应用语言学重点知识汇总

应用语言学复习（之二）应用语言学练习（之二）１、什么是第一语言？第一语言(first 1anguage)是指一个人出生之后最先接触并获得的语言。

一个人的第一语言通常是他的母语。

２、什么是母语？对这个问题目前还存在着不同的看法。

①母语是指“一个人最初学会的一种语言，在一般情况下是本民族的标准语或某一种方言”。

这个意思通常被译作“mother language”。

②母语是“指本民族的语言”。

这个意思通常被译成“native language”。

③母语还可以解释为“一个语系中作为其他语言共同起源语的语言”，如拉丁语被认为是法语、意大利语、罗马尼亚语等所有罗曼语的母语。

这个意思则通常被译成“parent language”。

④我们认为，母语就是指父母乃至多代以前一直沿用下来的语言，母语具有继承性，它体现了人们世代的语言关系。

一个人出生之后通常是使用并继承了母语，母语通常也就成为他的第一语言。

3、第一语言和母语的是什么关系？①一个人从小接触并获得的第一语言一般都是从父母一辈习得的，他继承了前辈的语言“母语”，这是最常见的情况，因此，人们通常把第一语言和母语等同起来。

②其实尽管第一语言与母语之间的关系十分密切，但二者也有所区别。

第一语言和母语是两个不同的概念，第一语言可能是母语，也可能不是母语。

就多数人而言，母语是他们的第一语言。

但由于种种原因，有些人习得的第一语言并非母语。

母语失却现象的存在，也有力地说明了第一语言和母语的不同。

在内涵上，第一语言指的是获得语言的顺序，而母语不完全是一个获得语言的顺序问题；在外延上，二者所指称的对象是交叉关系。

第一语言是语言学的概念，而母语则更多地牵涉到民族学问题。

４、本族语和非本族语的是怎么区分的？是按照言语社团、通常是按民族的界限来区分的。

本族语是指语言习得者自己的民族所使用的语言，也称民族语。

非本族语是指本民族以外的语言，可能是外语，也可能是本国其他民族的语言。

５、第一语言和本族语是怎么样的关系？一个人儿时从父母那里习得本民族语言，这时，他的第一语言和本族语是一致的；但一个人儿时从父母或当地社团那里习得外族语言，这时他的第一语言就不是本族语，出现了第一语言与本族语分离现象。

1.Applied linguistics aimed to solve problems in various fields by applying the knowledge of linguistics.2.The nature of applied linguistics:Independent Interdisciplinary Applied scienceEmpirical science♥3.名：Non-cognitive VS Cognitive:Non-cognitive：1)refers to “the change in a behavioral tendency” as the result of repeated reinforced practice of stimulus-response.2) refers to the change of external behavior 外部行为变化3) is mechanical connection between stimuli and responsesCognitive:1) is the conceptual process experienced in the association between stimuli and responses2) refers to the acquisition and organization of meaning3) is a process of getting to know the outside world through understanding and deduction 推断演绎4. learning includes not only deliberately acquired new associations (intentional learning)意向学习but also those acquired without conscious awareness. (incidental learning)附带学习5．Philosophical bases of learning theories:The pessimistic view 悲观论The hedonistic view 快乐主义The optimistic view 乐观论The tabula-rasa or “blank-slate”view: in behaviorism, the starting point for first language acquisition was sometimes assumed to be zero.( a blank slate) 白板论6. 1.Pavlov’s classical conditioning❖Experiment :Salivation reflex in dogs❖Food; sound of bell/light; salivate❖Contiguity and repetition2.Thorndike’s instrumental conditioning 工具性条件反射❖Experiment :Trial and error behavior of animals❖Trial and error :试错法，尝试错误说：一种通过尝试各式各样的方法或理论直到错误被充分地减少或杜绝从而达到正确的解决方法或令人满意的结果的方法Three laws of learning:❖Law of readiness：准备率（感兴趣）❖Law of exercise：练习率Repetition of a conditioned response would strengthen the bond between the stimulus situation and the response.❖Law of effect：效果率It states that “when a modifiable connection is made and is accompanied by or followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the connection is increased.”3.Hul’ SOR theory:S-O-R: O: intervening variables中间变量. His major assumption involved the inner states in people. It is used to signify the importance of intervening happenings in the organism.♥7.简：Stimulus-response theory 刺激-反应理论It describes learning as the formation of associations between responses. A stimulus is that which produces a change of reaction in an individual or organism. A response is the behavior which is produced as a reaction to a stimulus. Reinforcement is a stimulus which follows the occurrence of a response and affects the probability of that response occurring or not occurring again.♥8.简：Gestalt psychology：The meaning of gestalt: pattern or configuration (结构，形状整体) it refers to a whole that is greater than the sum total of its parts.A gestalt is a form, and there is a form which is present in a whole which is lost when the parts are examined in detail without reference to their relationship to the whole.9.Advance organizer先行组织者: it is an activity which helps students organize their thoughts and ideas as a preparation for learning or studying something.♥10.名：Competence VS PerformanceCompetence：refers to a person’s internalized knowledge of a language. In other words, competence refers to what person knows about a language.Performance：refers to the actual use of a language. It refers to how a person actually uses his competence in comprehension and production of a language. (CHOMSKY)11.The features of L1 acquisition：❖1)universally successful 全世界都成功❖2) no explicit instruction❖3) rapid (0-4 years old)❖4) conditional (i. exposure; ii. Critical period—1.5-4 years old; iii. No mental deficiency).12.Some scholars suggest that children are able to learn language because adults speak to them in a special “simplified” language sometimes called motherese, caretakerese-, or child directed speech. (CDS) (more informally, baby talk).♥13.名：Order vs. SequenceOrder of acquisition refers to the fact that one linguistic form, rule and item is acquired before another. Sequence of acquisition refers to the stages that learners go through in learning a TL feature.Developmental pattern is a cover term for order and sequence.14.Foreign Language vs. Second LanguageForeign language refers to a language which is not a Native Language in a country. It is not used as a medium of instruction in the mainstream education, as a working language of mainstream mess media or as a language of communication within a country. 中国人在中国学英语Second language can be used interchangeably with “foreign language”. It is also used to refer to a language that a person with a first language learns and acquires in a country where the language is a Native Language.中国人在英国学英语15.Differences between child and adult learnersKrashen’s summary of findings: adults and older children in general initially acquire the second language faster than young children, but children second language acquirer will usually be superior in terms of ultimate attainment.16.The biological explanation：1.有偏向左半球大脑，右手灵活2.这种偏侧性增强到5岁左右3.有些语言部分不完全偏向左脑，直到青春期♥17.简：Interlanguage theory 中介语理论Definition: The type of language produced by second-and-foreign-language learners who are in the process of learning a language. It’s actually a system bordering on the first language and the target language.❖ a. borrowing patterns from the mother tongue❖ b. extending patterns from the target language, e.g by analog❖ c. expressing meaning using the words and grammar which are already known.it is sometimes said to result from the learner’s interlanguage system or approximative systemCharacteristic of interlanguage system1) reduced or simplified system 2)dynamic♥18.简：the Monitor theory 监控理论Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition1.the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,2.the Monitor hypothesis,The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'.The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, 1)the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, 2)he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and3) he/she knows the rule.3.the Natural Order hypothesis,the hypothesis that children acquiring their 2nd language acquire linguistic forms, rules, and items in a similar order.4.the Input hypothesis,The idea that exposure to comprehensible input which contains structures that are slightly in advance of a learner’s current level of competence is the necessary and sufficient cause of SLA5.the Affective Filter hypothesis.♥19.名：Acquisition(习得) vs Learning(学得)According to kranshen, there are 2 independent systems of second language performance “the acquisition system”and “the learned system”.The “acquisition system” or “acquisition” is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language —natural communicative in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.The learned system or learning is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge about the language. For example: knowledge of grammar rule.20.The creative construction modelit asserts that L2 learners do not merely imitate the language they are exposed to, but subconsciously construct mental grammars which allow them to produce and understand words, phrases and sentences they have not heard before。

应用语言学复习资料（之三）1．心理语言学的定义：心理语言学是研究人类个体如何获得、理解和生成语言的心理学分支。

它从心理过程和心理机制的角度来研究人类的语言活动特点。

2．为什么说心理语言学研究是跨学科的？首先，它以语言的结构和功能为线索来探讨人类言语活动的心理过程和机制，而语言的结构和功能是语言学的研究对象。

其次，在对言语活动的心理过程和机制进行研究的过程中，必然要涉及人脑的结构和特殊的机能，有时还要借助于对由脑损伤和发育障碍导致的病历分析。

最后，人类言语活动是在社会环境中发生和发展的，复杂的社会因素直接决定了语言系统的变化，并对言语活动产生重要影响。

因此，对于人类言语活动心理机制的研究不仅依赖于心理学的理论和方法，而且吸收和采纳了语言学、社会学、生理学、临床医学、计算机科学、数学等许多领域的理论和方法。

3．什么是元语言学意识？它包括哪些内容？元语言学意识是指儿童对语言、文字一般结构特征的认识和操作。

它包含：句法意识：对句子内部句法和语义结构的认识；语音意识：对字母与音位之间对应关系的认识；构词法意识：对字词的内部结构与整词词义的关系的认识；随着语言、文字的学习，儿童会发展各种元语言学意识，其特点表现为概括化和规则化的学习。

4．什么是词频？词频是指某个单词在书面语言中的使用次数。

词频的确定通常是对一个单词在报刊、杂志、教材等语言材料中被使用的次数进行统计而得到的。

由于词频来自于对真实语言材料的统计，所以它是一个客观变量。

但每个人对同一单词又有不同的经验，因而熟悉程度也不尽相同，它又是一个主观变量。

词频是影响单词识别速度的一个最重要的因素。

5．什么叫字词识别的词频效应？人们对高频词的识别快于对低频词的识别，这一现象叫做词频效应。

6．词频效应与语境有什么关系？语境与词频效应的作用是相加性的。

语境和词频效应作用在字词识别的同一阶段，是交互作用的。

语境对高频词的影响较小，而对低频词的影响较大。

7．什么是公共关系？它是指一个社会组织与相关的社会公众之间依靠传播沟通建立起来的关系。

1.语言成分的借用与吸收、双语现象、语言的转用、语言的混合等，都是语言互相接触的结果。

2.（五）重视语言创新。

重视语言创新。

人类有生产劳动创新——科学实验创新——社会交际创新——语言创新；反过来，语言创新——社会交际创新——科技创新——社会生产力发展。

3.语言变体（Language Variety），又称语言或言语变异、语言或言语异体。

4.语言变体是社会语言学研究的重要课题。

R.A.赫德森（Richard Hudson）把语言变体定语为“社会分布相似的一套语项”。

意指是由具备相同社会特征的人在相同的社会环境中所普遍使用的某种语言表现形式。

“语言变体”是一个内涵很宽泛的概念，大至一种语言的各种方言，小至一种方言中某一项语音、词汇或句法特征，只要有一定的社会分布的范围，就是一种语言变体。

语言的变体受到复杂的社会因素制约，社会语言学对语言变体的研究一般认为，讲话人的社会阶级（Class）和讲话风格（Style）是语言变体的重要基础，而讲话人的性别对语言变体也产生重要影响。

根据使用者来划分的变体叫方言，根据语言使用来划分的变体叫语体或语域.各种语言变体包括地域方言和社会方言（social dialect或socialect）、标准语和土语5.语言来源于社会，它担负着人类思维、社会交流等重任，社会又通过各种方式扩展语言，使其内涵更为丰富，我们可以从他们的相互作用来看他们的相互关系。

社会是宇宙，每个人就是其中的一个物质，语言则是各物质相互间的作用。

社会是个庞杂的体系，语言使得其中的元素相互促进，相互制约，从而维护了社会的稳定发展。

社会不断进步，这对语言提出了更高的要求，一系列新名词应运而生，网络文化更是大大丰富了语言内容。

6.语言从结构而言，是由语音、语汇、语法构成的一种复杂的符号系统；从功能而言，语言是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。

社会是由一定的经济基础和上层建筑构成的整体，也叫社会形态，泛指由于共同物质条件而互相联系起来的人群。

一、社会语言学定义（广义）：研究语言和社会的关系，以语言系统作为分析基础，它属于应用语言学，如果以社会学角度来切入，它就叫语言社会学，如果偏向于应用语言学，还是属于社会语言学。

兹威斯基的定义：Who say what to whom on which occasion.1、广义：A、宏观社会语言学：又叫大社会语言学，主要研究社会中存在的语言问题，包括双语或多语现象、方言，交际，教育问题。

它研究的课题包括，语言教学、语言接触、语言政策、语言规划、标准语的选择、语言的相互接触与影响、语言冲突等问题。

B、微观社会语言学：又叫小社会语言学，主要研究语言的各种变异，并且联系社会的因素，探讨语言变异的原因和规律，通常使用统计模式和概率模式来描写这些现象。

它研究的课题主要是：语言和年龄、语言和性别、语言和职业行业、语言和阶级阶层。

C、其他：包括语言和文化、播音主持语言、广告语、作家作品语言、语言文明、语言修养、新词新语、网络语言2、狭义：狭义的社会语言学仅指宏观社会语言学。

二、社会语言学产生的原因：1、客观条件：随着资本主义社会的发展，产生了大量社会问题。

2、理论基础：启蒙运动，资产阶级的思想家政治家的一些学说为社会学的产生奠定了理论基础。

（卢梭：《论人类不平等的起源和基础》）。

3、自然科学的发展和社会调查统计的兴起为社会学的产生提供了方法论和基础。

三、应用语言学：狭义的应用语言学专指语言教学；从广义上来讲是研究语言本体和本体语言学同有关方面发生关系的学科。

（本体：语音、词汇、语法）四、应用语言学的特性：1、独立性：有明确的研究任务，明确的研究对象，有独立的学科基础。

创建了大量的研究机构。

2、综合性：是一门交叉学科，边缘学科，研究其需要语言学的知识，也需要相关学科知识。

3、实用性：应用语言学为了直接满足语言在社会中的实际应用，其存在于发展条件就是实用性。

4、实验性：应用语言学解决的语言运用的实际问题离不开调查和实验。

语言应用知识点总结语言是人类交流的重要工具，它不仅包括口头交流，还包括书面交流。

在日常生活中，我们需要用语言进行沟通，表达自己的想法和情感。

为了更准确地表达自己，我们需要了解一些语言应用知识点。

本文将从语法、词汇、语音和交际技巧等方面总结一些语言应用知识点，以帮助读者更好地应用语言进行交流。

一、语法知识点总结1. 词类和词性变化中文中的词类包括名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、介词、连词和量词等。

在句子中，各种词类起着不同的作用，通过词性变化可以表达出不同的语法功能。

2. 句子成分和句型结构句子是语言中最基本的单位，它由主语、谓语、宾语和补语等成分构成。

句型结构是指句子的基本结构，包括简单句、复合句和并列句等。

3. 时态和语态时态是动词表示的动作或状态所发生的时间，包括过去时、现在时和将来时等。

语态是动词表示的动作或状态所受到的影响程度，包括主动语态和被动语态。

4. 语法关系和句法分析句子中的词语通过各种语法关系来构成合乎语法规则的句子。

句法分析是指对句子中各个词语的语法功能和句子结构进行分析。

二、词汇知识点总结1. 词义和词汇搭配词义是词语所表示的含义，包括直义和引申义。

词汇搭配是指一些词语之间在语言实践中常常一起出现的现象。

2. 词义辨析和词语深化词义辨析是指对一些词义相近的词语进行深入的辨析和分析。

词语深化是指对一些词语进行拓展和丰富其含义。

3. 词语构词和词族词语构词是指通过词素的组合来构成新的词语。

词族是指由一个词语派生出来的一类词语。

4. 词语的意义和用法词语的意义和用法是指词语在不同语境下所表达的含义和用法。

通过了解词语的使用情况，可以更准确地理解和运用词语。

三、语音知识点总结1. 语音发音和语音规律语音发音是指人们使用声带和发音器官发出的音频信号。

语音规律是指语言中的声音变化规律，包括声母、韵母和声调等方面的规律。

2. 语音辨析和语音转换语音辨析是指对一些语音发音相近的音节进行深入的辨析和分析。

应用语言学复习资料注意：1. 另一个TERM 是silent way2. 对比关系是听说法和直接法3. 关系是应用语言学与语言学的关系ACT----active control of thoughtAILA/IAAL----international association of applied linguisticsAL----applied linguisticsALAA----applied linguistics association of AustraliaALANA----applied linguistics association of New ZealandALM----the audio-lingual methodASTP----the army specialized training programBAAL----British association of applied linguisticsBICS----basic interpersonal communicative skillsCA----contrastive analysisCAAL/ACLA----Canadian association of applied linguisticsCAGR----compound annual growth rateCAH----the contrastive analysis hypothesisCAL----critical applied linguisticsCALL----computer aided language learningCALP----cognitive/academic language proficiencyCDA----critical discourse analysisCDS----child-directed speakerCLL----community language learningCLT----communicative language teachingCP----co-operative principleCUP----Cambridge University PressESF----the European science foundationEUROSLA----European second language associationFLT----foreign language teachingFLA----first language acquisitionFSI----the Foreign Service institute‟sFUO-finite utterance organizationGCSE----general certificate of second educationGB----government and bindingGUFS----Guangdong University of foreign studiesICT----information and communication technologyIDC----international data corporationInJAL----international Journal of Applied LinguisticsIP----input processingIRAL----international review of applied linguistics in language teaching ISBU----interlanguage studies bulletinIUO----infinite utterance organizationLAD----language acquisition deviceMME----the micro-momentary expression testMLAT----modern language aptitude testNS----native speakerNNS----non-native speakerNUO----nominal utterance organizationOPI----oral proficiency interviewOUP----Oxford University PressPDP----parallel distributed processingPDAQ----the professed difference in attitude questionnaireSLA----second language acquisitionSLI-----special language impairmentSLL----second language learningSLR----second language researchS-R----stimulus-responseSSLA----studies in second language acquisitionTESOL-----teachers of English to speakers of other languageTG----transformational grammar/ transformational-generative grammarTL----theoretical languageTLU----target-like useTOEFL----theTest of English as a Foreign LanguageTRR----total physical responseU of C----University of CalgaryUCLA----university of California Los AngelesUG----universal grammarWCAL----world congress of applied linguisticsZPD----zone of proximal developmentMayes Briggs character types: E/I----extroversion-introversionS/N----sensing-intuitionT/F----thinking-feelingJ/P----judging-perceivingNP----noun-phrase VP----verb-phrase DP----determiner-phraseCP----complementizer phrase IP----infection phrase TP----tense phraseAgrP----agreement phrase PP----prepositional phraseTerms:Language----language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. / A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture. / A language is “a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements”. / Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols”.Language is an emotional subject: it belongs to everyone, so most people feel they have a right to hold an opinion about it. Languages are equal on having developed to express the needs of their users, all languages meet the social and psychological needs of their speakers. Language is magical, a mystery which, esp. in its written form, is thought to contain special powers, which only theinitiated are allowed to understand or control.Linguistics----it is the scientific study of human language in all its aspects, providing a methodology for exploring the structure of particular languages and investigates what is universal to all human languages; how languages are different, how language varies over time and between different societies, how language is learnt, and how language is used for human communication.Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language. This definition is well accepted because it succinctly pinpoints the objects and methods of linguistics as a discipline.Applied linguistics----it can be defined in a broad sense or in a narrow sense. Broadly speaking, applied linguistics covers more than the teaching and learning of languages. It includes speech pathology and therapy, translation, machine translation and language policy, etc.. In one word, it includes anything to which linguistics could be applied. Foreign and second language learning and teaching research is a central part of applied linguistics. So narrowly speaking, applied linguistics means the application of linguistics findings to language teaching and learning. It is concerned with approaches to language teachers, with language learning, with syllabus design, with materials development and with the assessment and testing of language learning, with the educational policy in general and language learning and teaching policy in particular of a country.Psycholinguistics----it is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics in abroad sense, but psycholinguistics has become an independent discipline through recent developments. Generally speaking, psycholinguistics studies language in relation to the properties of the human mind. As such it studies the relationship between linguistics behavior and psychological processes that are hypothesized to underlie such behavior. In other words, psycholinguistics studies the mental process that a person uses in producing and understanding language, and how humans learn language. There have beenQuestions:1. Why does the examination of social relationships play a crucial role in applied linguistics?1) The first reason is that in the partial move from linguistics applied to applied linguistics, it has been accepted that the social aspect is essential to all understanding of language in use, that in the specific case of language teaching all formal language learning must take account of the context in which that learning takes place and further-more that the context determines and affects that learning.2) The second reason is that there is noticeable now a loss of confidence in the techniques offered by Cordor and widely used in the 1960s and 1970s as general statements of how to proceed. When talking about the change of applied linguistics practice, Davies (1999) argues that it is a move from the linguistics applied to the applied linguistics models.2. The relation between applied linguistics and second language acquisition.Applied linguistics draws on multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical perspectives o address real world issues and problems in which language is central. SLA draws on multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical perspectives to address the specific issue of how people acquire a second language and eh specific problem of why everyone dose not do so successfully.3. The relationship between psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.Psycholinguistics can or should play a role in applied linguistics. The acquisition and use of a second language seem to be the appropriate chunk of applied linguistics in this context. Thepsycholinguistics interest would be in the processing mechanisms involved in using more than one language and the acquisition of additional languages. The applied linguistics interest would be in understanding why language learners behave the way they do. This interpretation means that multilingual processing can be defined as the intersection or shared by interest across psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.4. The relationship between applied linguistics and linguistics.Linguistics and applied linguistics is inherently a multidisciplinary study, drawing on methodologies and theories from many fields, including archaeology, psychology, anthropology, history, literature, philosophy, sociology, social theory, education, the mathematical sciences and computer science. Thus it has contributions to make to a range of study and professional practice areas. Applied linguistics is doing with the Internalized language, and linguistics is doing with the Externalized language. Applied linguistics is really still linguistics happening to be involved in application, which they may label as applied linguistics. Applied linguistics is just another area, part of linguistics. Linguistics differs from applied linguistics, for linguistics focuses on language, while applied linguistics focuses on language practice. Applied linguistics contains linguistics, applied linguistics and linguistics are automated entities, applied linguistics is part of linguistics.5. The relationship between language and applied linguistics.Applied linguistics maintains a close relationship to language. Language is part of applied linguistics. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, while applied linguistics is an approach to understanding language issues in the real world, and therefore applied linguistics is the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.6. The sub-field of applied linguisticsApplied linguistics can cover a very large area, such as: language acquisition, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, ethno linguistics, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, text linguistics, etc.. All the sub-branches of linguistics could be called applied linguistics except the theoretical linguistics.Assessments:Assessment of grammar-translation or traditional methodIn spite of the virulent attacks that reformers made, the grammar translation or traditional method has maintained itself remarkably well. As we have already noted in our study of language learning, the first language as a reference system is indeed very important for the second language learner. Therefore, translation in one form or another, or other cross lingual techniques can play a certain part in language learning. Moreover, some learners endeavor to understand the grammatical system of the second language. Hence grammar teaching, too, may have some importance for them. Furthermore, thinking about formal features of the second language and translation as a practice technique put the learner into an active problem-solving situation. In the terms of the basic strategies already set out it forms part of the “academic”(explicit) learning strategy. Finally, grammar- translation appears didactically relatively easy to apply. The major defect of grammar-translation lies in the overemphasis on the language as a mass of rules (and exceptions) and in the limitations of practice techniques which never emancipate the learner from the dominance of the first language. In addition, the sheer size of the task of memorization and the lack of coherence with which the language facts have been presented to the learner invalidate the claim, made in the nineteenth century, that this method provides a safe, easy, and practical entry into a second language.Assessment of the direct methodThe direct method was the first of the methods in which the impetus came both from the inventiveness of a few practitioners and from the critical and theoretical thought about the nature of language learning situation one of language use and to train the learner to abandon the first language as the frame of reference. It demanded inventiveness on the part of teachers and led to the development of new non-translational techniques of language instruction. The use of a text as a basis of language learning, demonstrations of pictures and objects, the emphasis on question and answer, spoken narratives, dictation, imitation, and a host of new types of grammatical exercises have resulted from the direct method. Language pedagogy in the present century, for example, Palmer in the twenties and the audio-lingual and audiovisual methods in the fifties and sixties, adopted many of the techniques first developed by direct method teachers. On the L1-L2 issue, the direct method constitutes a radical attempt to exclude L1 in L2 learning.Two major problems have persistently troubled direct method teaching. One has been how to convey meaning without translating, and how to safeguard against misunderstanding without reference to the first language. Another has been how to apply the direct method beyond elementary stages of language learning. The direct method—has extended the repertoire of language instruction in the early stages of teaching, but has added relatively little to the teaching of advanced learners. In a way, particularly because of the insistence on the use of the second language in classroom communication, the direct method can legitimately be looked upon as a predecessor of present-day …immersion‟ techniques.Assessment of the audio-lingual methodIn the early sixties audiolingualism had raised hopes of ushering in a golden age of language learning. By the end of the decade it became the whipping boy for all that was wrong with language teaching. Its theoretical basis was found to be weak. But also in practical terms its hopes had not been fulfilled. Empirical research did not conclusively establish its superiority, and teachers, using audio-lingual materials and applying the audio-lingual method conscientiously, complained about the lack of effectiveness of the techniques in the long run and the boredom they engendered among students.In view of these criticisms, it is necessary to remind oneself of the major contributions of audiolingualism to language teaching. First, it was among the first theories to recommend the development of a language teaching theory on declared linguistic and psychological principles. Second, it attempted to make language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners. In other words, this theory proposed that language teaching should be organized in such a way as not to demand great intellectual feats of abstract reasoning to learn a language. Third, it stressed syntactical progression, while previously methods had tended to be preoccupied with vocabulary and morphology. Fourth, it led to the development of simple techniques, without translation, of varied, graded, and intensive practice of specific features of the language. Last, it developed the separation of the language skills into a pedagogical device. The audio-lingual method introduced specifically designed techniques of auditory and oral practice, while previously oral practice had been simply textbook exercises read aloud, and the sequencing of different language skills had not been treated consistently as pedagogically relevant.1. The oral approach and situational language teaching----Harild Palmer & A.S. Hornby, teacher‟s role is ________________2. The audio-lingual method----Bloomfield, teacher‟s role is the dominator of the whole process.3. Communicative language teaching----Noam Chomsky, the role is the facilitator, participator, needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager.4. Total physical response----James Asher, the role is the instructor of the whole process.5. The silent way----Caleb Gattegno, the role is dramatist.6. Community language learning----Charles A., the role is the counselor.7. The natural way----Tracy Terrell, the role is the provider of the target language, the classroom atmosphere and the rich activities.8. Suggestopedia----Georgi Lozanov, the role is to create situations.Comparing TPR & CLL:Differences:1) At the level of design, TPR typically has a written syllabus with paced introduction of structures and vocabulary; CLL has no syllabus and operates out of what learners feel they need to know.2) At the level of teacher‟s role, in TPR the teachers‟role is one of drill master, director, and motivator; in CLL the teacher/knower is counselor, supporter, and facilitator.3) About the learners, in TPR learners are physically active and mobile; CLL learners are sedentary and in a fixed configuration4) About the relationship, TPR assumes no particular relationship among learners and emphasizes the importance of individuals acting alone; CLL is rooted in a communal relationship between learners and teachers acting supportively and in concert.5) At the level of procedure, TPR language practice is largely mechanical, with much emphasis on listening; CLL language practice if innovative, with emphasis on production.Similarities:1)In approach, both TPR and CLL see stress, defensiveness, and embarrassment as the majorblocks to successful language learning.2)They both see the learners‟commitment, attention, and group participating as central toovercoming these barriers.3)They both view the stages of adult language learning as recapitulations of the stages ofchildhood learning.4)Both CLL and TPR consider mediation, memory, and recall of linguistic elements to be centralissues.5)They both hold that learning is multimodal.6)At the level of design, both of them assumed that materials can be locally produced as needed.。

语言学知识点汇总语言，是人类交流的工具，也是思维的载体。

语言学则是对语言的科学研究，涵盖了众多有趣且重要的知识点。

首先，我们来谈谈语音学。

语音学关注的是语言的声音，包括元音和辅音的发音特点、语音的声学特征以及语音的产生和感知机制。

例如，元音的发音取决于舌头的位置和嘴唇的形状，而辅音则通过发音部位和发音方法来区分。

了解语音学能帮助我们更准确地发音，也有助于语言的学习和教学。

语法是语言学中的一个关键部分。

它规定了词如何组成句子，句子的结构和成分。

比如，句子中的主语、谓语、宾语等成分的排列规则，以及不同词性的词（名词、动词、形容词等）在句子中的用法。

语法规则并非随意设定，而是在长期的语言使用中逐渐形成和固定下来的。

词汇学则聚焦于词汇的研究。

包括词汇的构成、词义的演变、词汇的分类等。

词汇不是孤立存在的，它们相互关联形成一个庞大的系统。

比如，同义词、反义词、上下义词等关系。

同时，词汇的意义也会随着时间和社会的发展而发生变化，新的词汇不断产生，旧的词汇可能会被淘汰或赋予新的含义。

语义学研究的是语言符号（词、短语、句子等）与它们所指称的对象之间的关系，也就是语言的意义。

语义不仅仅是单词的字面意思，还包括语境中的含义、隐喻、转喻等修辞手法所带来的意义变化。

例如，“他是个钢铁般的人”，这里并不是说他由钢铁构成，而是用“钢铁”来隐喻他的坚强意志。

语用学关注的是语言在实际使用中的情境和意图。

它考虑说话者的意图、听话者的理解、语言的交际功能等。

比如，同样一句话“你能帮我一下吗？”在不同的情境中可能有不同的含义和效果，取决于说话者和听话者之间的关系、说话的场合等。

语言的类型学也是一个重要的领域。

它对世界上各种语言进行分类和比较，根据语言的语法、词汇、语音等特征将语言分为不同的类型。

例如，有的语言是孤立语，词形基本不发生变化，依靠语序和虚词来表达语法关系；有的语言是屈折语，词形会根据语法功能发生变化。

社会语言学研究语言与社会的关系。

应用语言学导论课程总结应用语言学导论是一门介绍应用语言学基本概念和原理的课程。

它探讨语言学如何应用于实际生活和社会领域，以解决语言相关问题。

以下是应用语言学导论课程的总结要点：1.语言与社会：课程开始会介绍语言与社会之间的关系。

语言是社会交往的核心，它反映了社会结构、文化背景和个人身份。

研究语言在社会中的角色和影响对于理解社会交往和文化多样性至关重要。

2.语言变异与多样性：应用语言学导论还探讨语言的变异和多样性。

语言在不同社会群体、地理区域和社会环境中存在差异。

了解这些差异有助于理解语言变化的原因，以及如何适应不同语言使用者的需求。

3.言语行为与社交语言学：课程会介绍言语行为和社交语言学的概念。

言语行为研究语言的使用方式，包括语用学和交际意图。

社交语言学则研究社会上下文对语言使用的影响，包括对话结构、会话分析和话语分析等。

4.语言教育与二语习得：应用语言学导论还会关注语言教育和二语习得领域。

了解语言习得的过程以及教学方法对于语言教育的改进和优化非常重要。

课程可能会探讨不同的教学法、语言评估和课程设计等内容。

5.语言技术与计算语言学：现代应用语言学越来越关注语言技术和计算语言学的应用。

这包括自然语言处理、机器翻译、语音识别和文本分析等方面。

课程可能会介绍这些技术的原理和应用，以及相关的研究领域。

6.跨文化交际与国际语言：最后，应用语言学导论还可能涉及跨1/ 2文化交际和国际语言的研究。

全球化时代，不同文化之间的交流和理解变得越来越重要。

了解跨文化交际的原则和国际语言的使用对于促进跨文化交流和解决语言障碍具有重要意义。

2/ 2。

中南民族大学 外语学院 2011级 鹦鹉 应用语言学 复习知识点总结Chapter 4 first language acquisitionDifferences between Saussure and ChomskySaussure’s objective is to describe the language system(langue ),but parole is an individual act. Saussure is more concerned with its sociological aspect .Chomsky’s objective is to characterize the native speaker ’s knowledge of the system of his language (competence ). Chomsky is more concerned with its psychological aspect .How is the first language acquired?Traditional assumption: imitation and practice Chomsky’s creative hypothesis-testin g---language acquisition is based on the child ’s discovery of a deep and abstract theory----a generative grammar of his language (child hear all kinds of utterance, but he choose only what fits his needs. His own utterances (performance)are original and novel.)The deepest structure of all language may be the same-----Universal Grammar(UG) in Chomsky ’s theory.Major L1 acquisition theories-----the process of L1 acquisition1,Behaviorist theories :These theories follow the empiricist approach, emphasizing that the only way of knowing anything is by experiencing it physically.Basic tenet 原则 : since one cannot observe his internal states, which is regarded as a “black box ”, hence one can not know anything about them, any statements about the internal states or process are meaningless. The only meaningful statements about the organism concern whatgoes into it(stimulus)and what comes out of it(response). Objective : is to discover and create predictable Basic idea: verbal behavior, like other human behaviors, is controlled by its consequences. In the process of first language acquisition, if a certain correct response is repeatedly reinforced, it is conditioned and becomes a habit, then finally the child acquires his native language. 2) mediation theories-------------------------to fill the “blackbox ”Basic ideal : two thing connecting with a third thing tend to be in associating with each other. One the associationis established, an internal link is built up even when the third thing is not present.Mowrer ’s theory: a word is a conditioned stimulus while the thing to which the word refers is the unconditioned stimulus.Osgood ’s theory : three-stage meditational model: sensory, representational and integrational.2. Cognitive theoriesThese theories follow the rationalist approach, being more concern with the actual linguistic-processing abilities of the individual.Objective: to the discovery of new kinds of mental events. 1) Nativist theories( the innateness hypothesis)This is lied by Chomsky.Basic idea : the child is born with the biological basic for the acquisition of language, which enables them to develop a grammar that will incorporate all thecommon feature of human language.Chomsky call this as Universal Grammar(UG) and claim the existence of “ black English ” which he calls as Language Acquisition Device(LAD).McNeil constructed the hypothetical grammar of child language(pivot grammer).This theory account for aspects of meaning, the abstractness of language, and the creativity of child language.2) Cognitive theories 认知学派Chapter 5 second language learning The nature of second language learning1)Native-like proficiency —the goal of second language learningThree components of L2 proficiency :1) Grammatical competence: (i.e linguisticcompetence )—vocabulary, pronunciation, grammatical structure and word form.2) Sociolinguistic competence: (i.ecommunicative competence )--- sociocultural rules for using language appropriately, discourse rules for thinking parts of a language text coherently and cohesively.3) Strategic competence: (i.e L2 leaner ’sability to compensate for problem in communication)verbal and non-verbal communication strategies.Major2 learning theories-----the nature and process of L2 learning1.The interlanguage theoryDefinition:(Ronald Carte)is a transitional stage in learning a second or foreign language. language system bordering on the first language and the target language.Larry Selinker first used this term to refer to “ the attempted meaningful performance”Corder explained: “^^is the collective name of second language learners’versions of target languages and call it transitional competence. Premises: 1) the learner constructs a grammar, a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production.2the learner’s grammar is permeable.3)The leaner’s competence is transitional.4)The learner’s performance is variable.5)Interlanguage development reflects cognitivelearning strategies and communication strategies.6)The interlanguage system may fossilize.The principle characteristics:1)Interlanguage system is “reduced”or“simplified”system and have “restricted functions”.2)Interlanguage system is dynamic.2.Monitor theory ---the laws governingL2acquisitionDeveloped by S. Krashen and contain five hypothesis1)The acquisition—learning hypothesis (the most fundamental of all the five ……)Basic idea: adult have two independent ways of developing competence in a second language-----language acquisition and language learning. The former is subconscious process and latter is conscious process.2)The monitor hypothesisBasic idea: acquisition and learning are used in very specific ways. Normally, acquisition “initiates”our utterances and be responsible for our fluency. Learning act as a Monitor and Editor in L2 language learning.Three conditions for monitoring: Thus, conscious learning play a limited role in L2 performance and only three conditions are met may be it used.---- 1)having time 2)Focusing on form 3)Knowing the rule3)The natural order hypothesisBasic idea : there is a predictable, natural order for the acquisition of grammatical structures in a second language.Average order(English as a second language)：ING(progressive)/PLURAL/COPULA(“to be”)---- AULILIARY(progressive, as in “he is going”)/ARTICLE(a,the)---- Irregular past-----regular past/iii singular/possessiveThree requirement for presenting rules: Learnable/portable/not yet acquired4)The input hypothesis---how we acquire languageBasic idea : learner’s acquire language as sa result of comprehending input addressed to them. we acquire L2 by understanding language that contain structure a bit beyond our current level of competence. (i+1) Once our communication is successful and the input is understood, the production emerges.分类：premodified input: is material that is finely tuned in advance to the learner’s current level.Interactively modified input: is material (usually spoken discourse)that is modified when the teacher and the learner interact.---结论：课堂有其重要性，因为能大量提供INPIT 5)The affective filter hypothesis-----the relationship between affective filter and the second language acquisitionBasic idea : L2 acquirers vary with respect to the strength or level of their affective filters. While he claims that the input plays the primary role in L2 acquisition and the filter affective variables act to impede or facilitate the delivery of input to the language acquisition device.Summary of Monitor Theories--1)Acquisition is more important that learning2)two conditions to acquire a second languageComprehensible input(^a bit beyond the^)A low or weak affective filter5)The creative construction modelDeveloped by M. Burt and H. Dulay and based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory of “creative aspect of language use”Basic idea : refers to a process in which the learners gradually reconstruct rules for speech theyhear, guided by their innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypothesis about the language system being acquired, utile the mismatch between what they are exposed to and what they produced is resolved. It propose the internal creativity mechanism 图：the language environment provides the input for mental processing and the leaner ’s verbal performance is the output. Three processing mechanism is involved. Affective filter Language learners do not take in everything they hear. The affective filters, like motivation, self-confidence and anxiety, controls the entry of input. Cognitive organizer It responsible for the leaner ’s gradual organization of the new language system. Linguistic monitor It responsible for a kind of self-editing process by which learners are concerned about linguistic forms, using conscious rules to produce sentences.Chapter 9 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis Contrastive AnalysisBasic idea: by the comparison and contrast of two or more language to determine the differences and similarities of two language, and the ultimate goal is to identify the difficulties of L2learning. (or to predicate what area will be easy and what will be difficult.) Theoretical bases -----behaviorism and structuralismBasic assumption :1)L2 learning involves overcoming difficulties in the linguistic systems of the target language.(Grass and Selinker) 2)the main difficulties in L2 learning are caused byinterference from the L1.3)CA can predict or account for difficulties in L2 learning.4)CA can reduce the difficulties and facilitate L2 learning.Major object : providing insight into similarities and difficulties.Predicating problems in L2 learning.Developing course materials for language taching.Error AnalysisBasic idea: Corder claimed EA is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learner ’s interlanguage and the target language system. It is a methodology of describing L2 learner ’s language system. Two justification: to understanding thenature of errors and to eradicate them. / is necessary to an understanding of the process of second language acquisition. 对比：CA aimed to predicate errors resulting fromL1, which failed to account for other types of errors. While EA compare the learner ’s interlanguage and the target language. Tow Source of errors: Interlingual errors(transfer errors): it occurswhen learner misuse an item because it shares some features with an item in the native language. Intralingual errors(developmental errors):errors within the target language itself. OVERGENERALIZATIONTypes of errors :Process of EA:Recognition-----Description----ExplanationExplanation: the source of errors: interlingual transfer(the interference of the first language) / Intralingual transfer(overgeneration of the rules of the target languge)Two issues:Fossilization : the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a person ’s second language competence.Pidginization : refers to the process by which a pidgin develops. The learner instinctively attempts to bring two languages together, which results in aspects of both.Chapter 11 Language Testing TestE. Ingran —“ a test is a measuring device which we use when we want to compare an individuals who belong to the same group ”Brown --- “ a test is a method of measuring a person ’s ability or knowledge in a given area.”Requirements for a good test —validity,reliability, discrimination and practicality.1 , Validity : the most important requirement. It refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended.Face validity, content validity, construct validity, empirical vality.Face validity : 外行人 it refers to the degree to which a test appears to measure the abilities or knowledge it claims to measure, based on theto which a test adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behavior it sets out : 能力的测试 It assumes the which underlie the acquisition of abilities and skills. Thus it refers to the degree to which the items in a test reflect the essential aspects of the theory( the construct) on which the test is based. Eg: 英语语言能力的测试√（听说读写译）Bachman : it is concerned with the extent to whichperformance on tests is consistent with prediction that we make on the basis of a theory of abilities or constructs.Empirical ValidityBasic idea : measure the validity of a test by comparing the test with one or more criterion measures. It contains two ways: concurrent validity(comparing the test with other valid tests at the same time) and predictive validity(comparing the test with other valid tests or other performance criteria obtained at a later time). The only difference is time.2 , Reliability ----- stability and consistency of test scoresValidity ensures the meaningfulness of a test, reliability ensures its consistency. It is a measure of the degree to which a test gives consistent results. A test is reliable, if it meets the above four conditions :1)a test is given to a group of students on different occasions2)two parallel forms of the test are given tom the same group on different occasions3)the test is scored by the same scorer on different occasions4)the test is scored by two or more competent scorers.Four factors affect the reliability:1) the extent of the sample material selected for testing---the bigger, the more reliable2) the administration of the test:同一考试在不同的时间，不同对象下结果相同。

语言学知识点汇总语言，作为人类交流和思维的工具，是一个极其复杂而又充满魅力的领域。

语言学则是对语言的系统研究，涵盖了众多的分支和知识点。

接下来，让我们一起走进语言学的世界，对一些重要的知识点进行汇总。

一、语音学语音学研究语音的产生、传播和感知。

它关注语音的物理属性，如音高、音强、音长和音质。

元音和辅音是语音学中的重要概念。

元音是在发音过程中气流通过口腔不受阻碍发出的音，如“a”“e”“i”“o”“u”。

辅音则是气流在口腔或咽头受到一定阻碍而形成的音，如“b”“p”“m”“f”等。

语音的协同发音现象也值得关注。

当我们连续发音时，一个音会受到相邻音的影响而发生变化。

例如，“牛奶”中的“牛”和“奶”在发音上会相互影响。

二、音系学音系学关注的是语言中的语音系统和语音模式。

音位是音系学的基本单位，是能够区别意义的最小语音单位。

比如在汉语中，“爸”和“怕”，“b”和“p”的不同造成了词义的差异，“b”和“p”就是两个不同的音位。

音位变体是同一个音位在不同语音环境中的具体表现形式。

例如，英语中的清辅音／p/，在词首时送气较强，如“pen”，在词尾时送气较弱，如“cap”。

三、词汇学词汇是语言的建筑材料。

词汇学研究词汇的形式、意义和词汇的构成方式。

词的构成方式包括单纯词、合成词和派生词。

单纯词由一个语素构成，如“人”“山”；合成词由两个或两个以上的语素构成，如“书包”“火车”；派生词则是通过添加词缀构成的新词，如“老师”“记者”。

词汇的意义包括词汇意义和语法意义。

词汇意义又分为概念意义和联想意义。

概念意义是词的基本意义，联想意义则是词在人们头脑中产生的附加意义，如文化、情感方面的联想。

四、语法学语法是语言的规则系统，规定了词如何组合成句子。

词类是语法学中的重要概念，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词、介词等。

不同的词类在句子中有着不同的功能和用法。

句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语、补语等。

了解句子成分有助于我们正确理解和构造句子。

应用语言学概论复习资料第一章绪论一、什么是应用语言学现在学界普遍认为，应用语言学有广义和狭义之分：广义应用语言学：指联系实际问题研究语言和语言学，从为少数民族创立文字到机器翻译都包括在内：或者指应用于各实际领域的语言学，即指语言学知识和研究成果所应用的一切领域和方面。

关心的是如何应用语言学理论、方法和成果来阐释其他应用领域所遇到的跟语言有关的问题。

狭义应用语言学：指研究的是语言教学，特别是第二语言教学。

在我国，一般都取广义含义使用，尤其是汉语学界。

二、为什么要开展语言应用研究1.对语言最初的关注2.语言的神秘力量3.诸多的语言现象需要解释4.语言的交际职能变化三、应用语言学的学科特点1.综合性，多学科、交叉性研究应用语言学不仅需要语言学知识，往往也需要相关学科的一些知识。

因此，应用语言学具有跨学科性质，通常被认为是一门具有多学科交叉特点的综合性学科。

2.实用性/实殴性：为实用目的腰务的1/24实用性是应用语言学存在和发展的基本条件。

应用语言学的目标是着眼于语言学在社会生活中的实际应用，解决各种实际的语言问题，解决语言学在各个应用领域中的实际问题，如指导和帮助语言教学、语言规划、语言信息处理、词典编撰、翻译速记等等。

可以说，应用语言学就是为了直接滴足语言学在社会生活中的各种实际需要而产生的，因此实用性是其当然的特点与特征。

3.实验性：需要实验检验方法调查和实验是应用语言学研究的重要方法，也是基本方法之一。

四、应用语言学的学科地位是一门独立的学科，一是有明确的研究对象，如语言教学、语言规划、社会语言学、心理语言学、语言信息处理等等…二是有独立的学科基础，出版了大量论著、教材，有自己的刊物、学术组织…三是形成了专门的应用语言学专业和对应课程，大学和机构的相关专业与招生…五、课程任务及授课内容应用语言学的范围主要涉及到四大块：语言教学、语言规划、社会语言学(语言与社会生活)、应用语言学其他学科。

第二章应用语言学的发展历程一、应用语言学的缘起与概念提出缘起：语言学在成为独立学科之前，属于哲学的一部分。

1. Leech’s 7 types of meanings(1). conceptual meaning (logical meaning, cognitive meaning, or denotative meaning, 外延意义)It is denotative in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. Denotative meaning is the objective reflection of world.(2). Connotative meaning（内涵意义）Connotative meaning is what is communicated by virtual of what language refers to. It refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind.The characteristics:A.in cannot stand by itself and is always dependent on denotativemeaningB.connotations may be different according to different person, age,society, country or time.C.In different languages, some words may have the same connotativemeaning.D.Connotation is unstable.(3) social or stylistic meaningSocial meaning is the meaning that a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.(4) affective meaningAffective meaning is connected with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer.(5) reflected meaningWhat is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression is called reflected meaning, like euphemistic expression.(6) collocative meaning（组合意义，like handsome woman:仪态端庄）Collocative meaning is what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.(7) thematic meaning (主题意义，强调句子的组织和语序)Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.2. Referential meaningThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.Semantic triangle: word (concept) thing4 ways to explain a word, like deskA. by pointing to a desk and saying this is the deskB. by describing its shape and feature or functionC. paraphraseD. translationSense(涵义)----reference（指称）connotation(内涵)----denotation(外延) （but not every word has a reference, like god, ghost）3. (1)synonymy (strict synonymy and loose synonymy)Strict synonymy refers to the situation in which two synonymous words can be interchangeable in all possible contexts of use.Loose synonymy or near synonymy may be substitutable in particular contexts, but not substitutable across a range of contexts.(2) antonymyG: gradable CV: converse CP: conplementary(3) hyponymy(上下位关系)4. (1) A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.Logic connectives and symbolsOne-place connective: negation～two-place connective: conjunction∧disjunction ∨implication →equivalence ←→argument(主目) and predicate(谓词) in Socrates in a man are Socrates and man.(2) universal quantifiers(全称量词) existential quantifier(存在量词) 5. Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the dominantgenerative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language. Cognitive linguistics is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world.Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc.Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. (phycologically)Image schema is a recurring , dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. (a center-periphery schema, a containment schema, a cycle schema, a force schema, a link schema, a part-whole schema, a path schema, a scale schema, a verticality schema)Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of the other.Target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor.A source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.Ontological metaphor means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc.Structural metaphor plays the most important role because it allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.Orientational metaphor gives a concept a spatial orientation.6. It is self-evident that language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. The input may come in written or spoken form. Ideally, materials at all levels should provede frequent exposure to authentic input which is rich and varied. According to Krashen’s input hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. (i+1 principle)7. The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. Interlanguage is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.8. Based on this distinction, we assume that syllabus design is more of a pedagogical nature, whereas curriculum development is an educational planning issue.(1) Structural syllabus is a grammar oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and structures.(2) Situaltional syllabus dose not have a strong linguistic basis, yet it can be assumed that the situationalists accept the viem that language is used for communication.(3) Communicative syllabus aims at the learner’s communicative competence.(4) Task-based syllabus are more concerned with the classroom processed which stimulate learning than with the language knowledge or skills that students are supposed to master.Current trends in syllabus design:The co-existence of the old and the new; the emphasis on the learning process; the inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus; the emergence of the multi-syllabus.9. The study of the roles that the native language plays in known as the research of language transfer.Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what dose not need to be learned in a second language learning situation.Gradually CA was replaced by the error analysis movement, a major claim of which is that many errors made by L2 learners were caused by factors other than L1 interference.5 errors (omissions, additions, double markings, misformations, misorderings)10. A corpus is a collection of texts input into a computer. Language corpora make it possible for materials developers to select authentic, natural and typical language.(1) general corpora: a general reference corpus is not a collection of material from different specialist areas technical, dialectal, juvenile, etc. it is a collection of material which is broadly homogeneous, but which is gathered from a variety of sources so that the individuality of a source is obscured, unless the researcher isolates a particular text.(2) specialized corpora: this kind of corpus is useful for language for specific purposes.(3) sample corpora: this is a kind of genre-based corpus. It is a collection of a large number of short extracts randomly selected from all kinds of genres.(4) monitor corpora: this kind of corpus in gigantic, ever moving store of text.11. validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended. (content validity refers to the degree to which a test adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behavior it sets out toa measure. Construct validity assumes the existence of certain learning theories or constructs which underlie the acquisition of abilities and skills. Thus it refers to the degree to which the items in a test feflect the essential aspects of the theory on which the test is based.)Reliability means stability or consistency of test scores.Test distinguished by use: (achievement tests or attainment tests, aims to measure how much of a language the learner has learned with reference to a particular couse of study or program of instruction. proficiency tests, aims to measure how much of a language the learner knows with reference to a particular task which he will be required to perform.aptitude tests, is designed to measure the learner’s probable performance in a second language which he has not started to learn. diagnostic tests, is designed to show what skills or knowledge learners do not know, to diagnose their areas of difficulty, and to enable the teacher to identify their specific areas of weaknesses and problems so that he is able to plan the most appropriate remedial program. placement tests, is designed to place learners at an appropriate level in program or course. It aims to sort new students into teaching groups so that they can start a course or a program at approximately the same level.)Tests distinguished by the standard for measuring( criterion-referenced tests, norm-referenced tests)Tests distinguished by linguistic levels and skillsTests distinguished by the system of scoring ( subjective tests and objective tests)Tests distinguished by the nature of the test ( discrete-point tests integrative tests)Standard deviation is the most common measure of the dispersion of a series of scores and the most stable index of variability.Percentile ranks of any given score if a value indicating the percent of cases falling ar or below that score.12. Types of research categorized by the duration of the study (in longitudinal study, an individual or group is studied over a period of time. Cross-sectional study refers to the study of a group of different individuals or subjects at s single point in time, in order to measure or study a particular topic or aspect of language development.)Types of research categorized by the design and methodology (quantitative research is also called positivistic research. Qualitative research is also called naturalistic, ethnographic or postpositivistic research.)。

上课笔记整理篇1.理论语言学与应用语言学的区别：理论语言学回答的是“语言是什么？”；应用语言学回答的是“语言有什么用？怎么用？”理论语言学是“体”，即所谓的本体语言学；应用语言学是“用”“体之用”“其他学科之用”2.①“应用语言学”不是应用语言学几个分支学科的拼合。

不是分支学科甲加分支学科乙加分支学科丙。

也就是说，“应用语言学”主要研究的是所有的滚珠以及跟槽的接触部的动态规律，包括共性和个性。

②语言学之外也有理论。

应用语言学跟本体语言学一样，也从其他的学科吸取营养。

③应用语言学理论最根本的最终来源是语言生活实践。

语言生活实践→应用语言学理论3.本体语言学与应用语言学的交叉性：语言本体和本体语言学与第二语言教学、文化语言学、民族语言学、社会语言学有交叉4.应用语言学的范围：一、心理语言学心理语言学是研究人类个体如何获得、理解和生成语言的心理学分支。

它从心理过程和心理机制的角度来研究人类的语言活动特点。

心理语言学的研究的是跨学科的。

首先，它以语言的结构和功能为线索来探索人类言语活动的心理过程和机制，而语言的结构和功能是语言学的研究对象。

其次，在对言语活动的心理过程和机制进项研究的过程中，必然要涉及人脑的结构和特殊的机能，有时还要借助于对由脑损伤和发育障碍导致的病例分析。

最后，人类言语活动是在社会环境中发生和发展的，复杂的社会因素直接决定了语言系统的变化，对言语活动产生重要影响。

因此，对于人类言语活动心理机制的研究不仅依赖于心理学的理论和方法，而且采纳和吸收了语言学、社会学、生理学、临床医学、计算机科学、数学等许多领域的理论和方法。

·乔姆斯基认为语言是一个内在的认识系统，他创立了生成语言学。

在乔姆斯基看来，语言为人类独有、与生俱来，以一种内在的、隐性的知识内置于人的大脑之中，这种天赋的语言知识他称为“普遍语法”，普遍语法是人类共有的语言能力，区别于人的其他认知能力，是儿童获得语言的先决条件。

语言学及应用语言学专业考研知识点归纳叶蜚声《语言学纲要》各章知识点第一章语言的社会功能理解语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具第二章语言是符号系统本章有三大要点：语言是符号、语言的任意性特点、语言的层次性第三章语音第一节语音研究的诸方面(了解)第二节音响了解语音的四要素：音高、音重、音长、音质第三节发音掌握元音和辅音的发音方法和发音部位，注意元音舌位图。

第四节音位1、掌握音位的定义2、掌握归纳音位的原则：对立、互补、语音相似第五节音位的聚合(掌握理解)第六节音位的组合(掌握理解)掌握语流音变的四种情况：同化、异化、弱化、脱落第四章语法第一节语法和语法单位1、理解语法规则(聚合规则和组合规则)组合规则2、理解掌握语法单位(句子、词、语素)第二节组合规则1、掌握语素组合成词的规则，词的组合的五种基本类型2、掌握语法意义、语法形式、语法手段的概念3、掌握常见的几种语法手段：选词、词序、虚词、词形变化4、理解组合的递归性和层次性第三节聚合规则1、掌握词类划分的标准2、掌握形态的概念：附加词尾、内部曲折、异根3、掌握常见的语法范畴：性、数、格、时、体、态、人称等第四节变换(理解掌握)第五节语言的结构类型和普遍特征语言的语法结构类型，重点掌握根据语法结构特点，一般把世界上的语言分为孤立语、黏着语、屈折语和复综语第五章词义第一节词汇和词义1、掌握基本词汇的特点(普遍性、稳固性、能产性)和一般词汇(新词、古词、方言词、行业语、外来词)2、掌握词义的概括性的表现形式(一般性、模糊性、全民性)第二节词义的聚合1、掌握理解单义和多义，多义词是怎样产生的，词义派生的途径是引申，可分隐喻和换喻两种方式。

2、掌握理解同义词意义差别表现在哪些方面：(1)、词义的所指范围有大小之分，反应的侧面和重点有所不同，程度上有轻重之别。

(2)、附加色彩意义不同，或感情色彩不同，有褒贬之分，或者语体色彩不同。

(3)、搭配不同。

重点是能结合词语辨析。

应用语言学名词术语概念1.应用语言学：应用语言学分为狭义、广义两种。

狭义的应用语言学特指第二语言教学，中国一般取广义的，我们也取广义的，包括语言应用的各个方面，范围是开放的。

简单地说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同有关方面发生关系的学科。

进一步说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同应用各部分结合部、接触面，包括结合、接触的动态变化的规律性学科。

2.《马氏文通》：（1）这是中国形成独立的语言学学科的标志。

（2）马建忠认为必须缩短学习本国语文的过程，才能学习西方先进科学技术，才能使国家富强。

他认为孩童学习汉文典籍的困难，是没有把隐寓在汉语中的规律揭示出来。

他用西文中的规矩，同汉语典籍比较，写成《马氏文通》。

（3）《马氏文通》立足于发展中国的语言学而向外国学习，第一部系统地研究汉语语法的书。

3.《普通语言学教程》：瑞士语言学家索绪尔针对历史比较语言学的不足，提出了一系列的语言学理论，奠定了现代语言学的基础。

他的学生根据他的讲课笔记整理而成的《普通语言学教程》1916年出版，成为现代语言学的“圣经”。

4.《尔雅》：是第一部名物词典。

从此奠定了我国语言文字工具书如字典、辞典、词典类把语言本体类研究与语言应用研究结合为用的传统。

5.心理语言学：心理语言学是语言学和心理学跨学科研究的一门边缘性学科，它研究人们学习语言和使用语言的心理过程，用实验和自然观察为主要研究方法来探讨语言行为的规律。

现代语言学一方面注意语言能力的形成，一方面注意在特定条件下研究语言。

心理语言学则兼有这两个特点。

6.地名学：地名学是综合研究地名的由来、语词构成、含义、语言特征、演变、功能、分布规律以及地名与自然和社会环境之间关系的一门应用学科。

7.翻译学：翻译是把一种语言、方言等的内容变为另一种语言、方言等内容的过程或结果。

专门研究翻译问题的学科被称为翻译学。

8.语言接触：是一个语言学研究的现象，发生在不同的语气系统相互互动或影响之时。