日耳曼语言学导论3.Phonetik und Phonologie

Chapter 2 The Sounds of LanguageI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and theydistinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.2. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.3.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.4.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.5.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms ofthe amount of information conveyed.6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.7.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the partof the tongue that is raised the highest.8.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which theconsonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.9.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tonguein the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.10.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels,semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1.Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible forvarieties of articulation than any other.2.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in termsof p_______ of articulation.3.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speechsound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.4.S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of thesegments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.5.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language arecalled s____ rules.6.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broadtranscription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.7.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wordin isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.8.P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particularlanguage and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.9.T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.10.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds ofstress: word stress and s_________ stress.III. Define the terms below:1. phoneme2.allophone3. International Phonetic Alphabet4. intonation5. auditory phonetics6. acoustic phonetics7. minimal pairIV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:1.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?2.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.3.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?Suggested AnswersI. 1. F 2. F 3. F 4.T 5. T 6. T 7. F 8. F 9. T 10. FII.1. tongue2. place3. stop4. Suprasegmental5. sequential6. narrow7. intonation8. Phonology9. Tone 10. sentenceIII.1.Phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctivevalue. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.2.Allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in differentphonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.International phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally acceptedsystem of phonetic transcription.4.Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather thanthe word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.5.Auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. Itstudies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.6.Acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. Itstudies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.7.Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for onesound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.IV.1. They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it isinterested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech soundsin a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2. 1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import andim`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: 'blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives, adverbs, etc. arepronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: Whenspoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.3. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting onesound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.。

《语言学导论》中文笔记语言学导论中文笔记(完整)什么是语言学?- 语言学是研究语言的科学- 研究语言的性质、结构和功能- 研究语言的发展、变化和使用语言学的分支1. 语音学: 研究语音的产生、传播和认知2. 词汇学: 研究单词的构成、意义和使用3. 句法学: 研究句子的结构和语法规则4. 语义学: 研究词语和句子的意义5. 语用学: 研究语言在特定情境中的使用方式语言的特点1. 语言是人类特有的沟通工具2. 语言具有拟态性，即能通过语言表达事物的形状、动作等特征3. 语言具有符号性，即语言中的单词和语法符号代表着特定的意义4. 语言是可以研究和教授的，通过语言能够传递文化和知识语言的功能1. 意指功能: 通过语言表达思想、情感和意图2. 表示功能: 通过语言描述和描绘事物、现象和过程3. 交际功能: 通过语言实现沟通和交流4. 记忆功能: 通过语言记录和传递信息5. 心理功能: 通过语言影响和塑造个体的心理活动语言与文化- 语言是文化的一部分，反映了社会和文化的价值观和观念- 不同的语言体现了不同的文化方式和思维方式- 语言的变化和发展与文化的变迁和演变相互关联语言的变化和发展- 语言是动态的，不断发展和变化- 语言变化的原因包括：社会文化变迁、语言接触和语言演化- 语言变化常常由语言使用者的创新和共同接受推动语言的使用- 语言使用涉及语言使用者的语法知识、语境理解和交际目的- 语言的使用方式受到社会、文化、地域等因素的影响- 语言的使用也受到个体因素和语言使用者之间的关系影响以上是《语言学导论》的简要笔记，介绍了语言学的定义、分支、特点、功能、与文化关系、变化和使用等方面的内容。

对于进一步学习语言学的人来说，这份笔记能够提供一个全面的概览，并为深入研究打下基础。

《语言学理论》讲授提纲必读书目：索绪尔《普通语言学教程》叶斯帕森《语法哲学》萨丕尔《语言论》布龙菲尔德《语言论》乔姆斯基《句法结构》第一讲西方语言学发展概述一．语言研究的萌芽与发展：1．神话传说阶段：公元前五世纪希腊历史学家西罗多德（Herodotus）《历史》《旧约全书》中的《创世纪》弗拉塞尔（Frazer）[英国]《旧约全书中的民间传说》《吠陀》（印度最古的文献）中的《教义集》“以通神明之理，以类万物之情”“黄帝之史仓颉，见鸟兽蹄迒之迹，知分理之可相异也，初造书契。

”——许慎《说文解字叙》2．世界语言研究的三大发源地：公元前四、五世纪古希腊：柏拉图的对话录《克拉底洛篇》古印度：《波尼尼经》（又名《八章书》）/ “人类智慧的丰碑之一”（布龙）中国：“名无固实，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。

名无固实，约之以命实，约定俗成谓之实名。

名有固善，径易而不拂，谓之善名。

”（荀子《正名篇》）二．西方语言学的发展阶段：（见第二页）第二讲古希腊罗马的语言研究一．古希腊哲学家的语言研究：1．公元前四世纪，关于名称与事物关系的争论。

（柏拉图《克拉底洛篇》）克拉底洛：名称由性质产生，语言自然具有意义。

赫尔摩根：名称指称事物由于惯例，使用者达成的协议可以改变。

苏格拉底：论述两种观点的优缺点。

如：catastrophe(大祸) = cat(猫) + astro(天体) + fee(费用) rho 音表示运动。

但例外由惯例造成。

反映了“自然派”（柏拉图、斯多葛派）与“惯例派”（亚里士多德及其学生）的不同看法。

引起探索词源的浓厚兴趣。

1．按时间划分： 2.按每一时期的主要倾向划分： 500B.C.斯多依葛学派（本质派，不规则派）语文学希语法创始人：齐诺（Zeno）上腊特拉克斯（Thrax）亚历山大里亚学派（习俗派，类推派）时《语法术》创始人：阿里斯塔库斯（Aristarchus）期齐诺多塔斯（Zenodotus）300B.C.罗语法古马瓦罗（Varro）代表：多纳塔斯（Donatus）时（区分屈折普列希安（Priscian）期和派生）500A.D.“纯理语法”中代表：孔切斯（William of Conches）只研究拉丁语海里阿斯（Peter Helias）古贝肯（Roger Bacon）1400A.D.经验主义：[英] 洛克（Locke）传统语法文培根（Bacon）艺收集语言材料理性主义：[法] 笛卡尔（Descartes）复出现描写语法 [法] 波尔罗瓦雅学派兴历史主义观点“普遍唯理语法”1800A.D.[德] 洪堡特十历史比较法 [丹] 拉斯克历史比较九语音演变规律 [德] 葆朴、格里姆、施莱歇尔语言学世构拟原始语别 [德] 新语法学派纪“谱系树” [法] 社会学派1900A.D.现代语言学诞生 [瑞] 索绪尔《普通语言学教程》结构主义思潮 [匈] 布拉格功能学派结构语言学二 [丹] 哥本哈根语符学派十 [美] 描写语言学派世萨丕尔、布龙菲尔德纪转换生成理论 [美] 转换生成语法学派生成语言学乔姆斯基《句法理论》2．传统语法范畴体系的确立。

Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature （识别特征） refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal systemof communication。

2. Productivity（能产性） refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantitiesof sentences in their native language。

3. arbitrariness （任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between alinguistic form and its meaning.4. symbol （符号） Symbol refers to something such as an object, word， or sound that represents something else by associationor convention.5. discreteness (离散性） Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement(不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about thingsthat are not in the immediate situations of its users。

《语言学导论》教学大纲一、课程基本信息二、课程性质、地位和任务本课程以英语专业高年级学生为主要对象，属英语专业知识课程之一，是选修其他语言学分支课程的先决条件，也是选修其他综合文化素质课程的基础。

三、课程基本要求本课程将为人类语言本质的基本问题提供一些解答，使学生了解人类语言研究的丰富成果，提高其对语言的社会、人文、经济、科技以及个人修养等方面重要性的认识，以多种方式让学生体会领悟人类语言是一个极度复杂却仍有规可循的、迷人的心智系统，向学生展示语言学和其他学科如心理学、社会学、哲学等学科间的关系如何日趋密切以致最终逐渐发展成了一门内容浩瀚、涉及面广的交叉科学。

在对语言和语言使用的方方面面进行科学、系统的分析探讨过程中，着意培养学生的语言意识和研究兴趣，使其善于对语言现象进行观察和思考，提高语言使用和研究能力，发展以概念分析为基本的逻辑思维习惯，培养提高科学分析问题的能力和辩证的理性思维，全面提高素质。

具体而言，通过本课程的学习，学生能初步了解或掌握语言学的基本知识，了解语言的本质、功能和机制，掌握语言的语音、词汇、语法、语义规律，认识语言与社会、文化、思维、认知、语言习得等的关系，学会分析语料，了解如何进行语言学研究，由此为进一步的语言学习或研究奠定基础。

尤其是，通过本课程的学习，学生能了解语言的本质、掌握语言习得、特别是外语的教与学的实质及相关研究的科学成果，领会语言学各个层面的科研进展对外语教学的启示，以便更好地从事英语学习和教学。

四、课程内容及学时分配本课程包括：课程导学、引言、语音学与音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学、话语分析、社会语言学、文体学、心理语言学、认知语言学和应用语言学等共十三个部分。

各部分内容之间有相对的独立性，又存在有机的联系。

授课时间为一学期共18周，每周授课一次两个学时，共计36个学时。

具体课程内容与学时分配如下（各部分所列详细内容为其要点内容）：第一部分课程导学（Course Guide）,1学时：为何要学语言学？如何学？教学规划第二部分导言（Preliminaries），2学时：语言的定义、语言的本质特征、语言的功能、语言学的性质及研究范围、语言学简史第三部分语音学与音位学（Phonetics and Phonology），3学时：语音学的范围、英语语音的描述与分类、音素、音位学的范围、音位分析、超音位分析第四部分形态学（Morphology），3学时：词的定义、词位、词素、构词法第五部分句法学（Syntax），3学时：句法研究的性质与范围、词类、转换生成语法、功能句法第六部分语义学（Semantics），3学时：语义学研究范围、词义分析、词之间的意义关系、句子与命题、句子意义分析、句之间的意义关系、语义变化机制第七部分语用学（Pragmatics），3学时：语用学研究范围、指示语、预设、言语行为理论、合作原则、会话含意理论、会话分析第八部分话语分析（Discourse analysis），3学时：话语分析研究范围、信息结构、衔接与连贯、话语标记语、多模态语篇分析、批评话语分析第九部分社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），3学时：社会语言学研究范围、语言变体、语言与性别、语码选择、语言规划、社会语言学研究方法第十部分文体学（Stylistics），3学时：研究范围、文体标记、文体分析的语言学方法、实用文体学第十一部分心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），3学时：语言产生、语言理解、语言习得第十二部分认知语言学（Cognitive linguistics），3学时：范畴与范畴化、概念隐喻、概念转喻、意象图式、识解、象似性第十三部分应用语言学（Applied Linguistics），3学时：二语习得、错误分析、中介语、二语教学、语言测试五、课程教材及主要参考资料教材：文旭，《语言学导论》（Linguistics: An Introduction）。

语言与交际导论Chapter 3: 语音学和音位描写(phonetics and phonemic transcription)一、相关知识1、发音所涉及的生理学(physiology of speech production)发音过程所涉及的部位有咽喉，口腔和鼻腔，以及一百块肌肉直接和后续的拉动。

2、发音过程中从肺流出的气流(airflows from the lungs during speech)。

发音过程中肺部流出的气流与呼吸的不同点：1、气流数量三或四倍于呼吸；2、肺部气流的呼吸节奏变化更急促，表现为吸气更快，呼气更为持久(more drawn out)；3、发音过程中每个时间单位中的呼吸次数更多；4、在咽喉和口腔中气流会受阻或封闭，而平稳呼吸则是未受阻的(unimpeded)。

3、隔膜(diaphragm)：一片将腹腔(abdominal region)和胸腔(chest cavity) 隔开来的肌肉组织。

所以，隔膜降低，胸腔随之扩大。

肌肉收缩，肋骨(rib)上升。

肺紧贴胸腔壁，当胸腔扩大（不论是因为隔膜收缩还是肋骨上升导致），肺随之变大，接着，空气流入，当吸气过程完成时气流达到顶点。

4、喉(larynx)在发音过程中的作用喉是气流从肺部出来第一个受阻的地方，喉位于气管(trachea)的最上端。

而这种受阻则是受声带(vocal fold, or, vocal cord)张弛的影响。

当平稳呼吸(quiet breathing)时，声带处于放松状态，允许气流从肺部自由出入；而当吞咽时，声带拉紧，阻止外来物进入肺部。

对发音而言，最重要的是声带能振动，能导致声带快速振动的音我们则成为带声音(voicing, or, phonation)，而振动频率(frequency)决定了音调或音高(pitch)。

因为成年男性声带较女性和儿童的大，所以振动频率低。

5、声道(the vocal tract)声道位于声带上端，包括咽(pharynx)，口腔(oral cavity)，和鼻腔(nasal cavity)，是人类语言的发声的地方。

Chapter2TheSoundsofLanguage_语言学导论Chapter 2 The Sounds of LanguageI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and theydistinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.2. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.3.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.4.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.5.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms ofthe amount of information conveyed.6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.7.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the partof the tongue that is raised the highest.8.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which theconsonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.9.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tonguein the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.10.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels,semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1.Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible forvarieties of articulation than any other.2.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in termsof p_______ of articulation.3.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speechsound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.4.S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of thesegments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.5.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language arecalled s____ rules.6.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broadtranscription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.7.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wordin isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.8.P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particularlanguage and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.9.T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.10.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds ofstress: word stress and s_________ stress.III. Define the terms below:1. phoneme2.allophone3. International Phonetic Alphabet4. intonation5. auditory phonetics6. acoustic phonetics7. minimal pairIV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:1.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?2.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.3.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?Suggested AnswersI. 1. F 2. F 3. F 4.T 5. T 6. T 7. F 8. F 9. T 10. FII.1. tongue2. place3. stop4. Suprasegmental5. sequential6. narrow7. intonation8. Phonology9. Tone 10. sentenceIII.1.Phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctivevalue. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is nota sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.2.Allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in differentphonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.International phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally acceptedsystem of phonetic transcription.4.Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather thanthe word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.5.Auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. Itstudies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.6.Acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. Itstudies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.7.Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for onesound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.IV.1. They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it isinterested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech soundsin a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2. 1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import andim`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements.A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: 'blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives, adverbs, etc. arepronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessivepronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: Whenspoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.3. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting onesound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.。

《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。