文献翻译 15年4月

外文文献翻译格式范例本科毕业设计（外文翻译）外文参考文献译文及原文学院信息工程学院专业信息工程（电子信息工程方向）年级班别 2006级（4）班学号 3206003186学生姓名柯思怡指导教师 ______ 田妮莉 _ __2010年6月目录熟悉微软SQL Server (1)1Section A 引言 (1)2Section B 再谈数据库可伸缩性 (4)3Section C 数据库开发的特点 (7)Get Your Arms around Microsoft SQL Server (9)1Section A Introduction to SQL Server 2005 (9)2Section B Database Scalability Revisited (13)3Section C Features for Database Development (17)熟悉微软SQL Server1 Section A 引言SQL Server 2005 是微软SQL生产线上最值得期待的产品。

在经过了上百万个邮件，成百上千的规范说明，以及数十次修订后。

微软承诺SQL Server 2005 是最新的基于Windows数据库应用的数据库开发平台。

这节的内容将指出SQL Server 2005产品的一些的重要特征。

SQL Server 2005几乎覆盖OLTP及OLAP技术的所又内容。

微软公司的这个旗舰数据库产品几乎能覆盖所有的东西。

这个软件在经过五年多的制作后，成为一个与它任何一个前辈产品都完全不同的产品。

本节将介绍整个产品的大部分功能。

当人们去寻求其想要的一些功能和技术时，可以从中提取出重要的和最感新区的内容，包括SQL Server Engine 的一些蜕变的历史，以及各种各样的SQL Server 2005的版本，可伸缩性，有效性，大型数据库的维护以及商业智能等如下：●数据库引擎增强技术。

SQL Server 2005 对数据库引擎进行了许多改进，并引入了新的功能。

学号********** 昆明理工大学专业英语专业光学姓名辜苏导师李重光教授分数导师签字日期2015年5月6日研究生部专业英语考核In digital holography, the recording CCD is placed on the ξ-ηplane in order to register the hologramx ',y 'when the object lies inthe x-y plane. Forthe reconstruction ofthe information ofthe object wave,phase-shifting digital holography includes two steps:(1) getting objectwave on hologram plane, and (2) reconstructing original object wave.2.1 Getting information of object wave on hologram plateDoing phase shifting N-1 times and capturing N holograms. Supposing the interferogram after k- 1 times phase-shifting is]),(cos[),(),(),,(k k b a I δηξφηξηξδηξ-⋅+= （1） Phase detection can apply two kinds of algorithms:synchronous phase detection algorithms [9]and the least squares iterative algorithm [10]. The four-step algorithm in synchronous phase detection algorithm is in common use. The calculation equation is)2/3,,(),,()]2/,,()0,,([2/1),(πηξπηξπηξηξηξiI I iI I E --+=2.2 Reconstructing original object wave by reverse-transform algorithmObject wave from the original object spreads front.The processing has exact and clear description and expression in physics and mathematics. By phase-shifting technique, we have obtained information of the object wave spreading to a certain distance from the original object. Therefore, in order to get the information of the object wave at its initial spreading position, what we need to do is a reverse work.Fig.1 Geometric coordinate of digital holographyexact registering distance.The focusing functions normally applied can be divided into four types: gray and gradient function, frequency-domain function, informatics function and statistics function. Gray evaluation function is easy to calculate and also robust. It can satisfy the demand of common focusing precision. We apply the intensity sum of reconstruction image as the evaluation function:min ),(11==∑∑==M k Nl l k SThe calculation is described in Fig.2. The position occurring the turning point correspondes to the best registration distanced, also equals to the reconstructing distance d '.It should be indicated that if we only need to reconstruct the phase map of the object wave, the registration distance substituted into the calculation equation is permitted having a departure from its true value.4 Spatial resolution of digital holography4.1 Affecting factors of the spatial resolution of digital holographyIt should be considered in three respects: (1) sizes of the object and the registering material, and the direction of the reference beam, (2) resolution of the registering material, and (3) diffraction limitation.For pointx2on the object shown in Fig.3, the limits of spatial frequency are λξθλθθ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-'-=-=-0211maxmax tan sin sin sin sin z x f R R Fig.2 Determining reconstructing distanceλξθλθθ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-'-=-=-0211minmin tan sin sin sin sin z x f R R Frequency range isλξξ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-'-⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-=∆--02110211tan sin tan sin z x z x f so the range is unrelated to the reference beam.Considering the resolution of registering material in order to satisfy the sampling theory, phase difference between adjacent points on the recording plate should be less than π, namely resolution of the registration material.c f f f =∆η21)(min max 4.2 Expanding the spatial resolution of reconstruction imageExpanding the spatial resolution can be realized at least in three ways: (1) Reducing the registration distance z 0 can improve the reconstruction resolution, but it goes with reduction of the reconstruction area at the same ratio.Therefore, this method has its limitation. (2) Increasing the resolution and the imaging size of CCD with expensive price. (3) Applying image-synthesizing technique [11]CCD captures a few of images between which there is small displacement (usually a fraction of the pixel size) vertical to the CCD plane, shown in Fig.4(Schematic of vertical moving is the same).This method has two disadvantages. First, it is unsuitable for dynamic testing and can only be applied in the static image reconstruction. Second, because the pixel size is small (usually 5μm to 10μm) and the displacement should a fraction of this size (for example 2μm), it needs a moving table with high resolution and precision. Also it needs high stability in whole testing.In general, improvement of the spatial resolution of digital reconstruction isFig.3 Relationship between object and CCDstill a big problem for the application of digital holography.Fig.4 Image capturing by moving CCD along horizontal direction5 Testing resultsFig.5 is the photo of the testing system. The paper does testing on two coins. The pixel size of the CCD is 4.65μm and there are 1 392×1 040 pixels. The firstis one Yuan coin of RMB (525 mm) used for image reconstruction by phase-shifting digital holography. The second is one Jiao coin of RMB (520 mm) for the testing of deformation measurement also by phase-shifting digital holography.Fig.5 Photo of the testing system5.1 Result of image reconstructionThe dimension of the one Yuancoin is 25 mm. The registrationdistance measured by ruler isabout 385mm. We capture ourphase-shifting holograms andreconstruct the image byphase-shifting digital holography.Fig.6 is the reconstructed image.Fig.7 is the curve of the auto-focusfunction, from which we determine the real registration distance 370 mm. We can also change the controlling precision, for example 5mm, 0.1 mm,etc., to get more course or precision reconstruction position.Fig.6 Reconstructed image Fig.7 Auto-focus function5.2 Deformation measurementIn digital holography, the method of measuring deformation measurement differs from the traditional holography. It gets object wave before and after deformation and then subtract their phases to obtain the deformation. The study tested effect of heating deformation on the coin of one Jiao. The results are shown in Fig.8, Where (a) is the interferential signal of the object waves before and after deformation, and (b) is the wrapped phase difference.Fig.8 Heating deformation results5.3 Improving the spatial resolutionFor the tested coin, we applied four sub-low-resolution holograms to reconstruct the high-resolution by the image-synthesizing technique. Fig.9 (a) is the reconstructed image by one low-resolution hologram, and (b) is the high-resolution image reconstructed from four low-resolution holograms.Fig.9 Comparing between the low and high resolution reconstructed image6 SummaryDigital holography can obtain phase and amplitude of the object wave at the same time. Compared to other techniques is a big advantage. Phase-shifting digital holography can realize image reconstruction and deformation with less noise. But it is unsuitable for dynamic testing. Applying the intensity sum of the reconstruction image as the auto-focusing function to evaluate the registering distance is easy, and computation is fast. Its precision is also sufficient. The image-synthesizing technique can improve spatial resolution of digital holography, but its static characteristic reduces its practicability. The limited dimension and too big pixel size are still the main obstacles for widely application of digital holography.外文文献译文：标题：图像重建中的相移数字全息摘要：相移数字全息术被用来研究研究艺术品的内部缺陷。

毕业设计(论文）外文文献翻译院系：财务与会计学院年级专业：201＊级财务管理姓名:学号：132148*＊*附件: 财务风险管理【Abstract】Although financial risk has increased significantly in recent years risk and risk management are not contemporary issues。

The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market。

Information is available instantaneously which means that change and subsequent market reactions occur very quickly。

The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchange rates interest rates and commodity prices。

Counterparties can rapidly become problematic。

As a result it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management。

【Key Words】Financial risk，Risk management，YieldsI. Financial risks arising1.1What Is Risk1.1.1The concept of riskRisk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss while exposure is the possibility of loss although they are often used interchangeably。

1.Bassnett, Susan & Andre Lefevere. Constructing Cultures[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.2.Hatim, Basil. Communication across Cultures[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2001.3.Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.4.Hickey, Leo(ed.). The Pragmatics of Translation[C]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.5.Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2001.6.Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2001.7.Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2001.8.Nida, A. Eugene. Language and Culture[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2001.9.Snell-Hornby, Mary. Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2001.10.Davis, Kathleen. Deconstruction and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.11.Katan, David. Translating Cultures[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language EducationPress, 2004.12.Gutt, Ernst-August. Translation and Relevance[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.13.Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.14.Nida, A. Eugene. Toward a Science of Transalting. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.15.Nida, A. Eugene & Taber, R. Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.16.Lefevere, Andre(ed.) Translation/History/Culture[C]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.17.Lefevere, Andre. Translation, Rewring and the Manipulation of Literary Fame[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.18.Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism (Translated by Erroll F. Rhodes)[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.19.V enuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.20.Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language EducationPress, 2004.21.Williams Jenny & Chesterman Andrew. The Map[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.22.Lefevere, Andre. Translating Literature: Practice and Theory in a Comparative LiteratureContext[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.23.Hermans, Theo(ed.). Crosscultural Transgressions: Research Models in Translation StudiesⅡ, Historical and Ideological Issues[C]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007.24.Rose, G. Marilyn. Translation and Literary Criticism: Translation as Analysis[M]. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007.130. 罗新璋编. 翻译论集[C]. 北京：商务印书馆,1984.137. 思果. 翻译研究. [M] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.138. 刘重德. 文学翻译十讲[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1998.139. 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1998.141. 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社，2006.2004.143. 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2005.144. 毛荣贵. 翻译美学. [M] 上海：上海交通大学出版社. 2005.145. 许渊冲. 中诗音韵探胜---从《诗经》到《西厢记》[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，1992. 146.《中国翻译》编辑部. 诗词翻译的艺术[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1987. 151. 思果. 翻译新究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.19. 张南峰的书：中西译学批评，清华大学出版社，2004下面是诗情画意的句子欣赏，不需要的朋友可以编辑删除！！谢谢1. 染火枫林，琼壶歌月，长歌倚楼。

中文参考文献翻译成英文格式要求
一、参考文献的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下：
J—期刊文章D—学位论文C—论文集M—专著N——报纸文章R——报告不属于上述的文献类型，采用字母“Z”标识。

二、参考文献的格式及举例
1、期刊类参考文献格式
[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名，出版年份，卷号(期号)：起止页码.
2、学位论文参考文献格式
[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地：保存者，出版年份：起始页码.
3、论文集参考文献格式
[序号]作者.篇名[C].出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码.
4、专著类参考文献格式
[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地：出版社，出版年份：起止页码.
5、报纸类参考文献格式
[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名，出版日期(版次)
6.研究报告参考文献格式
[序号]作者.篇名[R].出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码.
7、条例参考文献格式
[序号]颁布单位.条例名称.发布日期
8、译著参考文献格式
[序号]原著作者.书名[M].译者，译.出版地：出版社，出版年份：起止页码.。

英语历史文献翻译50题1. In the ancient text, "thou art" was often used, which means _____.A. you areB. he isC. she isD. they are答案：A。

本题考查常见的古英语短语“thou art”的翻译。

选项A“you are”是“thou art”的现代英语对应翻译；选项B“he is”意思是“他是”，不符合；选项C“she is”意思是“她是”，也不符合；选项D“they are”意思是“他们是”，不正确。

所以正确答案是A。

2. The phrase "forsooth" in the old document can be translated as _____.A. indeedB. perhapsC. neverD. always答案：A。

“forsooth”这个短语在古代文献中常见，其意思是“确实；的确”，选项A“indeed”与之相符。

选项B“perhaps”表示“也许”；选项C“never”表示“从不”；选项D“always”表示“总是”，都不符合“forsooth”的意思，所以选A。

3. "Yonder lies the castle" should be translated into _____.A. 这里有城堡B. 那里有城堡C. 远处有城堡D. 旁边有城堡答案：B。

“yonder”意思是“那里；那边”，所以“Yonder lies the castle”应翻译为“那里有城堡”，选项B 正确。

选项 A 中“这里”对应的英语是“here”；选项C“远处”常用“far away”等表达；选项D“旁边”常用“beside”等词，均不符合题意。

4. The word "anon" in the historical text could mean _____.A. soonB. lateC. neverD. often答案：A。

杭州电子科技大学信息工程学院毕业论文外文文献翻译要求根据《普通高等学校本科毕业设计（论文）指导》的内容，特对外文文献翻译提出以下要求：一、翻译的外文文献可以是一篇，也可以是两篇，但总字符要求不少于1.5万（或翻译成中文后至少在3000字以上）。

二、翻译的外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议的文章、有关著作及其他相关材料，应与毕业论文（设计）主题相关，并作为外文参考文献列入毕业论文（设计）的参考文献。

并在每篇中文译文首页用“脚注”形式注明原文作者及出处，中文译文后应附外文原文。

三、中文译文的基本撰写格式为：1.题目:采用小三号、黑体字、居中打印；2.正文:采用小四号、宋体字，行间距一般为固定值20磅，标准字符间距。

页边距为左3cm，右2.5cm，上下各2.5cm，页面统一采用A4纸。

四、封面格式由学校统一制作（注：封面上的“翻译题目”指中文译文的题目），并按“封面、译文一、外文原文一、译文二、外文原文二、考核表”的顺序统一装订。

五、忌自行更改表格样式。

毕业论文外文文献翻译毕业设计（论文）题目Xxx翻译（1）题目指翻译后的中文译文的题目翻译（2）题目指翻译后的中文译文的题目系会计系以本模板为准）专业XXXXXX（以本模板为准）姓名XXXXXX（以本模板为准）班级XXXXXX（以本模板为准）学号XXXXXX（以本模板为准）指导教师XXXXXX（以本模板为准）正文指导教师对外文翻译的评语：指导教师（签名）年月日建议成绩（百分制）评阅小组或评阅人对外文翻译的评语：评阅小组负责人或评阅人（签名）年月日建议成绩（百分制）杭州电子科技大学信息工程学院本科毕业论文文献综述的写作要求为了促使学生熟悉更多的专业文献资料，进一步强化学生搜集文献资料的能力，提高对文献资料的归纳、分析、综合运用能力及独立开展科研活动的能力，现对本科学生的毕业设计（论文）提出文献综述的写作要求，具体要求如下：一、文献综述的概念文献综述是针对某一研究领域或专题搜集大量文献资料的基础上，就国内外在该领域或专题的主要研究成果、最新进展、研究动态、前沿问题等进行综合分析而写成的、能比较全面地反映相关领域或专题历史背景、前人工作、争论焦点、研究现状和发展前景等内容的综述性文章。

中国地质大学长城学院本科毕业设计外文资料翻译系别：工程技术系专业：机械设计制造及其自动化姓名：黄晓鹏学号： 052116322015 年 4 月 28 日外文资料翻译译文公元前1世纪，中国已推广使用耧，这是世界上最早的条播机具，今仍在北方旱作区应用。

1636年在希腊制成第一台播种机。

1830 年俄国人在畜力多铧犁上制成犁播机。

1860年后，英美等国开始大量生产畜力谷物条播机。

20世纪后相继出现了牵引和悬挂式谷物条播机，以及运用气力排种的播种机。

50年代发展精密播种机。

中国从20世纪50年代引进了谷物条播机、棉花播种机等。

60年代先后研制成悬挂式谷物播种机、离心式播种机、通用机架播种机和气吸式播种机等多种类型，并研制成磨纹式排种器。

到70年代，已形成播种中耕通用机和谷物联合播种机两个系列，同时研制成功了精密播种机。

欧洲第一台播种机于1636年在希腊制成。

1830年，俄国人在畜力多铧犁上加装播种装置制成犁播机。

英、美等国在1860年以后开始大量生产畜力谷物条播机。

20世纪以后相继出现了牵引和悬挂式谷物条播机，以及运用气力排种的播种机。

1958年挪威出现第一台离心式播种机，50年代以后逐步发展各种精密播种机。

中国在20世纪50年代从国外引进谷物条播机、棉花播种机等，60年代先后研制成功悬挂式谷物播种机、离心式播种机、通用机架播种机和气吸式播种机等多种机型,并研制成功了磨纹式排种器。

到70年代,已形成播种中耕通用机和谷物联合播种机两个系列并投入生产。

供谷物、中耕作物、牧草、蔬菜用的各种条播机和穴播机都已得到推广使用。

与此同时，还研制成功了多种精密播种机。

播种机的使用方法播种机具有播种均匀、深浅一致、行距稳定、覆土良好、节省种子、工作效率高等特点。

正确使用播种机应注意掌握以下10要点：1 进田作业前的保养要清理播种箱内的杂物和开沟器上的缠草、泥土，确保状态良好，并对拖拉机及播种机的各传动、转动部位，按说明书的要求加注润滑油，尤其是每次作业前要注意传动链条润滑和张紧情况以及播种机上螺栓的紧固情况。

五分钟搞定5000字－外文文献翻译在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。

由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本）和CNKI“翻译助手"。

具体操作过程如下：1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅读文献；2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了；3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很高。

另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。

注：1、Google翻译：/language_tools google，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。

我利用它是这样的。

一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。

回到我自己说的翻译上来。

下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译，首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。

在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。

大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。

文献信息标题: Employees' Perception of Performance Appraisal System: A Case Study作者: Boachie-Mensah, Francis O; Seidu, Peter Awini出版物名称: International Journal of Business and Management卷: 7；期: 2；页: 73-88；出版年份: 2015原文Employees' Perception of Performance Appraisal System: A Case StudyBoachie-Mensah, Francis O; Seidu, Peter AwiniAbstractPerformance appraisals are essential for effective evaluation and management of staff. Since perceptions influence people's judgement and attitudes towards particular phenomena, it could be expected that the staff of an educational institution might hold diverse opinions about the performance appraisal system in the institution. This study focused on employees' perceptions of performance appraisal biases or errors, and examined the implications for developing and implementing an effective appraisal system in a polytechnic in Takoradi, Ghana. The study also sought to identify pragmatic ways to ameliorate any appraisal biases that may be present in the institution's appraisal system. Data was collected from 140 employees of the institution, which included both academic and administrative staff who had worked in the institution for at least two consecutive years, and whose work had been appraised previously. A content validated semi-structured interview schedule was used to interview the respondents. The data collected was analysed, using descriptive statistics, in order to address the research questions. The results of the study indicate that employees of the institution perceive that the performance appraisal system of the institution is affected by subjectivity, and is influenced by some major errors. The findings have serious managerial implications for training, motivation and provision of resources for effective performance appraisal. A major limitation of the study is that, due to financial constraints, it was conducted in only one institution. Therefore, the findings may not be described as a reflection of the general state of affairs in the other educational institutions in the country.Keywords: Appraisal error, Attribution, Perception, Performance appraisal1. IntroductionIn today's competitive business world, it is understood that organizations can only compete with their rivals by innovating, and organizations can be innovative by managing their human resources well. The human resource system can become more effective by having a valid and accurate appraisal system used for rating performances of employees (Armstrong, 2003; Bohlander &Snell, 2004). Unfortunately, the number of organizations using an effective performance appraisal system (PAS) is limited (Hennessey &Bernadin, 2003).Perceptions of employees about the targets, outcomes and uses of performance appraisal (PA) results would be beneficial depending on a number of factors. For example, employees are more likely to be receptive and supportive of a given PA programme if they perceive the process as a useful source of feedback which helps to improve their performance (Mullins, 2007). Employees are likely to embrace and contribute meaningfully to a given PA scheme if they perceive it as an opportunity for promotion, and as an avenue for personal development opportunities, a chance to be visible and demonstrate skills and abilities, and an opportunity to network with others in the organisation. On the other hand, if employees perceive PA as an unreasonable attempt by management to exercise closer supervision and control over tasks they (employees) perform, various reactions may result. PA will be effective if the appraisal process is clearly explained to, and agreed by the people involved (Anthony et al., 1999). Without adequate explanation or consultation, PA could turn counterproductive. In addition, staff motivation, attitude and behaviour development, communicating and aligning individual and organisational aims, and fostering positive relationships between management and staff are essential for successful appraisal (Armstrong, 2003).In order to obtain accurate PA information, raters must provide objective and unbiased ratings of employees. Due to difficulty in developing an accurate performance checklist, managers' subjective opinions are frequently called for. Many organizations use some combination of subjective and objective assessment for actual PA. Yet, there are numerous problems in actual assessment of employee performance (Corbett &Kenny, 2001). The existence of such problems suggests that PAS may be fraught with biases or errors, resulting in compromised evaluations of employees' accomplishments and capabilities. And the PAS of the institution of study might not be an exception. For a PAS to be perceived as fair, it must be free of bias. It is known that appraisal errors can harm perceptions of pay system fairness by confusing the relationship between true performance differences (Miceli et al., 1991). The importance of effective PA in organizations cannot be over emphasized as appraisals help develop individuals, improve organizational performance and feed into business planning. An understanding of the phenomenon, therefore, in every sector of human endeavor is imperative. This recognition has raised interest in studying people'sperceptions of the quality of PA in organizations (educational institutions inclusive).There, however, seems to be a paucity of credible data on the quality of PA in Ghana's educational sector. The Ghanaian situation is relatively unexamined in genre academic literature. This makes it difficult to fashion an appropriate management intervention to address any existing problem, because the exact dimensions of the challenge and its causes are not known. It is against this backdrop that this study was undertaken. It sought to assess the level of perceived PA biases in the educational sector in Ghana by analysing employees' perceptions of PA in one of the ten polytechnics in the country. The study sought to examine PA from the perspective of employees' perceptions of errors with the view to gathering and analysing information that could assist in development of innovative approaches to achieve both individual and corporate goals. Findings of the study would help fill the gap in extant literature. The findings would also provide useful insights and guidelines for enhancing the quality of PA in organizations.2. Literature Review2.1 The process and purpose of performance appraisalStudies show that there are many approaches for evaluating employee behaviour and performance with respect to job tasks and/or organisational culture. As a result, various applications of PA have left many managers in a state of confusion and frustration with the employee evaluation process (Gurbuz &Dikmenli, 2007). This situation seems to negatively impact the popularity of appraisal systems in many organizations. Most people support the concept and purpose of PA, in spite of their concerns about the process and application of appraisal outcomes by managers (Grote, 1996). The biggest complaint from managers is that they are not given sufficient guidelines to assess people; and the biggest complaint from employees is that the process is not equitable and fair. PA concentrates much in assessing past behaviours of employees, a situation some managers exploit to victimise unfavoured employees (Bersin, 2008). Timing of appraisal; Selection of appraisers and Providing feedback (Scullen et al., 2003). Early PA processes were fairly simple, and involved ranking and comparing individuals with other people (Milkovich &Boudreau 1997). However, these early person-based appraisal systems were fraught with problems. As a result, a transition to job-related performance assessments continues to occur. Thus, PA is being modified from being person-focused to behaviour-oriented, with emphasis on those tasks or behaviours associated with the performance of a particular job (Wellbourne etb al., 1998).Regarding the purpose of PA, Cleveland et al. (1989) describe four types of uses of performance appraisal: between person, within person, system maintenance anddocumentation. Between person uses are what have been referred to as administrative purposes, consisting of recognition of individuals' performance to make decisions regarding salary administration, promotions, retention, termination, layoffs and so forth. Within person uses are those identified in Management by Objectives (MBO), such as feedback on performance strengths and weaknesses to identify training needs and determine assignments and transfers. PA also helps in organisational goals, which are referred to as system maintenance uses. Finally, documentation purposes are to meet the legal requirements by documenting HR decisions and conducting validation research on the PA tools. Some organizations are attempting to meet all of these goals simultaneously while they continue to use tools that were designed for one type of purpose (Wiese &Buckley, 1998). Jawahar and Williams's (1997) findings suggest that ratings collected for administrative purposes are more lenient than ratings for research or developmental purposes. Although rating scale formats, training and other technical qualities of PA influence the quality of ratings, the quality of PA is also strongly affected by the administrative context in which they are used (Murphy &Cleveland, 1995). Effective managers recognise PAS as a tool for managing, rather than a tool for measuring subordinates. Such managers use PA to motivate, direct and develop subordinates, and to maximise access to important resources in the organisation to improve productivity.2.2 Rater issuesResearchers have shown considerable interest in variables related to the individual doing the appraisal (Lefkowitz, 2000; Levy &Williams, 2004; Robbins &DeNisi, 1998). One of the most studied rater variables is rater affect (Levy &Williams, 2004). A general definition of affect involves liking or positive regard for one's subordinate (Lefkowitz, 2000). Forgas and George's (2001) study suggests that affective states impact on judgements and behaviours and, in particular, affect or mood plays a large role when tasks require a degree of cognitive processing. In PA, raters in good mood tend to recall more positive information from memory and appraise performance positively (Sinclair, 1988). Affective regard is related to frequently higher appraisal ratings, less inclination to punish subordinates, better supervisor-subordinate relationships, greater halo, and less accuracy (.Lefkowitz, 2000). Antonioni and Park (2001) found that affect was more strongly related to rating leniency in upward and peer ratings than it was in traditional top-down ratings. This effect was stronger when raters had observational time with their subordinates.A second broad area related to raters is the motivation of the rater. Traditionally, researchers seemed to assume that raters were motivated to rate accurately, and that the problems withthe appraisal process involved cognitive processing errors and complexities (Levy &Williams, 2004). This position has, however, been questioned, leading to attempts to identify and understand other elements of raters' motivation and how such motivation affects the appraisal process. The issues involved include individual differences and the rating purpose on rating leniency. Most practitioners report overwhelming leniency on the part of their raters, and this rating elevation has been found in empirical papers as well as surveys of organizations (Murphy &Cleveland, 1995; Villanova et al., 1993; Bernadin et al., 2000). The role of attribution in the PA process has also attracted recent research attention on how the attribution that raters make of ratees' behaviours affect their motivation to rate or their actual rating (Struthers et al., 1998). Raters consider ratees' behaviours and their reputations when drawing attributional inferences and deciding on appropriate rewards (Johnson et al., 2002). This implies that attributional processing is an important element of the rating process, and these attributions, in part, determine raters' reactions and ratings. Another aspect of rater motivation has to do with rater accountability (Frink &Ferris, 1998). Klimoski and Inks (1990) posit that raters distort appraisal ratings more when they are to be held accountable to the ratee for those ratings. They emphasise that accountability can result in distortions of performance ratings. This view is confirmed by other research findings (Mero et al., 2003; Shore &Tashchian, 2002). There have also been calls from practitioners to use accountability as a means of improving the accuracy of appraisal ratings, increasing acceptance of the appraisal system, and making the HR system more efficient (Digh, 1998).2.3 Ratee issuesA second major focus of PA research relates to the role of PA in ratee motivation and ratee reactions to PA processes.The research focusing on motivation is generally categorised as being about either (1) the links between performance ratings and rewards or (2) those elements of the PA process which increase ratees' motivation, such as participation (Levy &Williams, 2004; Goss, 2001; Campbell et al., 1998).One theme of some recent work is that although merit pay systems sound like a good idea, there is very little evidence indicating that they are at all successful (Goss, 2001).In spite of its intuitive appeal and theoretical support, merit pay plans seldom reach their objectives (Campbell et al., 1998).Mani (2002) argues that while pay is an important motivator along with recognition, work enjoyment, and self-motivation, very few organizations actually link the PAS to pay or compensation in any clear, tangible way.Starcher (1996) contends that how well employees perform is much more a function of the situational constraints they experience than their own skills or motivation.But Levy and Williams (1998) argue that these situational constraints are not so important to exclude social or motivational factors that have been quite clearly linked toemployee satisfaction and productivity over the years.译文员工对绩效考核系统的感知:一个案例研究门萨；弗朗西斯；彼得摘要：作为有效的评估和管理的人员的工具，绩效考核与评估是必不可少。

英文文献翻译第1 篇 Effects of sevoflurane on dopamine, glutamate and aspartate release in an vitro model of cerebral ischaemia七氟醚对离体脑缺血模型多巴胺、谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放的影响兴奋性氨基酸和多巴胺的释放在脑缺血后神经损伤中起重要作用。

在当前的研究中，采用离体脑缺血模型观察七氟醚对大鼠皮质纹状体脑片中多巴胺、谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放量的影响。

脑片以34℃人工脑脊液灌流，缺血发作以去除氧气和降低葡萄糖浓度（从4mmol/l至2mmol/l）≤30分钟模拟。

多巴胺释放量用伏特法原位监测，灌流样本中的谷氨酸和天冬氨酸浓度用带有荧光检测的高效液相色谱法测定。

脑片释放的神经递质在有或无4%七氟醚下测定。

对照组脑片诱导缺血后，平均延迟166s（n=5）后细胞外多巴胺浓度达最大77.0μmol/l。

缺血期4%七氟醚降低多巴胺释放速率，（对照组和七氟醚处理组脑片分别是6.9μmol/l/s和4.73μmol/l/s，p<0.05），没有影响它的起始或量。

兴奋性氨基酸的释放更缓慢。

每个脑片基础（缺血前）谷氨酸和天冬氨酸是94.8nmol/l和69.3nmol/l，没有明显被七氟醚减少。

缺血大大地增加了谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放量（最大值分别是对照组的244%和489%）。

然而，4%七氟醚明显减少缺血诱导的谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放量。

总结，七氟醚的神经保护作用与其可以减少缺血引起的兴奋性氨基酸的释放有关，较小程度上与多巴胺也有关。

第2篇The Influence of Mitochondrial K ATP-Channels in the Cardioprotection of Proconditioning and Postconditioning by Sevoflurane in the Rat In Vivo线粒体K ATP通道在离体大鼠七氟醚预处理和后处理中心肌保护作用中的影响挥发性麻醉药引起心肌预处理并也能在给予再灌注的开始保护心脏——一种实践目前被称为后处理。

陶瓷产业技术创新中英文对照外文翻译文献在英国陶瓷产业的技术创新中，研究和技术组织（RTO）扮演着重要的角色。

英国的研究机构，如英国玻璃和陶瓷研究机构（BCRI）和___（TWI），致力于开发新的陶瓷材料和技术。

这些机构与企业合作，共同研究如何提高生产效率、降低成本和改善产品质量。

此外，___也提供了大量的资金支持，促进陶瓷产业的技术创新。

4.未来的挑战和机遇英国陶瓷产业面临着许多挑战和机遇。

随着全球市场的竞争加剧，英国陶瓷制造商需要不断地进行技术创新，以提高生产效率和产品质量。

此外，随着消费者对环保和可持续性的关注增加，陶瓷制造商需要寻找更环保和可持续的生产方法。

这些挑战也为英国陶瓷产业带来了机遇，如开发新的陶瓷材料和技术，满足消费者的需求。

总之，英国陶瓷产业在技术创新方面取得了巨大的进步，但仍面临着许多挑战和机遇。

通过与研究机构和政府的合作，英国陶瓷制造商可以继续推动技术创新，保持其在全球市场上的竞争力。

首先，需要清除文章中的格式错误，然后删除明显有问题的段落。

接着，对每个段落进行小幅度的改写，以使其更加流畅和易于理解。

实时系统和研究协会是一家私营公司，专门为英国和国际公司提供技术服务，致力于创新技术的生成和扩散。

RTO通常代表一个技术型行业，建立在提供技术服务的公司成员的基础上。

他们对特定行业或部门更加了解，这使得他们成为该部门创新的理想经纪人，能够满足企业的要求和需求。

他们与监管机构和企业合作，为行业技术创新提供驱动力。

陶瓷技术研究所（RTO）成立于1948年，为所有陶瓷企业提供广泛的服务，包括咨询、测试和技术支持。

他们致力于协助和创新陶瓷技术，成为组织成员之间的主要凝聚力，可以促进企业间合作研究、开发新技术和有利于技术转让项目，提高公司的资金和管理能力。

在同行业中，提高商业意识的证据越来越多。

各种工业认为，坦克和战略方向的团体，例如制造改进会，研究项目的引进，强调进一步认识创新过程的意愿。

本科毕业生外文文献翻译中国·大庆2014 年 5 月DS1302 trickle charge timekeeping chip Abstract: Introduces the United States with DALLAS trickle charge current capacity of small low-power real time clock DS1302 circuit structure, working principle and its application in real-time display of application time. It can be years, months, days, weekdays, hours, minutes, seconds for time, and has multiple functions, such as a leap year compensation. DS1302 are given in the C51 to read and write procedures and flow chart, as well as in the process of debugging note.Keywords: clock circuit; real-time clock; singlechip; Application1 IntroductionNow popular in many of the serial clock circuit, such as the DS1302, DS1307, PCF8485, etc.. These circuits interface is simple, inexpensive and easy to use, has been widely used. This paper introduces the DS1302 real time clock circuit is DALLAS's a small trickle charge current of the circuit capacity, the main feature is the use of serial data transmission, can provide programmable power-down protection functions of charge and can be shut down charging functions . 32.768kHz crystal ordinary.2 DS1302's structure and working principleDALLAS companies DS1302 is the United States launched a high-performance, low power consumption, with real-time clock circuit of the RAM, it can be years, months, days, weekdays, hours, minutes, seconds for time, with leap year compensation, the working voltage to 2.5V ~ 5.5V. The use of three-wire interface for synchronous communication with the CPU, and the use of unexpected ways to send more than one byte of data clock signal, or RAM. DS1302 within a 31 × 8 for the temporary storage of the RAM data register. DS1302 is the DS1202 to upgrade products, compatible with the DS1202, but the increase of the main power supply / back-pin dual power supply, while providing the power back to the small trickle charge current capacity.FEATURES● 1 Real-Time Clock Counts Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Date of the Month, Month,Day of the Week, and Year with Leap-Year Compensation Valid Up to 2100● 2 31 x 8 Battery-Backed General-Purpose RAM● 3 Serial I/O for Minimum Pin Count● 3 2.0V to 5.5V Full Operation● 4 Uses Less than 300nA at 2.0V● 5 Single-Byte or Multiple-Byte (Burst Mode) Data Transfer for Read or Write ofClock or RAM Data● 6 8-Pin DIP or Optional 8-Pin SO for Surface Mount●7 Simple 3-Wire Interface●8 TTL-Compatible (VCC = 5V)●9 Optional Industrial Temperature Range: -40°C to +85°C2.1 Pin function and structurePIN DESCRIPTION1)X1, X2 – 32.768 kHz Crystal Pins2)GND – Ground3)RST – Reset4)I/O – Data Input/Output5)SCLK – Serial Clock6)V CC1, V CC2 – Power Supply PinsFigure 1 showing a pin of the DS1302, which Vcc1 for back-up power supply, VCC2-based power. In the main power off, the clock is also able to maintain continuous operation. Vcc2 by the DS1302 or whichever Vcc1 the greater power. When Vcc2 than Vcc1 +0.2 V when, Vcc2 power supply to the DS1302. When Vcc1 less than Vcc2 when, DS1302 powered by Vcc1. X1 and X2 is the source of oscillation, an external 32.768kHz crystal. RST is the reset / chip select lines, through the RST input high drive home to start all of the data transfer. RST input has two functions: First, RST access control logic, allowing the address / command sequence into the shift register; Secondly, RST to terminate the provision of single-byte or multi-byte data transmission. When RST is high, all data are initialized to allow the DS1302 to operate on. If in the course ofRST sent home for the low, it will terminate the data transfer, I / O pin into high impedance state. Run-time power, Vcc ≥ 2.5V in before, RST must remain low. SCLK low only when the RST can be set to high. I / O for serial data input and output side (two-way), followed by a detailed description. Is always the SCLK input.2.2 DS1302 control byteDS1302 control word as shown in Figure 2. Control byte MSB (bit 7) must be logic 1, if it is 0, are not able to write data in the DS1302, bit 6 if 0, then the calendar clock and data access, that access to RAM to 1 data; bit 5 to bit 1 of the address unit instructions; least significant bit (bit 0) in the case of 0 to write to, read to 1, said operation, the control byte is always the beginning of the output from the lowest bit.2.3 Data input and output (I / O)Instruction word in the control input of the next clock rising edge of SCLK, the data is written into the DS1302, data input from the low enthronement 0. Similarly, in the following 8-bit instruction word control after the next falling edge of SCLK pulse to read out the DS1302 data,read the data from 0 to 7 .2.4 DS1302 registerDS1302 there are 12 registers, which register with the seven calendar, clock related data stored in digital form as a BCD code, the calendar and time registers and control words in Table 1.In addition, DS1302 year also register, control register, the charge register, the clock register and emergency-related registers, such as RAM. Clock burst read and write registers in addition to the order of one-time charge outside the register contents of all registers. DS1302 registers associated with the RAM is divided into two types: one is a single RAM unit, a total of 31, each module configuration for an 8-bit bytes, the command control words C0H ~ FDH, in which odd-numbered for the read operation, even for the write operation; the other for the sudden manner of RAM registers, this approach can be a one-time read and write all 31 bytes of RAM, a command control word for the FEH (write), FFH (Reading).3 DS1302 real-time display of time hardware and softwareDS1302 connection with the CPU needs three lines, namely, SCLK (7), I / O (6), RST (5).3.1 DS1302 connection with the CPUIn fact, in the debugger when the capacitor can not only add to a 32.768kHz crystal. Only when the choice of crystal, different crystal, error as well. In addition, the circuitcan be added to the above DS18B20, at the same time show the real-time temperature. CPU as long as the occupation of a line I can. LCD can be replaced with LED, can also use the letter Wei Jie Beijing Science and Technology Development Co., Ltd. produced 10 multi-purpose 8 LCD Module LCM101, containing watchdog (WDT) / clock generator and the two frequency beep driver circuit and a built-display RAM, any field can be displayed strokes, with a 3-4 line serial interface of any single-chip, IC interface. Low power consumption when the current show 2μA (typical value), power-saving mode is less than 1μA, working voltage is 2.4V ~ 3.3V, show clear.3.2 DS1302 real-time flow of timeSingle-byte read and single-byte writeDS1302 data exchange with the microprocessor, the first microprocessor to the circuit by sending the command byte, command byte highest MSB (D7) must be a logic 1, if D7 = 0, then the prohibition of writing DS1302, that is write-protected; D6 = 0, the designated clock and data, D6 = 1, designated RAM data; D5 ~ D1 designated a specific input or output register; lowest LSB (D0) to logic 0, the specified write operation (input), D0 = 1, the designated time operations (output).Calendar clock in the DS1302 or RAM for data transmission, DS1302 must first send a command byte. If a single byte transmission, 8-bit command byte sent after the end of the next two cycles of rising edge of SCLK input data byte, or 8 the next falling edge of SCLK cycle, the output data bytes.DS1302 registers associated with the RAM is divided into two types: one is a single RAM unit, a total of 31, each module configuration for an 8-bit bytes, the command control words C0H ~ FDH, in which odd-numbered for the read operation, even for the write operation; and then a class for the sudden manner of RAM register in this mannercan be a one-time reading, writing all 31 bytes of RAM.Special note is the back-up power supply B1, can use batteries or super capacitors (0.1F and above). Although the DS1302 in the main power after the power down very small, but if the clock to ensure the normal time, the best selection of small rechargeable batteries. Can be used on the old computer motherboard 3.6V rechargeable batteries. If a shorter time off (hours or days), the leakage can be used on a smaller electrolytic capacitors instead of the ordinary. 100 μF to 1 hour to ensure the normal travel time. DS1302 power in the first, you must initialize operation. After initialization method can be adjusted in accordance with the normal time.4 ConclusionThe existence of DS1302 clock accuracy is not high, the vulnerability of the environmental impact of the shortcomings of the chaos emerged clock. DS1302 can be used for data recording, in particular, is of special significance for some of the data points of the record data and time to which the data recorded at the same time. This record of long-term results of continuous monitoring and control system analysis and data on the causes abnormal finding of great significance. Traditional data record is separated from time to time when the sample or samples, there is no record of a specific time, therefore, can not only keep data accurate records of their time there; if the use of single-chip timing, on the one hand, require the use of counters, occupied by the hardware resources On the other hand, the need for interruption, and other inquiries, the same cost single-chip resources, and may not allow some monitoring and control system. However, if used in the system clock chip DS1302, can well solve the problem.DS1302涓流充电计时芯片摘要：介绍美国DALLAS公司推出的具有涓细电流充电能力的低功耗实时时钟电路DS1302的结构、工作原理及其在实时显示时间中的应用。

PVA文献翻译细胞表面结构加强聚乙烯醇（PVA）的吸收是由聚乙烯醇PVA利用鞘氨醇藻菌株113P3诱导的Xiaoping Hu · RieMamoto · YumiShimomurKazuhideKimbara · Fusako KawaiReceived: 15 January 2007 / Revised: 19 March 2007 / Accepted: 24 March 2007 / Published online: 24 April 2007©Springer-Verlag 2007导引聚乙烯醇利用鞘氨醇藻菌株113P3（归属于鞘氨醇单胞菌113P3）在4天内从培养上清液中减少了将近0.5%。

由胞质馏分使0.5%的PVA更快的降解。

在培养上清液或与细胞结合的PVA 的平均分子量越来越高，这表明低分子量的分子降解更快。

既没有在培养上清液也没有在与细胞结合的部分发现解聚产物，他们从胞质馏分吸收。

在细胞外的或与PVA氧化酶相关的反应在菌株113P3中是几乎察觉不到的。

PVA的降解，必须由周质PVA脱氢酶摄取到周质后进行。

随着PVA的消耗，在2天后细胞表面上会出现凹痕，并且它的尺寸和深度还会有4天的增加，保持8天。

只能在PVA的培养基上观察到细胞表面的超微结构，而不是在营养清液内，这表明该变化由PVA诱导。

荧光素基-4-异硫氰酸酯标记的PVA生长细胞比在NB生长细胞生长更多。

用甲醛处理过的PVA生长细胞被发现是没有约束力的，因此，在细胞表面上的凹痕，似乎是与PVA的摄取有关。

关键词聚乙烯醇，PVA，生物降解，鞘酯单胞藻菌株113P3，PVA摄取的细胞表面结构。

介绍聚乙烯醇（PVA），水溶性合成聚合物，已广泛用于许多应用，包括织物上浆，WBER涂料，粘合剂，WLMS用于包装和农业文化用途。

PVA是唯一已知的生物外源性碳链聚合物生物降解的高分子，因此用作可生物降解的聚合物复合材料的一个组成部分。

随着国民经济的不断发展，中国传统文化正在走出国门，面向世界，并且有很多外国人对中国传统文化有着浓厚的兴趣，他们了解中国传统文化的重要途径就是翻看一些记载传统文化的文献资料，所谓文献资料，就是通过一定的方法和手段，运用一定的意义和记录体系在一定载体的有历史价值和研究价值的知识，文献资料是记录，积累，传播和继承知识的最有效手段，是人类社会活动中获取情报的最基本，最主要的来源，也是交流传播情报的最基本手段。

因此文献资料的翻译更加需要严谨，今天知行翻译就和大家分享一下如何做好文献资料翻译。

首先，我们需要明白文献资料对于记录一个民族的历史，文化，科技，知识等多个方面具有重要作用，因此文献资料本身带有浓厚的民族气息，而且文献资料的年代都比较久远，语言文字的转化较为复杂，如果在翻译过程中使用同化翻译，难免会使文献资料失去原本的文化历史价值，因此，知行翻译觉得在翻译文献资料时，优先采用直译的方式，这样可以最大化地保证文献资料的原貌不被改动。

其次，在文献资料翻译过程中，尽量保证原文原意，前面提到文献资料的年代不定，致使文献资料所使用的的语言和现代使用的语言存在一些差距，比如我国春秋战国时期的文献资料，现代人去翻看这些文献时，也是有很大的困难，更不用说把那些复杂的句式，词汇翻译成外语了。

因此知行翻译认为在翻译文献资料时，一定要贴合愿意，如果实在无法保证，也要做好标注和解释。

再者，在文献翻译过程中，因为历史悠久，语言变化较大的原因，译员难免遇到不懂的地方，这个时候千万不能夜郎自大，刚愎自用，一定要向专业人士进行请教，然后在专业人士的指导下进行翻译，以保证文献资料的翻译质量，这一点尤为重要，因为它直接影响到文献资料的传播度。

最后，作为在翻译领域精耕细作15年的老牌翻译公司，知行翻译认为，文献资料的翻译对于一个民族，一个国家，都是具有重大意义，是向别人展示国家文化的重要途径，因此这就要求翻译人员必须对文献资料中所涉及的文化历史有一定的认知和独到的见解，只有这样才能把文献资料完整的翻译出来。

机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)英文原文Mechanical Design and Manufacturing ProcessesMechanical design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of mechanical design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Mechanical design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of mechanical design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Mechanical design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product, to analyze the systemand then make sound judgments on how the product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions required to produce a good design.On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that if the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have "bugs" or unforeseen problems which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowedto flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which is ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available tous. These are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great deal to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the final analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1) Does the design really serve a human need?(2) Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?(3) Is it economical to produce?(4) Can it be readily maintained?(5) Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem will occur during the manufacturing cycle [3].It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerancing of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This fails in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.Designing starts with a need, real or imagined. Existing apparatus may need improvements in durability, efficiently, weight, speed, or cost. New apparatus may be needed to perform a function previously done by men, such as computation, assembly, or servicing. With the objective wholly or partly defined, the next step in design is the conception of mechanisms and their arrangements that will perform the needed functions.For this, freehand sketching is of great value, not only as a record of one's thoughts and as an aid in discussion with others, but particularly for communication with one's own mind, as a stimulant for creative ideas.When the general shape and a few dimensions of the several components become apparent, analysis can begin in earnest. The analysis will have as its objective satisfactory or superior performance, plus safety and durability with minimum weight, and a competitive east. Optimum proportions and dimensions will be sought for each critically loaded section, together with a balance between the strength of the several components. Materials and their treatment will be chosen. These important objectives can be attained only by analysis based upon the principles ofmechanics, such as those of statics for reaction forces and for the optimumutilization of friction; of dynamics for inertia, acceleration, and energy; of elasticity and strength of materials for stress。

英文文献翻译二〇一四年月日科技文章摘译Preventing electricity-stolen smart metersWith the development, it has been increasingly used in smart instrumentation equipment, so that the instrument performance have been greatly improved. This article describes the preventing electricity-stolen smart meters is to the ATMEL AT89C51 microcontroller as the core of the design, it achieves 32 power measurement and touring shows, and other functions, but also preventing electricity-stolen, anti-submarine-moving, high-precision, long-life And low power consumption and other characteristics of the new residential areas and is the preferred meter in the urban network reform.Hardware design(l) Signal acquisition and conversion of the electric circuit is more complicated measures, the traditional way is to sample the respective current, voltage, the AID conversion after their multiplication. This approach is not only to analog circuit design of high demand, the software programming requirements are also high, but it is difficult to achieve multiple users on the measure. Therefore, we choose BL0932B as a signal acquisition and conversion circuit core, it is an electronic power meter ASIC. BL0932B design based on the signal acquisition and conversion external circuit board with simple, high precision and stability, and other characteristics, especially for single-phase two-line power users of energy metering.BLO932B within the buffer amplifier, analog multiplier, VIF converters, counting circuit and drive circuit, can accurately measure positive and negative direction of the two active power and computing power in the same direction. The output in two ways: rapid pulse output and slow output for the former computer data processing, the latter used to drive pulse motor work.As the signal acquisition and conversion circuit board as well as the high-voltage 220 v, there Baidoa v order of magnitude of the small-signal, which requires the printed circuit board design and production process to be very scientific and rational. In addition, in order to protect the motherboard, BL0932B rapid pulse of the photoelectric sent to isolation after the SCM.(2) MCU control circuitSCM control circuit, including analog switch arrays, display and keypad circuit, datastorage, serial communications interface and watchdog circuit.l) analog switch array Preventing electricity-stolen smart meters are centralized meter, the MCU to the multi-pulse signals in real-time detection, therefore, it uses an Analog Switches CD405I of four eight-select and a 3 to 8 decoder 74 LS138 common Composed of analog switch arrays,ang it achieve a 32-way pulse of the cycle of detection.2) And show circuit as a key focus on smart meters, need to show the contents of many. Main form of households, electricity, the status of various instructions and error information. To this end, we designed the LED display, from 10 strings and static converters 74 LSl64 drive so you can at least take up the MCU resources. In addition, the signal input terminal also designed the 25 LED indicator, to display the 25 electricity capacity.The meters are "checking" and "cleared" two function keys are directly linked to the P3 in 89 C51 on the mouth. Through a combination of the two keys, can easily achieve the MCU cleared meter, single households cleared, online check, such as locking and unlocking operation.3) Data storage because of the configuration of the table need to record a large number of important data, in order to ensure data security, we designed the two data memory: parallel data memory and serial data memory. Parallel data memory by 6264, it has SK bytes of storage space, to fully meet the requirements of the table. In order to prevent power-down when the data loss, to the 6264 allocation of the 3.6 v backup battery. Backup battery switch and the 6264 election signals the film, by special worship P MAx691 provide monitoring chip. Serial data memory by 24 LC65, it also has a SK bytes of storage space, and through IZC bus connected with the MCU. Although there is no IZC 89C51 microcontroller bus interface, but through software programming, P1 I can simulate the two lines of its timing, completion of the 24 LC65 read and write operations. 24LC65 is a serial EZPROM, without battery backup, data can be safely stored in 200 years.4) Serial communication interface 89 C51 has a full-duplex serial interface, used in this meter for meter reading and communication interface. In order to achieve far more concentrated form clusters copied, in the serial interface on the basis of plus RS485 driver chips 75 LBC184. This can be through various meter RS485 bus and data acquisition system for communication links, and concentrate meter reading, remote meter reading.4) watchdog circuit watchdog circuit used for monitoring chip mix P MAX691, it has a power-on reset, brownout detection, backup battery switch and watchdog timer input output, and other functions. To determine whether the cumulative electricity. This part of the programming is mainly used in order to achieve the operation, with fewer bytes RAMoccupation, the code simple and fast, and other advantages.(3) Data validation and multi-site storage of data directly related to electricity users and property management departments of vital interests, is the most important data, we must ensure that its security is absolutely right and, therefore, in the real data storage, all of the electricity Check to ensure the accuracy of the data. Data in 6264 and 2465 have been taken in the multi-site storage, backup each other to ensure that data foolproof. Practice has proved that these measures, the data will no longer be an error or lost, the effect is very obvious.(4) of electricity and stepping roving show that the normal operation procedure, the pulse measurement, shows that various tour operators, and its power, when the last one shows that the electricity consumption, to calculate the unit's total electricity consumption and display, and then To start from scratch cycle show. In order to facilitate the spot meter reading, specially designed step show: that is, each press a button detection, household electricity consumption, and also shows the integral part.防偷电智能电表随发展，它已被越来越多地用于仪器仪表中构成智能仪器，从而使仪器仪表的性能得到极大改善。

中国地质大学长城学院本科毕业设计外文资料翻译系别：工程技术系专业：机械设计制造及其自动化姓名：侯亮学号：052115072015年 4 月 3 日外文资料翻译原文Introduction of MachiningHave a shape as a processing method, all machining process for the production of the most commonly used and most important method. Machining process is a process generated shape, in this process, Drivers device on the work piece material to be in the form of chip removal. Although in some occasions, the workpiece under no circumstances, the use of mobile equipment to the processing, However, the majority of the machining is not only supporting the workpiece also supporting tools and equipment to complete.Machining know the process has two aspects. Small group of low-cost production. For casting, forging and machining pressure, every production of a specific shape of the workpiece, even a spare parts, almost have to spend the high cost of processing. Welding to rely on the shape of the structure, to a large extent, depend on effective in the form of raw materials. In general, through the use of expensive equipment and without special processing conditions, can be almost any type of raw materials, mechanical processing to convert the raw materials processed into the arbitrary shape of the structure, as long as the external dimensions large enough, it is possible. Because of a production of spare parts, even when the parts and structure of the production batch sizes are suitable for the original casting, Forging or pressure processing to produce, but usually prefer machining.Strict precision and good surface finish, machining the second purpose is the establishment of the high precision and surface finish possible on the basis of. Many parts, if any other means of production belonging to the large-scale production, Well Machining is a low-tolerance and can meet the requirements of small batch production. Besides, many parts on the production and processing of coarse process to improve its general shape of the surface. It is only necessary precision and choose only the surface machining. For instance, thread, in addition to mechanical processing, almost no other processing method for processing. Another example is the blacksmith pieces keyhole processing, as well as training to be conducted immediately after the mechanical completion of the processing.Primary Cutting ParametersCutting the work piece and tool based on the basic relationship between the following four elements to fully describe : the tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth and penetration of a cutting tool.Cutting Tools must be of a suitable material to manufacture, it must be strong, tough, hard and wear-resistant. Tool geometry -- to the tip plane and cutter angle characteristics -- for each cutting process must be correct.Cutting speed is the cutting edge of work piece surface rate, it is inches per minute toshow. In order to effectively processing, and cutting speed must adapt to the level of specific parts -- with knives. Generally, the more hard work piece material, the lower the rate.Progressive Tool to speed is cut into the work piece speed. If the work piece or tool for rotating movement, feed rate per round over the number of inches to the measurement. When the work piece or tool for reciprocating movement and feed rate on each trip through the measurement of inches. Generally, in other conditions, feed rate and cutting speed is inversely proportional to.Depth of penetration of a cutting tool -- to inches dollars -- is the tool to the work piece distance. Rotary cutting it to the chip or equal to the width of the linear cutting chip thickness. Rough than finishing, deeper penetration of a cutting tool depth.Rough machining and finishing machiningThere are two kinds of cuts in machine- shop work called, respectively, the "roughing cut" and the "finishing cut". When a piece is "roughed out", it is quite near the shape and size required, but enough metal has been left on the surface to finish smooth and to exact size." Generally speaking, bars of steel, forging, castings, etc. are machined to the required shape and size with only one roughing and one finishing cut. Sometimes, however, certain portions of a piece may require more than one roughing cut. Also, in some jobs, for example, when great accuracy is not needed, or when a comparatively small amount of metal must be removed, a finishing cut may be all that is required. The roughing cut, to remove the greater part of the excess material, should be reasonably heavy, that is, all the machine, or cutting tool, or work, or all three, will stand. So the machinist’s purpose is to remove the excess stock as fast as he can without leaving, at the same time, a surface too torn and rough, without bending the piece if it is slender, and without spoiling the centers. The finishing cut, to make the work smooth and accurate, is a finer cut. The emphasis here is refinement - very sharp tool, comparatively little metal removed, and a higher degree of accuracy in measurement. Whether roughing or finishing, the machinist must set the machine for the given job. He must consider the size and shape of the work and the kind of material, also the kind of tool used and the nature of the cut to be made, then he proceeds to set the machine for the correct speed and feed and to set the tool to take the depth of cut desired.Automatic Fixture Design外文资料翻译译文机械制造工艺机械加工是所有制造过程中最普遍使用的而且是最重要的方法。