者内容有关的内容whatthespeakerstatesabout 7????????交际力communicativeanddynamism简称CD指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度六、语义学1?利奇的意义七分法Leechandhis7typesofmeaning??概念意义conceptualmeaning字面意义??内涵意义connotativemeaning实际交往过程中所指的事物??社会意义??情感意义affectivemeaning??反射意义reflectivemeaning由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义??搭配意义collocativemeaning??主位意义thematicmeaning通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义2????????指称论referentialtheory指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论3????????语义三角semantictriangle奥格登和理查兹提出Symbol或form指语言要素（如词和语素），thelinguisticelements能指thought指概念concept所指reference指经验世界中的物体theobjectinthewordofexperience涵义sense语言形式的意义○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则??○四个准则fourcategoriesofmaxims数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则3????????后格赖斯时期的发展○关联理论：relevancetheory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为everyactofostensive(直接表明的)communicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance○数量关系和关系原则theQ-andR-principles由霍恩LaurenceHorn提出八现代语言学理论和流派1?索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”2?布拉格学派PragueSchool??贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能??突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学??突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念4????????伦敦学派theLundonSchool:系统语言学和功能语言学创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。