Figures of speech

Figures of speechFigures of speech are ways of making our language figurative. When we use words in other than their ordinary or literal sense to lend force to an idea, to heighten effect, or to create suggestive imagery, we are said to be speaking or writing figuratively.英语的修辞可以分为消极修辞和积极修辞两大类。

一、消极修辞(Passive Rhetoric Techniques)它主要指那些没有相对固定格式的修辞性写作技巧，它与语法、语言结构和词汇的关系密切，只是为了修辞和立意新颖的缘故，对之做了一些调整。

举一种情况进行说明：为了增加文采，强化文章的表现力，常常避免重复使用同一个词汇，而另选他词。

这种无固定格式可循的消极修辞手段被称为Elegant Variation（求雅换词）。

如在Elizabeth Razzi写的题为10 Ways to Lose Pounds 的文章中，“减肥”的表达竟有8种，文笔活泼，文采灿然：1. Try to shed a fewextra pounds 2. Studies show these efforts may shave off the pounds quickly. 3. Here are ten simple strategies that can help melt away your fat forever. 4. …like a logical way to peel off a few pounds. 5. …roughly the amount needed to burn off one pound. 6. You must eat less to lose weight.7. A key obstacle to dropping extra pounds is after-dinner snacking. 8. 10 Ways to Lose Pounds.求雅换词的手法之一是大字小用，或小词大用。

1.明喻（simile）明喻是直接把一物同某种与其具有同一性质或特点的另一物相比较，常用的比喻词有as，like，seem，as though等
2.暗喻（metaphor）暗喻是间接的把一物同与其具有某种相似点的另一屋相比较，不用比喻词
3.拟人（personification）拟人是指把非人的事物当作人来写，把人的特点赋予事物或某种抽象概念，用本来只适用于人的名词，形容词，动词来描写事物，使其具有人的某些属性
4.夸张（hyperbole）故意夸大事实，给人以深刻的印象，起强调作用。

夸张常与暗喻连在一起
5.委婉语（euphemism）使用委婉词来避免提及刺耳或不愉快的东西
6.反语（irony）讲反话，故意使用同本意相反的说法
7.对偶（antithesis）两个相同或相似的语言结构的对仗或对照
8.转喻（METONYMY）借用与某物相关
或关联的东西代称某物
Gray hair should be respected 老人应该受到尊重这里的gray hair代表老人
9.类比（ANALOGY）巴两种本质上不同的事物之间的共同点加以比较，来说明道理，把抽象的概念具体化，吧深奥的哲理浅显化
10.矛盾修饰法（oxymoron）修饰语与被修饰语之间看来似乎是矛盾的，但实则相反相成poor rich men 贫穷的富人
11.对照（contrast）把意义相反的字词、短语或句子等平行的排列起来，在结构上对称，揭示出事物间的对立或矛盾12.排比（parallelism）结构类似的句子成分或句子，几个单词连串。

Figures of speech (修辞)are ways of making our language figurative. When we use words in other than their ordinary or literal sense to lend force to an idea, to heigh ten effect, or to create suggestive imagery, we are said to be speaking or writing fi guratively. Now we are going to talk about some common forms of figures of speec h.1) Simile：(明喻）It is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic (特性)in common. To make the comparison, words like as, as...as, as if and like are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other. For example, As cold waters to a thirst y soul, so is good news from a far country.2) Metaphor：(暗喻）It is like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unli ke elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated. For example, the world is a stage.3) Analogy: (类比）It is also a form of comparison, but unlike simile or metaphor which usually uses comparison on one point of resemblance, analogy draws a parall el between two unlike things that have several common qualities or points of resem blance.4) Personification: (拟人）It gives human form of feelings to animals, or life and personal attributes(赋予) to inanimate(无生命的) objects, or to ideas and abstraction s(抽象). For example, the wind whistled through the trees.5) Hyperbole: (夸张）： It is the deliberate use of overstatement or exaggeration t o achieve emphasis. For instance, he almost died laughing.6) Understatement: (含蓄陈述）It is the opposite of hyperbole, or overstatement. It achieves its effect of emphasizing a fact by deliberately(故意地) understating it, i mpressing the listener or the reader more by what is merely implied or left unsaid than by bare statement. For instance, It is no laughing matter.7) Euphemism: (委婉）It is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive(无冒犯) expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. For instance, we refer to "die" as” pass away".8) Metonymy (转喻）It is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the mane of one thing for that of another. For instance, the pen (words) is mi ghtier than the sword (forces).9) Synecdoche (提喻）It is involves the substitution of the part for the whole, or the whole for the part. For instance, they say there's bread and work for all. She was dressed in silks.10) Antonomasia (换喻）It has also to do with substitution. It is not often mentio ned now, though it is still in frequent use. For example, Solomon for a wise man. Daniel for a wise and fair judge. Judas for a traitor.11) Pun: (双关语）It is a play on words, or rather a play on the form and meani ng of words. For instance, a cannon-ball took off his legs, so he laid down his arm s. (Here "arms" has two meanings: a person's body; weapons carried by a soldier.)12) Solipsism: (一语双叙）It has two connotations. In the first case, it is a figure by which a word, or a particular form or inflection of a word, refers to two or m ore words in the same sentence, while properly applying to or agreeing with only o n of them in grammar or syntax(句法). For example, He addressed you and me, an d desired us to follow him. (Here we are used to refer to you and me.)In the second case, it a word may refer to two or more words in the same sente nce. For example, while he was fighting, and losing limb and mind, and dying, othe rs stayed behind to pursue education and career. (Here to losing one's limbs in liter al; to lose one's mind is figurative, and means to go mad.)13) Zeugma: (轭式搭配）It is a single word which is made to modify or to gover n two or more words in the same sentence, wither properly applying in sense to o nly one of them, or applying to them in different senses. For example, the sun shal l not burn you by day or the moon by night. (Here noon is not strong enough to burn)14) Irony: (反语）It is a figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant, the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense. For instance, we are lucky, what you said makes me feel realgood.15) Innuendo: (暗讽）It is a mild form of irony, hinting in a rather roundab out (曲折)way at something disparaging(不一致) or uncomplimentary(不赞美) to the person or subject mentioned. For example, the weatherman said it would be worm. He must take his readings in a bathroom.16) Sarcasm: (讽刺）It Sarcasm is a strong form of irony. It attacks in a taunting and bitter manner, and its aim is to disparage, ridicule and wound the feelings of the subject attacked. For example, laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small f lies, but let wasps break through.17) Paradox: (似非而是的隽语）It is a figure of speech consisting of a statement or proposition which on the face of it seems self-contradictory, absurd or contrary t oestablished fact or practice, but which onfurther thinking and study may prove to be true, well-founded, and even to contain a succinct point. For example more hast e, less speed.18) Oxymoron: (矛盾修饰）It is a compressed paradox, formed by the conjoinin g(结合) of two contrasting, contradictory or incongruous(不协调) terms as in bitter-s weet memories, orderly chaos(混乱) and proud humility(侮辱).19) Antithesis: (对照）It is the deliberate arrangement of contrasting words or i deas in balanced structural forms to achieve emphasis. For example, speech is silver; silence is golden.20) Epigram: (警句）It states a simple truth pithily(有利地) and pungently(强烈地). It is usually terse and arouses interest and surprise by its deep insight into certain aspects of human behavior or feeling. For instance, Few, save the poor, feel for the poor.21) Climax: (渐进）It is derived from the Greek word for "ladder" and implies the progression of thought at a uniform or almost uniform rate of significance or inte nsity, like the steps of a ladder ascending evenly. For example, I came, I saw, I co nquered.22) Anti-climax or bathos: (突降） It is the opposite of Climax. It involves stating one's thoughts in a descending order of significance or intensity, from strong to weak, from weighty to light or frivolous. For instance, But thousands die, without or this or that, die, and endow(赋予) a college, or a cat.23) Apostrophe：(顿呼）In this figure of speech, a thing, place, idea or perso n (dead or absent) is addressed as if present, listening and understanding what is being said.For instance, England! awake! awake! awake!24) Transferred Epithet: (转类形容词）It is a figure of speech where an epithet (an adjective or descriptive phrase) is transferred from the noun it should rightly m odify(修饰) to another to which it does not really apply or belong. For instance, I s pent sleepless nights on my project.25) Alliteration: (头韵）It has to do with the sound rather than the sense of wo rds for effect. It is a device that repeats the same sound at frequent intervals(间隔) and since the sound repeated is usually the initial consonant sound, it is also calle d "front rhyme". For instance, the fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, the furrow followed free.26) Onomatopoeia: (拟声）It is a device that uses words which imitate the soun ds made by an object (animate or inanimate), or which are associated with or sug gestive(提示的) of some action or movement。

Figures of Speech1 Simile 明喻Simile is the most common figure of speech in English. It is not direct statement or description. It is a comparison, but is different from an ordinary, literal comparison. Its form is “subject (tenor) + reference (vehicle)”, indicated by indicators of resemblance (simile markers): like, as, as…as, etc.O my Luve’s like a red, red rose. —by Robert Burnstenor + simile markers + vehicle2 Metaphor 暗喻A metaphor is also a comparison between two different things with a similar quality, unlike a simile, the comparison is implied. There are no simile markers. So metaphor is also called “Condensed Simile”Style is the dress of thought.subject + reference3 Personification 拟人It makes inanimate objects, naturalphenomena, abstractions or animals possess the qualities of human beings.Time and tide wait for no man.4 Zoosemy 拟物On the contrary, a zoosemy is to describe human beings with the qualities of animals, plants, inanimate objects or abstractions.She is shedding crocodile tears.5 Apostrophe顿呼A speaker or writer directly addresses to an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction. It is often introduced by the exclamation “O”.Apostrophe is often used to convey extreme emotion, for examples:“O eloquent, just, and mighty Death!”6 Analogy 类比Analogy is a form of comparison, comparing the two unlike things with many common qualities or points of resemblance, or even the differences. There are four sentence patterns.Water moves in waves the way (that) lighttravels.7 Hyperbole 夸张Hyperbole is the use of overstatement or exaggerated expression in quantity, shape and degree (level) to intensify feelings, to emphasize a point, or to create humour.He almost died laughing.8 Understatement 低调陈述Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole, or overstatement. In understatement the words play down the magnitude or value of the subject. It emphasizes a fact by deliberately understating it. Understatement can be divided into Litotes and Meiosis.LitotesA litotes is understatement used ironically, especially using a negative to express the contrary, to emphasize or weaken the expressions.This is no laughing matter. (=This is a serious matter.)MeiosisMeiosis is using weak expressions to replace strong ones, that is, using comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs or intensive adverbs (almost, hardly, kind of, rather, scarcely, something of, sort of, etc.) to weaken mood.It took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming pool.9 Metonymy 转喻The name of one thing substitutes for that of another with which it is closely associated in nature or meaning.Shakespeare is my favourite.The crown has lost much of its ancient power.10 Synecdoche 提喻When a part stands for the whole or the whole stands for a part, Synecdoche is applied.The farms were short of hands (helpers, labourers) at harvest time.The birds sang to welcome the smiling year (=spring).11 Antithesis 对句、对偶Antithesis is a counter-proposition and denotes a direct contrast to the original proposition.Man proposes, God disposes.Speech is silver; silence is gold.12 Epigram 警句An epigram is a brief, clever, and usually memorable statement that has the nature of a proverb.Hunger is the best sauce.=A hungry person is not choosy about his food.13 Parallelism 排比It’s the deliberate arrangement of two or more words, phrases, clauses or sentences that are symmetric in grammatical structure to create vigorous rhythm and deeper impression.My boss has traveled around the world by land, by sea, and by air.14 Climax 层进A climax is a figure of speech in whichwords, phrases, or clauses are arranged in order of increasing importance—the most important placed at the end of a sentence. For examples:He sacrificed his business, his home, and his honor for political gain.There are three things that will endure: faith, hope, and love. But the greatest of these is love.15 Anti-climax 突降Similarly an anti-climax is an abrupt declension (either deliberate or unintended) on the part of a speaker or writer from the dignity of idea which he appeared to be aiming at.I have lost my beau and lip-stick too!He lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his dog at one swoop.16 Anastrophe 倒装Anastrophe is a figure of speech involving an inversion of a language’s ordinary order of words; for example, saying “smart you are” to mean “you are smart”.Sweet was that evening.Extremely sorry I am for my mistakes.17 Repetition 反复Repetition is the simple repeating of a word, within a sentence or a poetical line, with no particular placement of the words, in order to emphasize.Immediate repetition“Stop it, stop it, stop it”, the woman cried.They kept talking, talking, talking all night long.Intermittent repetitionLike draws like.Easy come, easy go.Out of sight, out of mind.18 Anaphora 首语重复An anaphora is a rhetorical device that consists of repeating a sequence of words at the beginnings of neighboring clauses, thereby lending them emphasis.Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition!19 Epistrophe尾词重复Epistrophe is the repetition of the same word or words at the end of successive phrases, clauses or sentences. It is an extremely emphatic device because of the emphasis placed on the last word in a phrase or sentence.When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child.20 Chiasmus 回文In rhetoric, chiasmus is the figure of speech in which two or more clauses are related to each other through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point; that is, the clauses display inverted parallelism. The elements of a simple chiasmus are often labelled in the form A B B A, where the letters correspond to grammar, words, or meaning.In inverted meaningWho dotes, yet doubts; suspects, yet strongly loves.In inverted grammarHe knowingly lied and we blindly followed.(A B A B)In inverted wordMadam, I’m Adam.Ma is as selfless as I am.21 Anadiplosis 顶真、联珠法Anadiplosis (also called catchword repetition, or chain reapetition, means “a doubling, folding up”) is the repetition of the last word of a preceding clause. The word is used at the end of a sentence and then used again at the beginning of the next sentence. For examples:When I give I give myself.Strength through unity, unity through faith.22 Circumlocution 迂回法Circumlocution is an ambiguous or roundabout figure of speech. In its most basic form, circumlocution is using many words (such as “a to ol used for cutting things such as paper and hair”) to describe something simple (“scissors”). In this sense, the vast majority of definitions found in dictionaries arecircumlocutory.Grandfather: the father of one’s father23 Aposiopesis 跳脱、说话中断法Aposiop esis (means “maintaining silent”) is a rhetorical device wherein a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, the ending to be supplied by the imagination, giving an impression of unwillingness or inability to continue. An example would be th e threat “Get out, or else—!”24 Euphemism 委婉语It is the substitution of a mild or vague or roundabout expression for a harsh or direct or unpleasant one. For example:old people: senior citizensstupid pupil: slow learner / under-achiever 25 Irony 反语It is the expression of one’s meaning by saying something that is the direct opposite to what is meant, in order to achieve ironical emphasis.Oh, how I love queuing up. (In fact youhate queuing up.)26 Innuendo 暗讽、影射Innuendo is an allusive remark concerning a person or thing, especially of a depreciatory kind. It is a figure of speech in which moderate and allusive words and tone are used to make comments or pass criticisms upon a person or thing It hints or implies something uncomplimentary without plainly saying it.I stopped at page 412, with 407 pages to go. (He admitted that he literally couldn’t make himself finish a book he was reviewing.)27 Sarcasm讥讽While innuendo is a mild form of irony, sarcasm is just the opposite. Sarcasm is “a sharp, bitter, or cutting expression or remark; a bitter jibe or taunt.” Some authorities sharply distinguish sarcasm from irony,however others argue that sarcasm may or often does involve irony.It is even not impossible that My Hope for America is the worst book ever written by anypolitical leader anywhere…28 Syllepsis 异叙When a single word (usually a verb or an adjective, etc.) that governs or modifies two or more others must be understood differently with respect to each of those words.The man lost the game and his temper.(=The man failed in the game and was out of temper.)29 Zeugma 轭式修饰法Zeugma, f rom the Greek “a yoking, a bond”, is the use of a word to modify or govern two or more words although its use may be grammatically or logically correct with only one.The robber killed the boy and his luggage.(=The robber killed the boy and destroyed his luggage.)30 Oxymoron 矛盾修饰法In oxymoron apparently contradictory terms are combined to produce a peculiar effect.She read the long-awaited letter with atearful smile.The president was conspicuously absent on that occasion.31 Paradox 悖论A paradox is a figure of speech consisting of a statement or proposition which on the face of it seems self-contradictory, absurd or contrary to established fact or practice, but which on further thinking and study may prove to be true, well-founded, and even to contain a succinct point. For examples:More haste, less speed.32 Parody 仿拟A parody is a piece of writing, music, acting, etc. that deliberately copies the style of somebody or something in order to be amusing. For examples:In economics all roads lead to socialism. (All roads lead to Rome.)33 Allusion 典故An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference to, or representation of, a place,event, literary work, myth, or work of art, either directly or by implication. It is left to the reader or hearer to make the connection; where the connection is detailed in depth by the author, it is preferable to call it “a reference”.It was to be his Waterloo.Unaware of the sword of Damocles hanging over her, she pursued her own way.34 Synaesthesia 通感Synaesthesia is a sensation produced in one modality when a stimulus is applied to another modality, as when the hearing of a certain sound induces the visualization of a certain color. For examples:She had a sweet voice.It made a heavy sound.35 Transferred Epithet 移就An adjective or descriptive phrase is used to characterize object. It does not directly describe the quality or characteristic of object, but expresses the impression of object to people.What a happy mom ent I’ve ever had!She spent several sleepless nights for the coming examinations.36 Rhetorical Question反诘句By using interrogative sentence it expresses the positive meaning. It equals to the positive sentence, needless to answer.Didn’t I tell you the an swer? (=You know I told you.)37 Alliteration 头韵It refers to the repetition of the same initial sound(s) or letter(s) (usually consonants) in two or more successive words, such as “safe and sound” and “as proud as a peacock”.There was neither fish nor flesh.No sweet without sweat.38 Assonance 腹韵It refers to the repetition of the same vowel sound in group words, a sentence, or a line prose, usually with the same letters, such as “fair and square” and “near and dear”.No pains, no gains. (No gains withoutpains.)The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.39 Consonance 尾韵It refers to the repetition of the same ending consonant sound in group words, a sentence, or a line prose, such as “rough and tough” and “a blessed ghost”.When I lent I was a friend, when I asked I was unkind.40 Pun 双关Pun, or paronomasia, is a play on words which is similar in sound but different in sense.HomophoneA: Have you any fish to eat?B: Sorry, Sir. Long time no sea (see).A: What flower does everyone have?B: Tulips (two lips).A: What tree comes in two?B: Pear tree (pair tree).HomonymA: What travels faster, heat or cold?B: Heat, because you catch cold easily.A: What is the difference between a soldier and a young girl?B: One powders the face; the other faces the powder.41 Onomatopoeia 拟声法Onomatopoeia is a kind of formation of words by imitating the sounds the things give out, such as crash, murmur, putt, whisper, jangle, ding-dong, tinkle, etc. It makes the expressions vivid, true (close) to life.He closed the door with a bang.They started giggling when seeing me.The railway was clicking.She always chattered for a long time.Figures of Speech1 Simile 明喻2 Metaphor 暗喻3 Personification 拟人4 Zoosemy 拟物5 Apostrophe顿呼6 Analogy 类比7 Hyperbole 夸张8 Understatement 低调陈述9 Metonymy 转喻10 Synecdoche 提喻11 Antithesis 对句、对偶12 Epigram 警句13 Parallelism 排比14 Climax 层进15 Anti-climax 突降16 Anastrophe 倒装17 Repetition 反复18 Anaphora 首语重复19 Epistrophe尾词重复20 Chiasmus 回文21 Anadiplosis 顶真、联珠法22 Circumlocution 迂回法23 Aposiopesis 跳脱、说话中断法24 Euphemism 委婉语25 Irony 反语26 Innuendo 暗讽、影射27 Sarcasm讥讽28 Syllepsis 异叙29 Zeugma 轭式修饰法30 Oxymoron 矛盾修饰法31 Paradox 悖论32 Parody 仿拟33 Allusion 典故34 Synaesthesia 通感35 Transferred Epithet 移就36 Rhetorical Question反诘句37 Alliteration 头韵38 Assonance 腹韵39 Consonance 尾韵40 Pun 双关41 Onomatopoeia 拟声法。