Unit 1 General Description of Literature Reading and Translation (4hrs)1. Definition of LiteratureWhat is literature? There seems no substantial difference among its definitions in different dictionaries:Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English: a set of works on a particular subject; printed material, esp. giving information. (p. 639)The Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English: the writing or the study of books, etc. (technical books and journalism); books dealing with a special subject. (p. 573)Webster‟s New Collegiate Dictionary: the body of writings on a particular subject (scientific literature). (p. 672)《英汉案头大字典》: literature——文献(P. 1038) 。
《新英汉词典》: literature——(关于某一不科或专题的)文献(p. 744)。
《新华词典》: 文献——有历史价值的、或同某一学科有关的图书资料(p.880)。
From the above interpretations, we can arrive at an identical definition of literature: a general term for professional writings in the form of books, papers, and other documentations.As an important means for preserving knowledge, literatures have become precious resources or treasures for the mankind, which have greatly contributed to the social progress of the human race.Professional literatures have been regarded as “intangible assets” of the whole world because they are, on the one hand, the summary, generalization, and development of the achievements obtained on the basis of previous experiences or studies; and on the other hand, they have been accumulated and handed down from generation to generation. In this sense, therefore, all kinds of literature are records of precious research findings and academic achievements, and the crystallization of human civilization.The word literature used in this textbook does not mean “文学”, but “文献” or “文献资料”, specifically referring to various documentations in the field of international industrial business and academic exchanges. Since literature is the general term for printed materials, it should be further classified according to what a specific documentary work is.2. Classification of LiteratureAs is known to all, we are now in an information era marked with the rapid development of science and technology. According to statistics, within the recent decade alone, the achievements in science and technology have amounted to the totality of inventions and discoveries of mankind since ancient times. Facing such a vast ocean of professional literature, how should we conduct our literature search, reading and translation? Here, we just put various literatures under the following headings:1) TextbooksIn general, a textbook is a kind of professional writing specially designed for the students in a given branch of learning. Textbooks are compiled in a rigidly scientific,systematic and logical way. Comparatively, the content of a textbook is mature and well established, because it has been compiled through the writer‟s careful selection, verification, discrimination, integration and comprehensive study of the subject. If you intend to acquire a general knowledge of a certain subject over a larger area, or if you want to have a preliminary understanding of a certain issue, you‟d better go over the relevant textbooks, which proves the best policy.2) MonographsA monograph is “an arti cle or short book on one particular subject or branch of a subject that the writer has studied deeply” (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, p. 704). It is also a “detailed scientific account, esp. a published report on some item of research” (The Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English, p. 632). The content of a monograph usually includes the history and present status of a particular subject, observed data, experimental methods and results, existing problems and the developing trend, various viewpoints and discussions of different schools of thought, research achievements and further exploration, and so on. A monograph usually functions as an important guide for the reader to understand the particular study comprehensively and deeply.3) PapersPapers are the most important and reliable sources for textbooks, monographs, and all the other documentary works. A complete paper is usually composed of the following elements: title, author, affiliation, abstract, keywords, introduction, theoretical analysis and/or experimental description, results and discussion or conclusion, acknowledgments, references, etc. (detailed description and exemplification of these elements in a professional paper are given in a separate textbook entitled Paper Writing and Publication, by Hu Gengshen, et al., Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2000.) A paper usually deals with a relatively specific topic, and with a comparatively narrow subject.4) EncyclopediasAn encyclopedia is “a book or set of books dealing with every branch of knowledge, or with one particular branch, in alphabetical order.” The difference between a dictionary and an encyclopedia is that “A dictionary explains words and an encyclopedia explains facts.” (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, p.361) As a basic reference book of generalized and summarized knowledge, an encyclopedia is usually compiled by many experts of many branches through many years. The contents of an encyclopedia, therefore, are comparatively mature and correct. It virtually serves as an important information retriever, providing comprehensive and systematic information about everything.The information retriever as such also includes yearbooks, dictionaries, guides, handbooks, and the like.5) PeriodicalsA periodical is a series of publications that appear at regular intervals. Periodicals are of various categories. From the perspective of names, for example, they are journals, acta, magazines, bulletins, rapid communications, letters, proceedings, records, abstracting services, reviews, indexes, etc., which constitute themain body of literature.Periodicals are characterized by being large in number and in variety, extensivein content and in circulation, mixed in language and in form, etc.Along with the rapid development of science and technology, periodicals have been rapidly increasing and have‟ been gradually professionalized, integrated and computerized.6) Special DocumentationThe so-called special documentation refers to all the printed materials that are non-books or non-periodicals. This special documentation mainly includes: standards, patent documents, trademarks, copyrights, contracts/agreements, reports, conference papers, dissertations (or theses), Product specifications, government publications, proposals, technical archives, electronic hypertexts, etc. Though neither books nor periodicals published regularly or publicly, the special documentation proves to be most effective resources for information retrieval. Insofar as literature search and reading are concerned, this kind of special documentation should not be overlooked. On the contrary, it calls for our special attention--that is why we have placed special emphasis on special documentation in the present textbook.Notes:1. journals, Acta, magazines, bulletins, rapid communications, letters, proceedings, records, abstracting services, reviews, indexes, etc. 会刊，学报，杂志，通报，快讯，通信稿，会议录，文献记录，世界文摘服务，评论，索引等2. hypertext 超级文本(指信息高速公路上的文件)3. Linguistic Features of Scientific LiteratureStylistically, literature is a kind of formal writing. Compared with an informal writing which usually utilizes an informal tone and colloquial language, a formal writing is a more serious approach to a subject of great importance and it avoids all colloquial expressions. Since the functions of scientific literature are to reveal creative research achievements, facilitate professional information retrieval, and help improve the development of science and technology, it deals objectively with the study of facts or problems; analyses on literature are based on relevant data, not on personal feelings, and discussions or conclusions are made on the basis of specific experiments or investigations.Syntactically, scientific literature has rigorous grammatical structures, and in most cases is rather unitary. Frequently used are indicative sentences, imperative sentences, complex sentences, and “It be + adj. (participle) + that ...” sentence patterns, etc.Morphologically, scientific literature is featured by high specialization, the use of technical terms and jargons, unambiguous implication and the fixed sense of the word. There are more compound words, Latin and Greek words, contracted words, noun clusters and so on in scientific literature than in other informational writing.Besides, non-verbal language is also very popular in various literatures such as signs, formulas, charts, tables, photos, etc. for the sake of accuracy, brevity, and clarity.Different literatures may have different linguistic features although they do havesimilar characteristics in common. The linguistic features of an individual literature will be discussed together with the specific category of documentation in the corresponding Unit of this textbook. To learn the linguistic features of various literatures will be beneficial not only to documentation reading but also to the translation and writing of such documentary works.4. Search for Relevant LiteratureThe search for relevant literature needed for professional study and research has become a practical skill for professionals. This is important because an effective way of literature search and reading will facilitate our information retrieval within a shorter period of time. In fact, everyone may have his/her own way of literature search and reading. And the following are some usual approaches:1) Global SearchBy “global search” we mean to search for materials around the subject in a larger dimension or within a wider range, i.e., conducting the extensive reading. For example:(1) Search for relevant books through the Classified and Specified Catalogues.(2) Search for periodicals through the Newspapers and Journals Indexing.(3) Search for domestic literature through the Domestic Sci-tech Data Catalogues.(4) Search for current foreign literature through the Sci-Tech Translation Bulletin.(5) Search for literature at home and abroad through INTERNET, WWW (World Wide Web), and other electronic retrieval means.2) Specific SearchBy “specific search” we mean to search for literature about a certain topic withina specific area or in a narrower scope. For example:(1) Select some most-related papers for intensive reading.(2) Expand the scope of the reading only on the basis of the references of the selected papers.(3) Try to find out relevant “reviews” on the topic so as to know the authoritative comments, the experts‟ views, the global developing trend and the general on-goings, etc.3) Processed SearchBy “processed search” we mean to accumulate and absorb essential information in the course of literature search and reading. For example:(1) Store the searched literature by careful note-taking and self-abstracting.(2) Sort out the searched documentation by timely putting them into different categories.(3) Digest/Absorb the searched information by creatively analyzing and synthesizing.It is very important to identify and then make generalization of the essential parts of the research papers, because the author of a paper should and must present his/her achievements or research findings through these parts. For this purpose, as a researcher, one has to be good at doing retrieval reading. By retrieval reading wemean retrospect reading of the manuscript in a very careful way so as to identify, register and generalize the gist or the main parts of work, or contributions we have made in a given paper. Literally, we mean reading the manuscript in a thorough manner and making notes: (1) as to the subjects dealt with, particularly subjects concerning with new information given incidentally; and (2) as to the new result and conclusive ideas reported. Material relating to each subject should then be gathered together in a logical way; and (3) all the sentences generalizing the main ideas of all the original materials should be put together so as to be well-versed, abstract-brief, condensed, complete, yet easily readable.In the final analysis, to digest and absorb useful information is the ultimate purpose of literature search and reading. This is a process of discarding the dross and selecting the essential, eliminating the false and retaining the true, proceeding from the easy to the difficult and from the outer to the inner. It is also a process of reading, selecting, sorting, synthesizing, commenting, rationalizing, systematizing, reprocessing, etc.One thing that needs to be mentioned is that an awareness of information discrimination is highly necessary, for the collection and absorption of erroneous knowledge and information is harmful. Just as a western scientist says: “The fool collects data and the wise man selects them.” This remark, th ough drastic, is indeed philosophical.Notes1. through the Classified and Specified Catalogues 通过《分类目录或专题目录》2. through the Newspapers and Journals Indexing 通过《全国报刊索引》3. through the Domestic Sci-Tech Data Catalogues 通过《国内资料科技目录》4. Sci-Tech Translation Bulletin 《科技译文通报》5. the fool collects data and the wise man selects them 愚者采集资料，智者选择资料5. Review of this chapterDefinition of Literature: a set of works on a particular subject; printed material, esp. giving information; the body of writings on a particular subject (scientific literature)Classification of Literature: textbooks, monographs, papers, encyclopedias, periodicals, special documentation, etc.Linguistic Features of Scientific Literature: stylistically, a kind of formal writing, with rigorous and unitary grammatical structure, highly specialized and unambiguous wording for semantic accuracy, etc.Search for Relevant Literature: global search, specific search, and processed search Supplementary Readings on Informational Retrieval: retrieval system, microfilm, internet. database, reformat, on, e-mail, information infrastructure, information superhighwayTranslation Skills (1): Translation in General and Translation of Special LiteratureTranslation is a rendering of ideas or concepts from one language into another,i.e., the faithful representation in the target language of what is written or said in the original language.As a means of communication, translation plays an important role in human civilization. In the West, literary translation can be traced back to 300 BC; while in China, recorded translation activities are even earlier, dating from Zhou Dynasty (1100 BC). However, not until the recent centuries, especially by the end of the 19th century did systematic study of translation get under way. The recent decades have seen rapid development in translation theories and translation activities both at home and abroad.A modern society sees an extensive use of translation on various occasions. Proper and dexterous translation helps promote mutual understanding between peoples of different cultural and social backgrounds, whereas improper rendering of words or expressions leads to confusion. Take the ordinary word “menu” for example. Its original meaning is “a list of dishes in a meal or to be ordered as separated meals, esp. in a restaurant”, and the Chinese equivalent seems to be clear: 菜单. However, when it is used in computer science, its meaning shifts to “a list shown on the display of a computer from which a user can select the operation the computer is to perform.”Evidently the Chinese counterpart should be something like “选项、项目单” It is a pity that the initial translator neglected this definition, and as a result, this very popular term of computer science fails to convey its true meaning in Chinese--the translated term”菜单” sounds incongruous with its actual content. So is the rendering of “Renaissance”--commonly known as “文艺复兴” in Chinese. Although we know today that the movement extended far beyond the literature and art circle, and the connotation of “Renaissance” is much more profound than that of the Chinese term “文艺复兴”, yet it is generally accepted through common practice. Such improper rendering is not uncommon in Chines-English translation. A sweet and melodious trademark in Chinese, by improper translation, may cause uneasiness or even create a loathsome image in the mind of people of different social and cultural backgrounds. For example, a popular Chinese lipstick with the trademark “芳芳”, when transliterated into English as “Fangfang”, assumes a hideous image--the English word “fang” happens to have two disagreeable definitions: a, a long, sharp tooth of a dog; b.a snake‟s poisonous tooth. Consequently, this awkward transliteration has resulted in a complete failure in marketing. Similar translation blunders are not unusual in social or economic activities in our country. To name a few, translating “五讲四美、三热爱”into “five stresses, four beauties and three loves”, “抓紧施肥” into “grasp manure”, “街道妇女” into “street women”, “白酒”into “white wine”, etc. Had the translators had sufficient translation knowledge, such blunders would have been avoided.1. Nature and Scope of TranslationWhat is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art; and yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill.Of these varied definitions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how w e understand or interpret the word “translation”, for the very word “translation” itself is ambiguous. And the Chinese equivalent fanyi sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject in the curriculum, a jobpeople engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself. Sometimes, fanyi may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself.If the word “translation” refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to observe; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece of them manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its own nature, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Therefore, it entails a lot of practice, and particular craftsmanship and skills are reflected by the touches of different translators.Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation and written translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there are translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc., translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, repons, speeches, etc., and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices, receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation, abridged translation or adapted translation.2. Principles or Criteria of TranslationThe so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same coin. That is, on the part of the translator, he or she should follow them while translating; whereas on the part of the reader or critic, he or she may use the principles and criteria to evaluate translation works. Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu‟s “three-character guide”--xin, da, ya, namely, “faithfulness (信), expressiveness (达), and elegance (雅)”, which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy.In the past decades, Mr. Yan‟s principle has always been regarded as aplumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people come to find some unsatisfactory aspects of the three-character guide and have put foreword a variety of new standards or criteria of translation.Despite a variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted by all, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy (忠实/准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principles of scientific literature translation. By faithfulness/accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries.3. Literal Translation and Free TranslationThe process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression.Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension. However, in the practice we may find that now and then some words or phrases in their usual senses are very difficultto deal with because of the disparity between English and Chinese. In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation. Literal translation (直译) and free translation (意译) are two dynamic approaches in dealing with such awkward situations.The so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means “not to alter the original words and sentences”; strictly speaking, it strives “to keep the s entiments and style of the original.” It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech. There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile‟s tears (鳄鱼的眼泪), armed to the teeth (武装到牙齿), chain reaction (连锁反应), gentlemen‟s agreement (君子协定), and so on. Similarly, some Chinese idioms also find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example, 纸老虎(paper tiger),一国两制(one country, two systems ), and so on.Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation. For example:Adam‟s Apple 喉结at sixes and sevens 乱七八槽It rains cats and dogs. 大雨滂沱Don‟t cross the bridge till you get to it. 不必担心过早。
