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第七章思维与想象主要内容：本章主要学习思维、想象的概念、特征及其类型，了解思维的形式以及解决问题的思维过程，掌握影响解决问题的因素，初步理解在课堂教学中培养学生创造性思维的方法。
教学重点：思维的概念和分类，影响问题解决的因素，想象的概念和分类。
教学难点：思维的特征和分类。
教学方法：讲授、讨论、实验、练习课时：5具体内容：思维是一种人类特有的高级心理活动过程，是人类心理活动中最复杂、最重要的问题。
思维是人和动物相区别的显著特征之一，是人的重要的本质特征。
思维使我们能够以抽象的运作方式去处理外在世界，并且带来这个世界天翻地覆的变化。
关于思维的研究导致了认知心理学的产生，也导致了一个跨学科的研究领域--认知科学的产生。
本章将阐述以下问题：一、思维的概述二、思维的形式和解决问题的思维过程三、想象的概述四、思维的品质及创造性思维的培养第一节思维的概述一、思维的概念和特征(一)思维的概念思维是人脑对对客观事物的本质特征和规律性联系的概括的、间接的反映。
思维和感觉、知觉、记忆一样，是人脑对客观事物的反映活动。
不过，感觉和知觉是对客观事物的直接反映，所反映的是客观事物的外部属性和外在联系，属于感性认识阶段；思维则是在感性认识的基础上，利用记忆中介作用对客观事物的间接、概括地反映，所反映的是客观事物的本质特征和内在联系，属于理性认识阶段，因此思维是更复杂、更高级的认识活动。
它借助语言、表象或动作实现，是认知活动的高级形式。
(二)思维的特征思维的主要特征有以下几点1.间接性思维和感知觉不同，它总是凭借已有的知识经验和其他事物的媒介作用来对客观事物作出非直接的反映，因此，具有间接性。
例如，闻到饭菜香味，推断妈妈在厨房、根据手边的各种资料推测火星上的状况。
正是由于思维的间接性，人们才可能超越了感知觉提供的信息，认识那些没有直接作用于人的感官的事物的属性，从而揭示事物的本质和规律，实现对未来的预测。
2.概括性在大量的感性材料的基础上，把一类事物的共同特征和规律抽离出来加以认识，这就是思维的概括性。
普通心理学（下）重点难点整理习题普通心理学(下)第七章思维一、名词解释：1、思维2、动作思维、形象思维和抽象思维3、辐合思维和发散性思维4、常规思维和创造思维5、直觉思维和分析思维6、表象7、心理旋转8、想象9、不随意想象和随意想象10、再造想象、创造想象和幻想11、概念12、具体概念和抽象概念13、合取概念、析取概念和关系概念14、自然概念和人工概念15、概念形成16、算法式与启发式17、定势（心向）18、功能固着二、简答题：1、简述思维的含义及其特征。
2、人类思维发展的顺序是什么？3、思维的基本过程是什么？4、定势对解决问题有何影响？5、什么是表象？它在思维中有什么作用?6、简述想象的含义及其功能。
7、为什么说思维是一种高级的认知活动？8、试术问题解决过程中常采用的策略。
9、什么是有意想象？它有哪些种类和特点？三、论述题1、什么是问题的解决？、试分析日常生活中，有哪些心理因素影响着问题的解决？2、综合分析人在推理过程中发生错误的可能原因。
3、如何培养大学生的创造性思维4、试论述认知心理学关于概念结构的理论和发展。
5、有关概念结构的理论有哪些？简述这些理论的主要观点。
6、简要评价概念形成的两种理论。
7、为什么人们在推理过程中，总会出现一些推理错误？8、问题解决过程中可采用哪些策略？11、什么是创造性？它有什么特征，以及包括哪些心理成分？第八章语言一、名词解释：1、语言理解2、布洛卡区（Broca’s area）3、内部语言4、独白语言与对话语言5、语言的表征6、语言的加工7、威尔尼克区（Wernick’ area）9、语言知觉10、句子理解11、图式二、简答题1、语言与言语的区别与联系是什么？2、简述语言的表征和加工过程。
3、简述图式及其作用。
4、什么是语句的表层和深层结构？两者之间的关系怎样？5、简述语言的特点并利用这些特点评价心理学家教育黑猩猩学习语言的情况。
6、简述关于语言获得的两种对立的理论。
试题库第七章思维与创造西南石油大学杨勋西华大学唐利平一、单项选择题（共12题，1分/题，共12分）1、（A）是在心理上操纵我们所选择的物体、活动和情境的内部表征过程。
A.思维B.推理C.问题解决D.决策2、在“超常与常态儿童的兴趣、动机与创造性思维的比较研究”一文中，因变量显然是指：（D）A.超常儿童B.常态儿童C.超常与常态儿童D.兴趣、动机与创造性思维3、特征表说认为，概念是由（B）和概念规则两个因素构成的。
A.特征B.定义性特征C.特异性特征D.本质特征4、从一个或几个已知判断推出一个新判断的思维形式叫（B）。
A.思维B.推理C.问题解决D.决策5、（A）就是从一般性知识的前提到特殊性知识的结论的推理，也可以说是从一般到特殊的推理。
A.演绎推理B.三段论推理C.归纳推理D.类比推理6、由两个（或两类）对象在某些性质上的相同，推出它们在别的性质上也相同的推理形式是（D）。
A.演绎推理B.三段论推理C.归纳推理D.类比推理7、尝试错误的实验是由__D__在1911年做的。
A.苛勒B.斯金纳C.华生D.桑代克8、下列哪种情形不利于顿悟？(D)A.一段时间的大量准备B.一定时期的放弃C.不同的环境D.功能固着8、顿悟的最基本的成分是___D____信息编码、整合和比较。
A.机械地B.死记硬背地C.功能性地D.有选择地10、流畅性、灵活性和独创性是__C____的特点。
A.辐合思维B.演绎思维C.创造性思维D.尝试－错误法11、大多数人在面临获得的时候是风险规避的；而在面临损失的时候是风险偏爱的。
问题的提出方式会影响个体的推理，这种效应叫做（C ）A.代表性启发式B.可得性启发式C.框定D.概率推理12、采取措施一步一步地降低当前状态与目标状态之间的差异，直至解决问题，这种策略叫（B ）。
A.顿悟法B.爬山法C.逆向工作法D.手段—目的分析二、多项选择题（共7题，2分/题，共14分）1、特征表说中概念规则指具体整合定义特征的规则，包括（ABCD）A 简单规则B 合取规则C 析取规则D 关系规则E 一般规则2、下面哪些是影响问题解决的因素？（ABCDEF）A 问题本质B 问题表征C 心理定势D 功能固着E 呈现刺激的模式F知识经验3、创造者具有什么样的思维特点？（ABCD）A 思维流畅性B 思维的变通性C 思维的独特性D思维的敏感性E思维的跳跃性4、任何问题必备的主要成分是：（AD）A算法 B 初始状态 C 中间状态 D 目标状态 E 程序5、下面哪些是问题解决的策略：（ABCDE）A爬山法 B 手段—目的分析 C 逆向工作法 D 类比法 E 试误法6、下面属于演绎推理有（ABE）A所有的哺乳动物都是以乳哺育幼体的，而鲸鱼是哺乳动物，所以，鲸鱼是以乳哺育幼体的。
第七章思维第一节概述概念特征定义：思维是人脑借助于言语、表象和动作实现的、对客观事物的本质特征和内部联系的间接的和概括的反映。
内容：事物的本质特征和内部联系形式：间接性和概括性概括性：感性知识的基础上对同一类事物特征和规律的概括。
间接性：感性知识基础上对客观事物的间接认识时空性：不受时空的限制加工水平：更高级的信息加工活动，是探索和发现新物的心理过程。
思维过程分析和综合分析：把事物整体分解为部分、把复杂事物分解为简单要素分别加以考虑的智力操作综合：把事物的各个部分、各个方面、各种因素联系起来加以考虑的智力操作比较：确定对象之间的差异点与共同点的智力操作抽象和概括抽象：把事物的共同属性、本质特征抽取出来，并把它们与其它属性、次要特征分离的智力操作。
概括：把抽象出来的事物的共同属性、本质特征联系起来的智力操作。
思维种类◆按性质◆直观动作思维：（又称实践思维），面临的思维任务具有直观的形式。
解决问题的方式依赖于实际的动作。
（３岁前）◆具体形象思维：指利用头脑中的具体形象来解决问题（学前期）。
◆语词逻辑思维；人们面临理论性质的任务，并要运用抽象的概念、理论知识来解决问题的思维。
是人类思维的典型形式◆按创造性◆再生性思维（常规思维）：只要重现过去类似情景中已学会的方法便能使问题得到解决。
◆创造性思维：要求提出新的、发明性的办法来解决问题的思维◆按思维形式➢辐合性思维：（又叫聚合式思维，集中思维）把问题所提出的各种信息加以重新组织，从而得出一个正确答案或最佳解决方案的思维。
➢发散思维：（又叫分散性思维，辐射思维）是一种沿着不同的方向去思考，追求多样性的思维。
◆根据凭借物➢经验思维：借助日常生活经验进行的思维活动➢理论思维：根据科学的概念和论断，判断某个事物，解决某个问题。
◆按遵循逻辑➢形式逻辑思维：有明确的逻辑形式的思维。
又叫分析思维。
➢非形式逻辑思维：没有一定的逻辑形式，不遵循一定的逻辑规则的思维。
例如直觉思维➢经验思维：借助日常生活经验进行的思维活动➢理论思维：根据科学的概念和论断，判断某个事物，解决某个问题。
第一章:心理学研究什么和如何进行研究1、常言道：知人知面不知心，是因为人的心理现象是非常复杂的、神秘莫测的。
2、人的心理现象看不见、摸不着，因此研究它主要靠估计、猜测、内省思考等方法。
3、心理学的任务主要是窥测别人在想什么第二章:心理的神经生理机制1、仁者见仁，智者见智2、谈虎色变、望梅生津3、人体受到沉重的打击会全身发抖，受到轻微的皮肤触摸又会周身发麻。
4、长时间的学习容易疲劳。
第三章:感觉1、老病号不知药苦，小孩不觉糖甜。
2、听人歌罢有余音缭绕之感，一个光点消失了似乎还在眼前保持一刹那。
3、月明星稀4、入芝兰之室久而不闻其香，入鲍鱼之肆久而不闻其臭。
5、吃了糖后吃桔子，觉得格外酸。
6、“感觉剥夺”实验：把人置于一个没有任何刺激或极少有刺激的环境里，使其没有或极少有可能产生感觉。
实验结果表明：被剥夺感觉者注意不集中，思维不连贯，条理不清，反应迟钝，烦躁，甚至还会产生幻觉，神经质症状或恐怖症。
7、当人们目不转睛地注视一盏白色荧光灯一段时间后，把视线转向一堵白墙，会感到一盏黑色的灯的形象；或者关上灯，仍然有一盏灯在那亮着的感觉现象。
8.医院的墙壁为什么大多是白色、绿色或浅知觉1、外行看热闹，内行看门道。
2、国歌，无论是不同的人演奏，还是不同的乐器演奏，人们仍知觉为国歌。
3、老舍的《茶馆》搬上银幕后，放映时，一些轻易不出门的老头冒着凛冽的寒风，看了一场有一场啧啧称赞，而一些逢场必看的年轻影迷连看完一场都不耐烦，连说“一点也不好看”。
4、参观过贵州黄果树瀑布的人，似乎都有这样的感觉，明明知道是瀑布倾泻而下，却看作山石腾空而起；中间瀑布不断流下，两边山石不断升起。
5、一个成人的像，无论是一寸的相片，还是放大到一丈的相片，都感到他是成人。
6、甲、乙二人约定时间于某展览馆入口处相见，一同参观展览。
甲按时到达，乙在路上遇上一位友，寒喧了一阵，赶到约定地，迟到了半小时。
乙说：“迟到了一会”。
甲说：我等了老半天腿都站酸了。
心理学概论章节作业第一章1、(1)心理学研究对象都包括哪些？答：个体行为与个体心理、个体心理与社会心理、个体意识与个体无意识。
(2)试分析它们之间的关系。
答：1>个体行为与个体心理：心理学研究人的行为规律，同时也要研究人的心理活动规律，因为人的行为与人的心理活动是密不可分的，对人的心理活动的探知必须开始于对人的外显行为的观察。
2>个体心理与社会心理：人是作为个体而存在的，个人所具有的心理现象称个体心理。
社会心理不是个体心理的简单相加，它是人们在共同生活环境中产生的，是社会群体内个体心理的典型表现。
2、如何理解心理的形式与内容？答：形式与内容等都不是最重要的，重要的意义不在于表面的东西，而在于客观的真理，所以需要灵活和客观，不要被表面的框框所束缚。
需要理解内容的内涵、透过内容看到核心规律以避免被形式所困扰，并且由此可以更好的进行运用和创新了。
3（1）心理学基本任务是什么？答：心理学的基本任务是：研究心理现象的规律，主要是研究人的心理活动过程及其机制；（2）了解心理学的基本任务具有哪些理论意义和现实意义？答：1>理论意义：探明心理现象的各种规律在理论上具有重大的意义。
首先，心理学的研究成果为马克思主义认识论和辩证法提供科学论据。
心理学研究心理、意识的起源和发展，研究心理现象对客观事物的依存性，研究外界的客观刺激怎样引起脑的活动而产生主观的心理现象等问题。
其次，心理学的研究对邻近的社会科学如文学、艺术、法学、政治学、经济学等，也有一定的理论意义。
因为这些学科和心理学一样都要研究人、研究人的心理．只不过研究的侧面有所不同。
心理学的研究成果必然有助于它们深入地认识各自的研究对象。
2>实践意义：任何实践活动都是人的实践活动，都是在人的心理的调节下完成的。
心理学的研究成果能使人们运用已发现的心理规律去预测和控制心理现象的发生和发展，以提高各种实践活动的效率。
这样，心理学就可以直接参与到极为广泛的实践活动中去，为许多实践领域服务。
第七章-思维一、单选题1．根据在解决问题时，思维活动的方向和思维的成果的特点，可将思维分为( )。
A．动作思维和形象思维B．辐合思维和发散思维C．常规思维和创造性思维D．形象思维和抽象思维2．人脑所形成的事物的映像与它所反映的事物木身之间的区别是 ( )。
A．前者是第一性的，后者是第二性的B．两者皆是第一性的，只不过是事物的映像以观念的形式存在C．前者是第二性的，后者是第一性的D．两者皆是第一性的，而被反映的客观事物是独立存在于现实中的实在的客体3．概念形成的策略中，( )是更有效的策略。
A．保守性聚焦B．冒险性聚焦C．同时性扫描D．继时性扫描4．在下述推理中，正确的是 ( )。
A．所有A都是B，所有C都是B，因而所有A都是CB．所有A都不是B，所有B都是C，因此所有A都不是CC．所有A都是B，所有B都是C，因而所有A都是CD．有些A是B，有些B是C，因此，有些A是C5．看完《西游记》后，脑中产生一个 "椰棚如生"的孙悟空的形象的心理过程是( )。
A．再造想象B．创造想象C．幻想D．表象形成6．思维是借助语言、表象或动作实现的，对客观事物 ( )的认识。
A．直接具体B．常规抽象C．概括间接D．直接概括7．为研究概念的形成，人们在实验室条件下对 ( )进行了研究。
A．具体概念B．抽象概念C．自然概念D．人工概念8．在解决河内塔问题时人们采用的策略是 ( )。
A．算法B．手段一目的分析C．逆向搜索D．爬山法9．在概念的层次网络模型中，每个概念结点上贮存的是 ( )。
A．该概念的独有特征B．本级概念共有的特征C．该概念的功能性特征D．该概念的所有特征10．心理旋转实验证明表象具有 ( )。
A．直观性B．稳定性C．概括性D．可操作性11、想象是人脑对已有的（）进行加工改造而创造新形象的过程。
A经验B知识C客体D表象12、从爱听童话神话故事发展到爱听英雄模范故事，这是想象（）发展的表现。
普通心理学第一编绪论第一章心理学的研究对象和方法1．科学心理学内涵最妥当的表述是（）。
[华东师范大学2011研]A．对潜意识的实证揭示B．对人类行为的实证探讨C．对个体行为和心理活动的研究D．对社会事件与社会活动资料的搜集【答案】B【解析】心理学有时也称为研究行为的科学，即通过对行为的客观记录、分析和测量来揭示人的心理现象的规律性。
第二章心理的神经生理机制2．最直接影响摄食（吃、喝）和身体温度的神经机构是（）。
[南京师范大学2017研]A．内分泌系统B．下丘脑C．海马回D．杏仁核【答案】B【解析】下丘脑位于大脑腹面、丘脑的下方，是调节内脏活动和内分泌活动的较高级神经中枢，它能调节垂体前叶功能，合成神经垂体激素及控制自主神经和植物神经功能，若损伤会引起动机行为的异常，如摄食、饮水、性行为、打斗、体温调节和活动水平。
3．病人因颞叶受伤而导致受损的功能主要是（）。
[统考2016研]A．听觉B．视觉C．嗅觉D．味觉【答案】A【解析】听觉区：在颞叶的颞横回处，接受在声音的作用下由耳朵传入的神经冲动，产生初级形式的听觉，若此处受损主要影响的是听觉。
视觉区：位于顶枕裂后面的枕叶内，接受在光刺激的作用下由眼睛输入的神经冲动，产生初级形式的视觉。
机体感觉区：位于中央后回，接受由皮肤、肌肉和内脏器官传入的感觉信号，产生触压觉、温度觉、痛觉、运动觉和内脏感觉等。
4．在裂脑人实验中，假设给被试左视野呈现“苹果”图片，右视野呈现单词“杯子”，能顺利完成的任务是（）。
[统考2016 研]A．用左手选出屏幕后摆放的苹果B．右手选出苹果C．左手选出屏幕后摆放的杯子D．口头报告看到了苹果【答案】A【解析】每个半球只对来自身体对侧的刺激作出反应，并调节对侧身体的运动。
题目中左视野呈现“苹果”图片，投射在脑的右侧，被试用左手很容易从屏幕后选出苹果。
但是语言是左半球控制的，所以被试不能口头报告看到了苹果。
5．除嗅觉外，感觉信息传入大脑皮层最后一个中转站是（）。
Chapter 7 Thinking, Language and Intelligence第七章思维，语言和智力This chapter includes three modules: first, module 21 discusses the process of thinking, and its role in problem solving and decision making; second, module 22 introduces two systems in our body: the nervous system and the endocrine system; last, we can learn our brain in module 7.MODULE 21 THINKINGThe first part of this chapter discusses the process of thinking, and its role in problem solving and decision making. Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representation, such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts. Thus, in addition to the retrieval and processing of information from memory, cognition requires the manipulation of information in various ways.Mental images are Representations in the mind that resemble the object or event being represented. Using images and manipulating them help us think about and solve problems. Images also give us the power of visualization.ConceptsA concept is a mental category for classifying objects, people, and experiences based on their common features. Concepts help us think more efficiently about things and to categorize new experiences. Some concepts are "fuzzy," lacking clear-cut boundaries. Therefore, we often use prototypes, mental models of the most typical examples of a concept, to classify new objects. George Lakoff has extended the prototype model by observing that most of our concepts fit together to form idealized cognitive models (ICMs), which are our theories of events as we typically expect to find them.PROBLEM SOLVINGIn addition to thinking about things, human cognition involves the active use of language, images, and concepts—the building blocks of thought—to solve problems and make decisions.The Interpretation of ProblemsProblem representation, defining or interpreting the problem, is the first step in problem solving. We must decide whether to view the problem verbally, mathematically, or visually and how to categorize the problem. Expertise in a field increases a person's ability to interpret a particular problem.Producing and Evaluating SolutionsSelection of an optimum strategy for solving a problem follows problem interpretation.An algorithm is a prescribed method of problem solving that guarantees a correct solution if the method suits the problem and if it is carried out properly. Solving a mathematical problem by use of a formula is an example of the use of an algorithm.Heuristics are rules of thumb that help to simplify and solve problems, though they do not guarantee a correct solution. Means-end analysis, a heuristic that combines hill climbing and subgoals, aims to reduce the discrepancy between the current situation and the desired goal at a number of intermediate points. It allows us to take digressions or temporary steps backward that may be essential to solving the problem. There also are searching for analogies,breaking a big problem into small problems and Insight.Obstacles to Solving ProblemsEffective problem solving is tied to many factors, including the right level of motivation or emotional arousal. Too little emotion does not motivate, and too much may hinder the process of solution. Another factor that can help or hinder problem solving is Mental set, the tendency to perceive and to approach problems in certain ways. Sets enable us to draw on past experience to solve a present problem, but a strong set can also interfere with ability to use new and different approaches to solving a problem. One set that can seriously hamper problem solving is functional fixedness, the tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for an object.CreativityCreativity is the combining of responses or ideas in novel ways.There are two factors associate with creativity: convergent thinking and divergent thinking. Convergent thinking is appropriate for problems that have just one correct solution, whereas problems that have no single correct solution call for creativity—divergent thinking, thinking that is original, inventive, and flexible.MODULE 22 LANGUAGELanguage is a flexible system of symbols used for communication. Spoken language is based on phonemes, the basic sounds that make up a language. Phonemes group together to form morphemes, the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, and suffixes. When we wish to communicate an idea, we start with a thought, then choose words and phrases that will express the idea, and produce the speech sounds of those words and phrases. To understand speech, the task is reversed. Sentences have both a surface structure (particular words and phrases) and a deep structure (the underlying meaning).The rules that determine the meaning and form of words and sentences are called grammar. Semantics and syntax are the two major components of grammar. Semantics refers to how we assign meaning to the morphemes we use. Syntax is the system of rules for the structure of word forms and sentences.Critical period is a child is particularly sensitive to language cues and most easily acquires language. Great difficulty to overcome if not exposed to language during this critical period.Language acquisitionLearning-theory approachThe theory suggesting that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning. However, it is less successful in explaining how child acquire language rules.Language-acquisition deviceA neural system of the brain hypothesized to permit understanding of language. Chomsky did not identify a specific area of the brain in which it resides.Language and thinkingThere are two opinions about language and thinking: Language produces thought and Thought produces language.The hypothesis of language produces thought suggests that language shapes may determine the way people in a particular culture perceive and understand the world. However, most recent research suggest that thinking produces language. Nevertheless, it is clear that language influences how we think.MODULE 23 INTELLIGENCERecent research indicates that experts do not yet agree on a single definition of "intelligence." Moreover, "intelligence" apparently means somewhat different things to experts and to nonexperts. In the early 1980s, Sternberg and his associates discovered that both experts and nonexperts described an intelligent person as someone with practical problem-solving ability and verbal ability. But laypersons included social competence in their concepts of intelligence, whereas experts put more emphasis on motivation.THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCEIntelligence theorists fall into two categories. In one group are those who argue for a "general intelligence" that characterizes a person's actions and thinking in all areas. Their critics believe that intelligence is composed of many separate types of aptitudes and abilities, and that a person who excels in one area will not necessarily excel in all areas.Early Theories: Spearman and ThurstoneSpearman believed that intelligence is general: People who are bright in one area are bright in other areas as well. Thurstone disagreed: He believed that intelligence encompasses seven mental abilities that are relatively independent of one another.In contrast, Cattell divided mental abilities into two clusters. The first is crystallized intelligence, or abilities such as reasoning and the verbal and numerical skills that are stressed in school. The second is fluid intelligence, or skills such as spatial and visual imagery, the ability to notice visual details, and rote memory.Contemporary Theories: Sternberg and GardnerIn the mid-1980s, Yale psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence that includes a much broader range of skills and abilities. According to this theory, intelligence consists of three overarching aspects: componential intelligence, the traditional mental processes or skills emphasized by earlier theories of intelligence, such as the ability to acquire new knowledge and perform tasks efficiently; experiential intelligence, characterized by insight and creative adaptability as well as efficient and quick processing of information without conscious thought; and contextual intelligence, marked by responsiveness to the environment. Intelligent people, according to Sternberg, are adept at making the most of their strengths and compensating for their weaknesses. Howard Gardner has proposed his theory of multiple intelligences, which asserts that what we refer to as intelligence actually consists of many separate abilities, each of which is relatively independent of the others.INTELLIGENCE TESTSThe Stanford-Binet Intelligence ScaleThe Binet-Simon Scale, the first test of intelligence, was developed in France by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon for testing children. Originally issued in 1908, it consisted of 30 tests arranged in order of increasing difficulty. From the average scores of children, Binet developed the concept of mental age.The best-known Binet adaptation, created by Stanford University's L. M. Terman in 1916, is the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Terman introduced the term intelligence quotient (IQ), which is a numerical value given to scores on an intelligence test (a score of 100 corresponds to average intelligence).The Stanford-Binet is designed to measure skills in four areas: verbal reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-term memory.The Wechsler Intelligence ScalesThe Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III) was developed by David Wechsler especially for adults. The test measures both verbal and performance abilities. Wechsler also created the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III), which is meant to be used with school-agedchildren. It measures verbal and performance abilities separately, though it also yields an overall IQ score.Group TestsGroup tests are administered by one examiner to many people at one time. Group tests are most commonly used by schools. The California Test of Mental Maturity (CTMM) and the SAT are group tests. Group tests aim to overcome the problems of time and expense associated with individual tests and to eliminate bias on the part of the examiner. However, in a group setting the examiner is less likely to notice whether an individual test taker is tired, ill, or confused by the directions. Emotionally disturbed children and people who have less experience taking tests usually do better on individual tests than on group tests.Performance and Culture-Fair TestsSome intelligence tests may discriminate against members of certain cultural or ethnic groups. Performance tests are intelligence tests that do not involve language, so they can be useful for testing people who lack a strong command of English. The Seguin Form Board, the Porteus Maze, and the Bayley Scale of Infant Development are performance tests.Culture-fair tests are designed to eliminate cultural bias by minimizing skills and values that vary from one culture to another. The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test and the Progressive Matrices are examples of culture-fair tests.WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEST?Psychologists use reliability and validity as measures of a test's quality, and for purposes of comparing different tests.ReliabilityReliability is the ability of a test to produce consistent and stable scores. The simplest way to determine a test's reliability is to give the test to a group and then, after a short time, give it again to the same group. If the group scores the same each time, the test is reliable. The problem with this way of determining reliability is that the group may have remembered the answers from the first testing. One method of eliminating this problem is to divide the test into two parts and check the consistency of people's scores on both parts. If the scores generally agree, the test is said to have split-half reliability. Psychologists express reliability in terms of correlation coefficients, the statistical measure of the degree of linear association between two variables. Correlation coefficients can vary from -1.0 to +1.0. The reliability of intelligence tests is about .90; that is, scores remain fairly stable across repeated testing.ValidityValidity is the ability of a test to measure what it has been designed to measure. Content validity exists if a test contains an adequate sample of questions relating tothe skills or knowledge it is supposed to measure. In general, most intelligence tests assess many of the abilities considered to be components of intelligence: concentration, planning, memory, language comprehension, and writing. However, a single test may not cover all the areas of intelligence, and tests differ in their emphasis on the abilities they do measure.Criterion-related validity refers to the relationship between test scores and independent measures of whatever the test is designed to measure. In the case of intelligence, the most common independent measure is academic achievement. Despite their differences in surface content, most intelligence tests are good predictors of academic success. Based on this criterion, these tests seem to have adequate criterion-related validity.Criticisms of IQ TestsMuch of the criticism of intelligence tests has focused on their content. Critics point out that most intelligence tests are concerned with only a narrow set of skills and may, in fact, measure nothing more than the ability to take tests. Critics also maintain that the content and administration of IQ tests are shaped by the values of Western middle-class society and that, as a result, they may discriminate against minorities. IQ tests are also criticized because the results are often used to label some students as slow learners. Finally, IQ tests do not offer information on motivation, emotion, attitudes, and other similar factors that may have a strong bearing on a person's success in school and in life.Other critics hold that intelligence is far too complex to be precisely measured by tests. IQ tests are also criticized for neglecting to account for social influences on a person's performance. According to recent reviews of the evidence, intelligence tests are good predictors of success on the job. However, because so many variables figure in occupational success, psychologists continue to debate this issue. Robert Sternberg and Richard Wagner have called for a test to be developed specifically to measure skills related to job performance. They refer to the knowledge that people need to perform their jobs effectively as tacit knowledge.WHAT DETERMINES INTELLIGENCE?HeredityHistorically, research on the determinants of intelligence has focused on identical twins—some reared together; others reared apart in separate households. The correlation between the IQs of all identical twins is usually very high, indicating that their identical genetic inheritance is a more powerful determinant of intelligence than their experiences. But critics of this research make several strong points: (1) It is difficult to find identical twins who have been separated at birth, so that there are only a few such studies; (2) identical twins tend to be placed in households similar in socioeconomic background to those of their biological parents; and (3) even twins separated at birth have had nearly identical prenatal experiences.EnvironmentResearch on rats as well as on humans strengthens the case for environment as a factor in the development of superior intellectual ability. Thus, even though certain mental abilities are inherited, without the necessary stimulation a child's intelligence will not develop. This finding is important because lower-income families don't have access to the kinds of resources that other families do. Significantly, when they are placed in more stimulating environments, economically deprived children show an improvement in their level of intelligence. For example, lower-income children raised in middle-class homes display significant gains in IQ compared with their counterparts growing up in low-income households. Similarly, children who participate in intervention programs such as Head Start frequently exhibit improvements in cognitive abilities, although the long-term.。
第二编人的信息加工第七章思维第一节思维的一般概念✧一、思维的概念与特征✧定义：借助语言、表象和动作实现的对客观事物概括和间接的认识。
是认识的高级形式能揭示事物的本质特征和内部联系表现在概念形成、问题解决和决策等活动中是对已有知识经验进行改组、建构的过程（一）概括性✹在感性材料的基础上，抽取一类事物共同特征和规律✹使人的认识摆脱了具体事物的局限性和对事物的直接依赖✹是概念形成的前提，是思维迁移的基础✹概括水平越高，思维水平越高；认识水平越高，概括水平越高过度概括化？（二）间接性✹人借助于一定媒介和知识经验对客观事物进行间接的认识✹超越感知觉的局限，揭示事物的本质和规律（三）对经验的改组✹是探索、发现新事物的心理过程。
✧二、思维的过程－思维操作（加工环节）分析与综合是思维的基本过程✹分析：在头脑中把事物的整体分解为各个部分✹综合：在头脑中把事物的各个部分结合起来，形成整体。
比较✹对比各种事物的相同点、不同点及关系。
抽象与概括✹抽象是在思想上抽取出各种事物与现象共同的特征和属性，舍弃其个别特征和属性的过程。
✹概括是在抽象基础上对事物内在联系和本质特征的认识。
三、思维的种类（一）、根据思维的任务、内容和解决问题的方法分✹直观动作思维（实践思维）通过实际操作解决直观具体问题的思维活动✹形象思维利用头脑中的具体形象解决问题的思维活动✹逻辑思维面对理论性质的任务，运用概念、判断、推理等形式解决问题的思维活动人类思维的典型形式，与动物心理的根本区别。
（二）经验思维和理论思维✹经验思维：凭借日常生活经验进行的思维活动。
容易因经验不足而导致片面性，甚至得出错误的结论✹理论思维：用科学的概念和论断进行判断。
（三）直觉思维和分析思维✹直觉思维：对于新问题能够迅速理解并做出判断的思维活动。
直接的领悟，快速而跳跃✹分析思维：遵循严密的逻辑规律进行推导的思维活动，也叫逻辑思维。
（四）辐合思维和发散思维✹辐合思维：按照已知的信息和熟悉的规则进行的思维，又叫求同思维。
第七章学前儿童的思维
一、思维概述
1、思维的概念：
思维是指人脑对客观现实的间接的、概括的反映，是以词为中介，通过概念、判断和推理的形式反映事物。
思维发生的指标（概括性、间接性、解决问题）
2、思维的分类
（1）按个体思维发展的水平：直觉行动思维；具体形象思维；抽象逻辑思维
（2）根据指向性的不同：聚合式思维；发散式思维
（3）根据思维创造性的不同：常规思维；创造思维
3、思维的品质
（1）思维的广度
（2）思维的灵活性
（3）思维的深刻性
（4）思维的独立性
（5）思维的敏捷性
（6）思维的逻辑性
4、思维在学前儿童心理发展中的作用
（1）思维的发生，标志着儿童的各种认识过程已经齐全：思维的发生，说明儿童已经具备了人类各种认识过程。
（2）思维的发生发展使其他认识过程产生质变：由于思维的参加，知觉已经不只是单纯反映事物的表面特征，而成为在思维指导下理解了的知觉。
思维的产生使儿童的机械记忆发展成为意义记忆，即理解了的记忆。
（3）思维的发生发展使情绪，意志和社会性行为得到发展：
①思维使儿童的情绪活动越来越复杂化。
②思维发生和发展使儿童出现了意志行动的萌芽。
③思维的发生发展，也使儿童开始理解人与人之间的关系，理解自己的行为所产生的社会性后果。
（4）思维的发生标志着意识和自我意识的出现：思维的发生是儿童具备了对事物进行概括，间接反应的可能，从而出现了意识特征的初级形态，开始出现不同于动物的心理特征。
二、学前儿童思维的发展
1、学前儿童思维发展的阶段性
（1）感知运动阶段（0-2岁）
（2）前运算阶段（2-7岁）
①前概念阶段或象征性阶段（2-4岁）
这一阶段的主要特点是思维开始运用象征性符号进行。
出现表征功能，或称象征性功能。
前概念阶段，儿童思维中的物体已经减少个别性，带有某些一般性，概括性。
前概念思维的特点，还表现在认为个别成分并不是在整体中。
前概念思维是“中心化”的思维，或称“自我中心思维”。
②直觉思维阶段（4-7岁）
直觉思维阶段是前概念思维向运算思维过渡的中间阶段。
直觉思维的特点是它既能反映事物的一些客观逻辑，同时又还受直接感知形象的影响。
③具体运算阶段（7-11岁）
2、学前儿童思维发展的特点
直觉行动思维(0-3岁) 具体形象思维（3-6、7岁）抽象逻辑思维（6岁以后）
（1）直觉行动思维主要特点
①直观性和行动性
②初步的间接性和概括性
③缺乏行动的计划性和对行动结果的预见性
④思维的狭隘性
（2）具体形象思维主要特点
①思维动作的内隐性
②具体形象性（派生特点：经验性，拟人性，表面性，片面性，固定性，近视性）
③自我中心性（不可逆性或单向性；绝对性；拟人化或泛灵论；过渡性）（3）抽象逻辑思维的萌芽
随着抽象逻辑思维的萌芽，自我中心的特点逐渐开始消除，即开始“去自我中心化”。
儿童开始学会从他人以及不同的角度考虑问题，开始获得“守恒”观念，开始理解事物的相对性。
（4）学前儿童掌握概念的特点：
①掌握概念的方式：a.通过实例获得概念；b.通过语言理解获得概念
②学前儿童掌握概念的特点：
a．以掌握具体实物概念为主，向掌握抽象概念发展
b．概念的内涵往往不精确，外延也不恰当
掌握概念水平的常用方法：1、分类法 2、排除法 3、解释法（定义法） 4、守恒法
（5）学前儿童判断和推理的发展
①判断能力的发展
a.判断的形式逐渐间接化
b.判断的依据逐渐客观化
c.判断的论据逐渐明确化
②推理能力的发展
a.抽象概括性差
b.逻辑性差
c.自觉性差
（归纳推理、演绎推理、类比推理）
（6）学前儿童理解的发展
①从对个别事物的理解，发展到理解事物的关系。
②从主要依靠具体形象来理解事物，发展到依靠语言说明来理解。
③从对事物简单、表面的理解，发展到理解事物较复杂、较深刻的含义。
④从不理解事物的相对关系，到初步能理解事物的辩证关系。
三、学前儿童思维能力的培养
1、不断丰富幼儿的感性知识
2、发展幼儿语言
3、教给幼儿正确的思维方法
4、激发幼儿的求知欲，保护幼儿的好奇心
5、通过智力游戏、实验等方式，锻炼幼儿的思考力。
