Part Three Exposition

英美文学名词解释1. Allegory: A tale in verse or prose in which characters, actions, or settings represent abstract ideas or moral qualities. An allegory is a story with two meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning.2. Alliteration: The repetition of the initial consonant sounds in poetry.3. Allusion: A reference to a person, a place, an event, or a literary work that a writer expects the reader to recognize and respond to. An allusion may be drawn from history, geography, literature, or religion.4. Analogy: (a figure of speech) A comparison made between tow things to show the similarities between them. Analogies are often used for illustration or for argument.5. Anapest抑抑扬: It’s made up of two unstressed and one stressed syllables, with the two unstressed ones in front.6. Assonance: The repetition of similar vowel sounds, especially in poetry. Assonance is often employed to please the ear or emphasize certain sounds.7. Atmosphere: The prevailing mood or feeling of a literary work. Atmosphere is often developed, at least in part, through descriptions of setting. Such descriptions help to create an emotional climate to establish the reader’s expectations and attitudes.8. Ballad: A story told in verse and usually meant to be sung. In many countries, the folk ballad was one of the earliest forms of literature. Folk ballads have no known authors. They were transmitted orally from generation to generation and were not set down in writing until centuries after they were first sung. The subject matter of folk ballads stems from the everyday life of the common people. Devices commonly used in ballads are the refrain, incremental repetition, and code language. A later form of ballad is the literary ballad, which imitates the style of the folk ballad.9. Blank verse: Verse written in unrhymed iambic pentameter.10. Character: In appreciating a short story, characters are an indispensable element. Characters are the persons presented in a dramatic or narrative work. Forst divides characters into two types: flat character, which is presented without much individualizing detail; and round character, which is complex in temperament and motivation and is represented with subtle particularity.11. Climax: The point of greatest intensity, interest, or suspense in a gogotory’s turning point. The action leading to the climax and the simultaneous increase of tension in the plot are known as the rising action. All action after the climax is referred to as the falling action, or resolution. The term crisis is sometimes used interchangeably with climax.12. Comedy: in general, a literary work that ends happily with a healthy, amicable armistice between the protagonist and society.13. Conceit: A kind of metaphor that makes a comparison between two startlingly different things. A conceit may be a brief metaphor, but it usually provides the framework for an entire poem. An especially unusual and intellectual kind of conceit is the metaphysical conceit.14. Conflict: A struggle between two opposing forces or characters in a short story, novel, play, or narrative poem. Usually the events of the story are all related to the conflict, and the conflict is resolved in some way by the story’s end.15. Consonance: The repetition of similar consonant sounds in the middle or at the end of words.16. Couplet: Two consecutive lines of poetry that rhyme. A heroic couplet is an iambic pentameter couplet that rhyme in pairs (aa, bb, cc).17. Critical Realism: The critical realism of the 19th century flourished in the forties and in the beginning of fifties. The realists first and foremost set themselves the task of criticizing capitalist society from a democratic viewpoint and delineated the crying contradictions of bourgeois reality. But they did not find a way to eradicate social evils.18. Dactyl扬抑抑: It’s made up of one stressed and two unstressed syllables, with the stressed in front.19. Diction: A writer’s choice of words, particularly for clarity, effectiveness, and precision.20. Dramatic monologue: A kind of narrative poem in which one character speaks to one or more listeners whose replies are not given in the poem. The occasion is usually a crucial one in the speaker’s personality as well as the incident that is the subject of the poem. It reveals its own place and time as it proceeds to uncover the psychology of the speaker at a significant in his or her life.21. Elegy: A poem of mourning, usually over the death of an individual. An elegy is a type of lyric poem, usually formal in language and structure, and solemn or even melancholy in tone.22. Enlightenment: With the advent of the 18th century, in England, as in other European countries, there sprang into life a public movement known as the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment on the whole, was an expression of struggle of the then progressive class of bourgeois against feudalism. They attempted to place all branches of science at the service of mankind by connecting them with the actual deeds and requirements of the people.23. Epic: An epic in its most specific sense is a genre of classical poetry. It is a poem that is a long narrative about a serious subject, told in an elevated style of language, focused on the exploits of a hero or demi-god who represents the cultural values of a race, nation, or religious group in which the hero's success or failure will determine the fate of that people or nation. Usually, the epic has a vast setting, and covers a wide geographic area, it contains superhuman feats of strength or military prowess, and gods or supernatural beings frequently take part in the action.24. Epiphany主显节/顿悟: A moment of illumination, usually occurring at or near the end of a work.25. Essay: A piece of prose writing, usually short, that deals with a subject in a limited way and expresses a particular point or view. An essay may be serious or humorous, tightly organized or rambling, restrained or emotional. The two general classifications of essay are the informal essay and the formal essay. An informal essay is usually brief and is written as if the writer is talking informally to the reader about some topic, using a conversational style and a personal or humorous tone. By contrast, a formal essay is tightly organized, dignified in style, and serious in tone.26. Exposition: (1) That part of a narrative or drama in which important background information is revealed. (2) It is the kind of writing that is intended primarily to present information. Exposition is one of the major forms of discourse. The most familiar form it takes is in essays. Exposition is also that part of a play in which important background information is revealed to the audience.27. Fable: A fable is a short story, often with animals as its characters, which illustrate a moral.28. Farce: A type of comedy based on a ridiculous situation, often with stereotyped characters. The humor in a farce is largely slapstick—that is, it often involves crude physical action. The characters in a farce are often the butts of practical jokes.29. Flashback: A scene in a short story, novel, play, or narrative poem that interrupts the action to show an event that happened earlier.30. Foil衬托: A character who sets off another character by contrast.31. Foot: It is a rhythmic unit, a specific combination of stressed and unstressed syllables.32. Foreshadowing: The use of hints or clues in a narrative to suggest what will happen later. Writers use foreshadowing to create interest and to build suspense.33. Free Verse: Verse that has either no metrical pattern or an irregular pattern.34. Iamb抑扬格: It is the most commonly used foot in English poetry, in which an unstressed syllable comes first, followed by a stressed syllable.35. Iambic pentameter: A poetic line consisting of five verse feet, with each foot an iamb—that is, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Iambic pentameter is the most common verse line in English poetry.36. Image: We usually think with words, many of our thoughts come to us as pictures or imagined sensations in our mind. Such imagined pictures or sensations are called images.37. Imagery: Words or phrases that create pictures, or images, in the reader’s mind. Images can appeal to other senses as well: touch, taste, smell, and hearing.38. Imagism: It’s a poetic movement of England and the U.S. flourished from 1909 to 1917.The movement insists on the creation of images in poetry by “the direct treatment of the thing” and the economy of wording. The leaders of this movement were Ezra Pound and Amy Lowell.39. Irony: A contrast or an incongruity between what is stated and what is really meant, or between what is expected to happen and what actually happens. Three kinds of irony are (1) verbal irony, in which a writer or speaker says one thing and means something entirely different; (2) dramatic irony, in which a reader or an audience perceives something that a character in the story or play does not know; (3) irony of situation, in which the writer shows a discrepancy between the expected results of some action or situation and its actual results.40. Lyric: A poem, usually a short one, that expresses a speaker’s personal thoughts or feelings. The elegy, ode, and sonnet are all forms of the lyric.41. Meter音步: A generally regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry. The two units of meters are foot and line.42. Motif: A recurring feature (such as a name, an image, or a phrase) in a work of literature. A motif generally contributes in some way to the theme of a short story, novel, poem, or play. At times, motif is used to refer to some commonly used plot or character type in literature.43. Motivation: The reasons, either stated or implied, for a character’s behavior. To make a story believable, a writer must provide characters with motivation sufficient to explain what they do. Characters may be motivated by outside events, or they may be motivated by inner needs or fears.44. Multiple Point of View: It is one of the literary techniques William Faulkner used, which shows within the same story how the characters reacted differently to the same person or the same situation. The use of this technique gave the story a circular form wherein one event was the center, with various points of view radiating from it. The multiple points of view technique makes the reader recognize the difficulty of arriving at a true judgment.45. Myth: A story, often about immortals and sometimes connected with religious rituals, that is intended to give meaning to the mysteries of the world. Myths make it possible for people to understand and deal with things that they cannot control and often cannot see. A body of related myths that is accepted by a people is known as its mythology. A mythology tells a people what it is most concerned about.46. Narration: Like description, narration is a part of conversation and writing. Narration is the major technique used in expository writing. Such as autobiography. Successful narration must grow out of good observation, to-the-point selection from observation, and clear arrangement of details in logical sequence, which is usually chronological. Narration gives an exact picture of things as they occur.47. Narrative poem: A poem that tells a story. One kind of narrative poem is the epic, a long poem that sets forth the heroic ideals of a particular society.48. Narrator: One who narrates, or tells, a story. A story may be told by a first-person narrator, someone who is either a major or minor character in the story. Or a story may be told by a third-person narrator, someone who is not in the story at all. The word narrator can also refer to a character in a drama who guides the audience through the play, often commenting on the action and sometimes participating in it.49. Novel: A book-length fictional prose narrative, having may characters and often a complex plot.50. Ode: A complex and often lengthy lyric poem, written in a dignified formal style on some lofty or serious subject. Odes are often written for a special occasion, to honor a person or a season or to commemorate an event.51. Parody: The humorous imitation of a work of literature, art, or music. A parody often achieves its humorous effect through the use of exaggeration or mockery. In literature, parody can be make of a plot,a character, a writing style, or a sentiment or theme.52. Plot: Plot is the first and most obvious quality of a story. It is the sequence of events or actions in a short story, novel, play, or narrative poem. For the reader, the plot is the underlying pattern in a work of fiction, the structural element that gives it unity and order. For the writer, the plot is the guiding principle of selection and arrangement. Conflict, a struggle of some kind, is the most important element of plot. Each event in the plot is related to the conflict, the struggle that the main character undergoes. Conflict may be external or internal, and there may be more than one form of conflict in a work. As the plot advances, we learn how the conflict is resolved. Action is generally introduced by the exposition, information essential to understanding the situation. The action rises to a crisis, or climax. This movement is called the rising action. The falling action, which follows the crisis, shows a reversal of fortune for the protagonist. The denouement or resolution is the moment when the conflict ends and the outcome of the action is clear.53. Poetry: The most distinctive characteristic of poetry is form and music. Poetry is concerned with not only what is said but how it is said. Poetry evokes emotions rather than express facts. Poetry means having a poetic experience. Imagination is also an essential quality of poetry. Poetry often leads us to new perceptions, new feelings and experiences of which we have not previously been aware.54. Point of view: The vantage point from which a narrative is told. There are two basic points of view: first-person and third-person. In the first-person point of view, the story is told by one of the characters in his or her own words. The first-person point of view is limited. In the third-person point of view, the narrator is not a character in the story. The narrator may be an omniscient. On the other hand, the third-person narrator might tell a story from the point of view of only one character in the story.55. Protagonist: The central character of a drama, novel, short story, or narrative poem. The protagonist is the character on whom the action centers and with whom the reader sympathizes most. Usually the protagonist strives against an opposing force, or antagonist , to accomplish something.56. Renaissance: The term originally indicated a revival of classical (Greek and Roman) arts and sciences after the dark ages of medieval obscurantism.57. Rhyme: It’s one of the three basic elements of traditional poetry. It is the repetition of sounds in two or more words or phrases that appear close to each other in a poem. If the rhyme occurs at the ends of lines, it is called end rhyme. If the rhyme occurs within a line, it is called internal rhyme. Approximate rhyme is rhyme in which only the final consonant sounds of the words are identical. A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhymes in a poem. Rhyme scheme is the pattern of alternating end rhymes in a stanza or poem.58. Rhythm: It is one of the three basic elements of traditional poetry. It is the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables into a pattern. Rhythm often gives a poem a distinct musical quality. Poets also use rhythm to echo meaning.59. 1) Romanticism as a literary movement came into being in England early in the latter half of the 18th century, which prevailed in England during the period of 1798-1832, beginning with the publication of Wordsworth’s Lyrical Ballads, ending with Walter Scott’s death. 2) The general feature of the works of the romanticists is dissatisfaction with the bourgeois society, which finds expression in a revolt against or an escape from the sordid daily life. 3) They paid great attention to the spiritual and emotional life of man. Nature, often personified, also plays an important role in their works. 4) The passions of man and the beauties of nature appealed strongly to the imagination of the Romantic writer. 5) Poetry, of course, is the best medium to express all these sentiments. 6) The representatives were including William Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, Keats etc..60. Satire: A kind of writing that holds up to ridicule or contempt the weaknesses and wrongdoings of individuals, groups, institutions, or humanity in general. The aim of satirists is to set a moral standard for society, and they attempt to persuade the reader to see their point of view through the force of laughter.61. Setting: The time and place in which the events in a short story, novel, play or narrative poem occur. Setting can give us information, vital to plot and theme. Often, setting and character will reveal each other.62. Soliloquy: In drama, an extended speech delivered by a character alone onstage. The character reveals his or her innermost thoughts and feelings directly to the audience, as if thinking aloud.63. Sonnet: A fourteen-line lyric poem, usually written in rhymed iambic pentameter. A sonnet generally expresses a single theme or idea.64. Spondee扬扬: It consists of two stressed syllables.65. Stanza: It’s a structural division of a poem, consisting of a series of verse lines which usually comprise a recurring pattern of meter and thyme.66. Stereotype: A commonplace type or character that appears so often in literature that his or her nature is immediately familiar to the reader. Stereotypes, also called stock characters, always look and act the same way and reveal the same traits of character.67. Stream of consciousness: “Stream-of-Consciousness” or “interior monologue”, is one of the modern literary techniques. It is the style of writing that attempts to imitate the natural flow of a character’s thoughts, feelings, reflections, memories, and mental images as the character experiences them. It was first used in 1922 by the Irish novelist James Joyce. Those novels broke through the bounds of time and space, and depicted vividly and skillfully the unconscious activity of the mind fast changing and flowing incessantly, particularly the hesitant, misted, distracted and illusory psychology people had when they faced reality. The modern American writer William Faulkner successfully advanced this technique. In his stories, action and plots were less important than the reactions and inner musings of the narrators. Time sequences were often dislocated. The reader feels himself to be a participant in the stories, rather than an observer. A high degree of emotion can be achieved by this technique.68. Style: An author’s characteristic way of writing, determined by the choice of words, the arrangement of words in sentences, and the relationship of the sentences to one another.69. Suspense: The quality of a story, novel, or drama that makes the reader or audience uncertain or tense about the outcome of events.70. Symbol: A symbol is a sign which suggests more than its literal meaning. In other words, a symbol is both literal and figurative. A symbol is a way of telling a story and a way of conveying meaning. The best symbols are those that are believable in the lives of the characters and also convincing as they convey a meaning beyond the literal level of the story. If the symbol is obscure or ambiguous, then the very obscurity and the ambiguity may also be part of the meaning of the story.71. Theme; The general idea or insight about life that a writer wishes to express in a literary work. All the elements of a literary work-plot, setting, characterization, and figurative language-contribute to the development of its theme.72. Tone: The attitude a writer takes toward his or her subject, characters, or audience. The tone of a speech or a piece of writing can be formal or intimate; outspoken or reticent; abstruse or simple; solemn or playful; angry or loving; serious or ironic.73. Tragedy: In general, a literary work in which the protagonist meets an unhappy or disastrous end. Unlike comedy, tragedy depicts the actions of a central character who is usually dignified or heroic.74. Triplet: The three-line stanza. Tercet: aaa, bbb, ccc, and so on; terza rima: aba, bcb cdc, and so on.75. Trochee or trochaic扬抑格: the reverse of the iambic foot.Elements in FictionShort Fiction: a condensed narrative in prose, concerning a relatively small number of characters in a single action with one thematic focus, aims at the unity of effect.How to approach a short fiction?1. theme: main idea (controlling idea) a message the writer wants to get across the reader. A statement about life (should not be too vague, general, or narrow)2. title3. setting: time & place (very important in short fiction) lend credibility and make it believable4. plot: artistic arrangement of events in a story.1) development of a plot:complicationclimax (epiphany) of events2) conflict: the struggle between the major characters and other characters or environmentflashback: provide informationflash-forward: (create suspense or curiosity)crisis: a moment when the conflict becomes intenseclimax: the most intense moment (a turning point)motif: might be anything appearing again and again in a story, usu. a symbolappear during or after a tragic scene to relieve the tension temporarilyepipha ny: a moment of discovery, revelation (usu. sudden) which will change the character’s life or view of life.5. point of view: the angle or perspective from which a story is told.1) 1st person narrator: major character / minor character / observer (in a story, not participate in the action) unbelievable2) 3rd P.O.V.:omniscient (Godlike) everywhere at all times can go in everybody’s mindl imited omniscient (information is not complete; limited) does go into someone’s m ind (create puzzle)objective observer: (act as a camera) does not go to anybody’s mind. “A Fly on the W all”6. character: the person in a storyCharacterization: the way a writer adopts to develop characters and review their traits in their personality. (需分析what he says, how he behaves, how he interacts wither others, other’s action/response to him, physical appearance, name, motivation) (no motivation, no story) Types of character: protagonist /anti-hero / round/flat character / dynamic/static character / foil ( a supporting character whose role in the story to highlight a major character by presenting a contrast or to play the role of a confident with him/ her 陪衬人)7. tone: the author’s attitude toward the subject matter of the story.8. diction: choice of words or details.9. imagery: words which record our sensory experiences10. figure of speech:In addition, you can also interpret the text from the following aspects:1)Background (Cultural and historical information; the author’s biographical experienc e)2)Imagination (Tracing back, design) 3) Technique (Form) 4) Elevation (Digging)Appreciation on PoetryI. How to approach a poem?1. read at least 3 times2. borrow the brief background(including the poet’s cultural and biographical backgrou nd)3. close reading (elements):1) theme2) title3) setting: time and place4) diction: choice of words and details5) imagery: verb representatives of sensory experiences (visual, auditory, olfactory嗅觉, gustatory味觉, tactile触觉, organic, kinesthetic肌肉知觉)6) voice: the speaker’s tone7) syntax: inversion倒装, omission省略, conversion转换, syncope 中略8) sound and rhyme: stress, pause, line, vowel and consonantrhyme schemes: assonance, consonance, alliteration, euphony9) form: free verse: no metrical or an irregular pattern; blank verse: unrhymed iambic pentameter10) figure of speech (poetic devices): simile, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche提喻, euphemism, irony, overstatement and understatement, hyperbole, transferred epithet移情, allegory 寓言, allusion 典故, oxymoron 矛盾修饰法, alliteration, conceit幻想, symbol, paradox悖论, ambiguity模凌两可, onomatopoeia …etc.4. process:1) Let yourself get involved in the poem. When it describes some thing, try to see, hear, smell, taste, and feel that thing.2) Read the poem aloud to hear its sound. Often the sound of a poem suggests or stresses its meaning.3) Make sure that you understand every word in a poem. Pay particular attention to figures of speech.4) Identify the speaker. It could make all the difference.II. Kinds of Poetry (classification of poetry)Poems, according to their forms and contents, can be divided into several categories. Obviously, these categories are not absolutely clean-cut ones, each sharing some elements with others. Classification:1. By the Content:A. Narrative: 1) Ballad 2) Epic 3) RomanceB. Dramatic: 1) Elevated dialogue in drama 2) Dramatic monologueC. Lyrics: 1) Ode 2) Elegy 3) Sonnet 4) Pastoral2. By the FormA. Close form (fixed form): 1) sonnet 2) Villanelle 3) Epigram 4) HaikuB. Open form: 1) Blank Verse 2) Free Verse 3) Concrete Verse (picture)III. Other Basic Knowledge of Poetry:1. Rhyme韵律: It’s one of the three basic elements of traditional poetry. It is the repetition of sounds in two or more words or phrases that appear close to each other in a poem. If the rhyme occurs at the ends of lines, it is called end rhyme. If the rhyme occurs within a line, it is called internal rhyme. Approximate rhyme is rhyme in which only the final consonant sounds of the words are identical. Arhyme scheme is the pattern of rhymes in a poem. Rhyme scheme is the pattern of alternating end rhymes in a stanza or poem.1) Alliteration: The repetition of the initial consonant sounds in poetry.2) Assonance: is the repetition of similar vowel sounds within a noticeable range. For example, “All day the wind breathes low with mellower tone/ Thro’ every ho llow cave and alley lo ne”.3) Consonance: is the repetition of identical consonant sounds before and after different vowels. For example, “tit’ and “tat’, “creak” and “crack”.4) Half Rhyme is the feminine rhymes that do not rhyme completely. For example, “frightful’ and “slightly”, “yellow” and “pillow”. Half rhyme is called by others “near rhyme”, “oblique rhyme”, or “slant rhyme”5) Eye rhyme (目韵) is formed by words that look like a rhymed unit but do not have the same sounds. For example, “home” and “some”, “hear” and “bear”.2. Rhythm: It is one of the three basic elements of traditional poetry. It is the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables into a pattern. Rhythm often gives a poem a distinct musical quality. Poets also use rhythm to echo meaning.1) Meter音步: A generally regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry.Iamb— an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Its pattern is like this: U /anapest— two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable. Its pattern is like this: U U/ trochee or trochaic—a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable. Its pattern is like this: / U dactyl— a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllable. Its pattern is like this: / U Uspondee— a stressed syllable followed by another stressed syllable. Its pattern is like this: / /2) Foot: It is a rhythmic unit, a specific combination of stressed and unstressed syllables. (monometer, dimeter, trimester, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, heptameter, octameter) (1-8 feet)U / U / U / U / U /Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?3) Iambic pentameter: A poetic line consisting of five verse feet, with each foot an iamb—that is, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Iambic pentameter is the most common verse line in English poetry.3. Tone: it is the poise, mood, voice, attitude and outlook of the poet. Conveniently, tone can be defined as the poet’s or the speaker’s attitude towards his subject, his audience, or even himself. Most poems deal with human emotions, and tone is the emotional coloring of a poem. Some poems are sad, others are joyful, and still others are angry. The main purpose of some poems is to set a mood.4. Image:We usually think with words, many of our thoughts come to us as pictures or imagined sensations in our mind. Such imagined pictures or sensations are called images.5. Imagery: Words or phrases that create pictures, or images, in the reader’s mind. Images can appeal to other senses as well: touch, taste, smell, and hearing.6. Shapes: Poems are usually written in lines. The lines are grouped in stanzas. The beginning of a new line or stanza does not have to be the beginning of a new sentence. In fact, many poems, especially modern poems, do not use sentences at all.7. Language: A poet chooses words very carefully for exact meanings and for the feelings they suggest. In addition, almost every poem has one or more figures of speech. Yet, the words are chosen not only for meaning, but for sound, as well. Rhythm is an important part of every poem. Many poems use alliteration, rhyme, and other sound effects, also.8. Theme: The theme of a poem is the writer's main idea or concern. Sometimes a poem describes how an object looks. Its theme is the desire to describe the object. Other times a poet may make a serious statement about how people should behave.。

WritingThe Whole CompositionAim: The basic aim of a writing course is to develop the ability to write whole compositions (or essays, theses, papers).OutlineTopicThesis (Controlling Idea; Central Idea)------Thesis StatementIntroduction; Body (Main idea1, Main idea 2); ConclusionI IntroductionII Main Idea -------Topic Sentence (in the beginning: to tell briefly the content of a paragraph;at the end: to conclude the whole paragraph)A. Sub-ideaB. Sub-idea1. Supporting Detail2. Supporting Detaila. Fact 1b. Fact 2III Main IdeaA.Sub-ideaB.Sub-idea1.Supporting Detail2.Supporting Detail3.Supporting DetailC.Sub-ideaIV Conclusion------- Restatement or summary of the main pointsTopic Outline: All entries consist of nouns and their modifiers, or their equivalents, ie, gerund phrases or infinitive phrases. It is brief and clear.Sentence Outline: The entries are complete sentences. It provides a more detailed plan of the paper.Example. Topic: The School LibraryThesis: The library plays a very important part in a student’s life.Outline:I A student has to borrow books from the library.A.H e needs reference books for his elective courses.B.H e may want to read novels, stories and plays.II He reads newspapers, and magazines in the library.A.Many new magazines are on display in the First Reading-Room.B.There are newspapers from all provinces.C.Back numbers may be borrowed ate the counter.III He needs the library all the more in his junior and senior years.A.The library provides him with books for his research.B.He would not be able to write his graduation paper without using the library.ExerciseLies are usually considered very bad and rather indecent. However, we must admit that all of us have told some lies, either consciously or unconsciously. If we think about this seriously, we may conclude that lies are sometimes necessary and nobody can go without them. Do you agree with this viewpoint? Please write an essay of no less than 150 words.Sample:Outline: Lie: A Necessary Part of LifeI Introduction: Everyone tells lies from time to time.II Body: Telling lies is based on three purposesA.One is to obtain psychological balance and comfort1.We do not tell the truth to a very ill patient.2.One does not want to know the truth of one’s own fatal disease.B.One is to make a living.1.Businessmen deceive men about the value and quality of their products.2.Sales person lie to persuade us to purchase something.C.One is to ensure social order and peaceernment lies to stay in power.2.Religion lies to make people feel safe in following their lies.3.People want to maintain a certain kind of society.III Conclusion: Telling lies is an indispensable part of life.Key: From time to time everybody tells lies----little lies, white lies, necessary lies in order to obtain psychological balance and comfort, to make a living or to ensure social order and peace.In order to have psychological balance and comfort, you may not want to tell your seriously ill patient or relative or young kid that he or she is terminally ill and will die a painful death. Similarly you yourself do not want to know that your cancer is spreading so fast that you may not have more than 6 months to live in agonizing pain. Or you may lie to a friend , a colleague or your boss in order to save face, to gain some advantage over or to get a closer relationship with him or her.Telling lies is a kind of profession for certain people. In other words, some people make a living through telling lies. For instance, businessmen lie every day in order to deceive customers about the value and quality of their products. Again, sales people lie so as to persuade us to purchase something we may not need.Governments lie quite often to stay in power by persuading people that their needs and desires are being attended to and that they are safe. Meanwhile, many people know what lies to transmit so as to maintain the kind of society that both the people in power and many of its citizens want and need. Besides, religion lies in order to make people feel safe in following their lies.In conclusion, we lie in a word of lies. We can not live without lying and being lied to, for lying disguise our motality, our inadequacies, our fears and anxieties, our loneliness in the midst of the crowd. So telling lies is a n indispensable part of people’s life.How to writer a paragraphA paragraph is a unit of thought; it is at once a unit in itself and part of a larger whole, that is, an essay.A paragraph is like a mini-essay; it should be unified, coherent and well developed. A paragraph is unified when all the sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thought or on a single topic; when the writer wishes to introduce a new thought or topic, he should begin a new paragraph. A paragraph is coherent when it develops naturally and smoothly, and one sentence leads logically to another. There are many ways to develop a paragraph, for example, by process, by cause and effect, by comparison and contrast, etc.Unity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentence. It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph.Coherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form, or its organization. The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should be smooth and natural. As a result, the reader finds it easy to follow the writer’s train of thought and understand what he is talking about.Coherence my not be perfect even if the writer arranges his sentences in a clear, logical order. He has to use good transitions so that one sentence runs smoothly to another.Learn to use transitional expressions1. Connectives and transitional phrases for spatial development:above before me here on the left across from below in the distance on the right adjacent to beyond nearby opposite to also further next to on top of up down close to beneath under around near to over2. Connectives and transitional phrases for chronological development:first, second, etc. soon eventually in the meantime then thereupon at the same time next thereafter after an interval now after presently later afterward somewhat later finally at last3. Connectives and transitional phrases for analytical development:first, second, etc. now for this purpose but as a result furthermore but at last moreover also consequently likewise another for example next yet for instance on the contrary once in addition in summary such in this case on the other hand then otherwise in conclusion thus in closing therefore4. Connectives and transitional phrases for comparisons:another furthermore moreover equally important too, also at the same time besides then accordingly in fact in addition to like, likewise similarly just as…so in the same way5. Connectives and transitional phrases for contrasts:on the contrary different from/ in contrast on the other hand to despite in spite of yet, but whereas unlike nevertheless not only…but also here…there years ago…today this…that the former…the latter then…now the first…whereas the second some…others on the one hand…on the other once…nowLearn to use Transitional Words:启：first, first of all, firstly, at present, lately, presently, to begin with, currently, generally speaking, in the beginning, in the first place, now, recently, it goes without saying, etc.承：after a while, also, at any rate, at the same time, besides, by this time, certainly, consequently, for example, for instance, for this purpose, from now on, furthermore, in addition, in addition to, truly, likewise, second, third, after a few days, in fact, in other words, in particular, in the same manner, incidentally, indeed, meanwhile, moreover, no doubt, obviously, of course, particularly, similarly, so, then, still, secondly, thirdly, what is more, etc.转：anyway, after all, all the same, especially, but, nevertheless, on the contrary, otherwise, in the same way, at the same time, on the other hand, luckily, yet, conversely, in other words, however, fortunately, in particular, etc.合：consequently, accordingly, eventually, finally, at last, as a consequence, as a result, above all, at last, at length, by and large, briefly, hence, thus, in sum, in conclusion, in short, on the whole, to speak frankly, in summary, to sum up, in a word, to summarize, etc.Coherence of the paragraph启文：to begin with, to start with, first(ly), in the first place, in the beginning, generally speaking, etc.时间与过程：presently, recently, now, afterwards, meanwhile, simultaneously, in the meantime, by this time, next, earlier, the next step, from now on, finally, etc.增加：moreover, furthermore, in addition, too, and, second, third, equally important, what’s more, etc.类似：likewise, similarly, moreover, etc.方向：here, over there, beyond, opposite in the distance, to the left, etc.举例：for example, for instance, n amely, take… for example, etc.转折：yet, whereas, anyway, however, despite, in spite of, on the other hand, otherwise, still, conversely, etc.结果：therefore, as a result, consequently, accordingly, inevitably, naturally, then, etc.强调：at any rate, certainly, obviously, in fact, in particular, indeed, no doubt, especially, of course, fortunately, etc.收尾：in conclusion, to summarize, in summary, to sum up, in sum, finally, at length, eventually, on the whole, as has been told, in short, briefly, in other words, therefore, above all, etc.ExpositionExposition means to make something known and explain it to make the reader understand. An expository paper explains or explores something, such as the process of making a machine, the causes of natural or social phenomenon, the planning of a project, or the solution of a problem.The purpose of it is to inform. It mainly deals with processes and relationships. An expository essay explains how an object is made, how it is used, and how it may change. In an expository essay, we discuss its cause and effect, its nature, and its significance in history. Things can be explained by illustration, process, classification and division, comparison and contrast, an analysis of their causes and effects, or definition.The most important quality of exposition is clarity. To achieve this, the writer should:1.Limit his subject or the scope of discussion; for it is impossible to explain many things clearly in a short essay;2.Prepare enough material (details or examples) to help his explanation;3.Present his facts and views in proper order, in the order of time or of logical sequence depending on the nature of the subject;4.Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental as well as ambiguous expressions; and5.Make his exposition, if possible, interesting or moving.1.IllustrationIllustration is the use of example to illustrate a point. Good examples help to clarify a writer’s thought by making the general specific, and the abstract concrete. They also add interest and help to persuade or convince the reader.1) pattern:I Introduction: States general idea to be proved (usually in a thesis statement)II Body: Gives illustration(s), all of which support the general idea.III Conclusion: Restates the thesis, if appropriate; or provides a sense of completion to the paper.2) Useful Expressions:for example, as an example, to give another example, for instance, as an illustration, let me illustr ate by, This can be illustrated by…; An example of this is/ involves; to provide a specific case…; such…as; take… for example/ instance, etc.Ex1. On Keep Healthy2. Honesty is not Always the Best Policy2.Division and Classification1.introductionDivision is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts. Classification is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Its purpose is to group these things systematically.Division stresses the distinction between things, whereas classification emphasizes the similarities. The former deals with the whole while the latter, the parts.eful expressions:first (of all), in the first place, first and foremost, most important of all, to begin/ start with, in addition, furthermore, moreover, besides, thirdly, fourthly, lastly, finally, I want to make one final point…, I want to begin/ conclude by saying…, etc.3.patterns:1) Division: exa. composition: introduction; body; conclusionb. a pair of glasses: frame, lens2) Classification: exa.courses: elective, required/ obligatoryb.courses: taught in native language, taught in foreign language4.Exercises:1)Ways of Spending One’s Spare Time2)Kinds of Second Jobs3. Comparison and Contrast1. A comparison explains how things are similar, and a contrast, how they are different.Principles of selection and development in writing a comparison and contrast paper:1)Only items (usually two) of the same general class can be compared/ contrasted.2)A comparison and contrast essay usually follows one of these two patterns, thesubject-by-subject pattern or the point-by-point pattern.In the former pattern, the writer discusses the various aspects of one item before going on the other; while in the latter case, the writer discusses both items under each of the various aspects compared/ contrasted.2. Mode 1: (better in short essays, where few aspects are considered, or where the writer’s interest is on the whole.)I Topic SentenceII Subject 1A characteristic 1B characteristic 2C characteristic 3,4,5…III Subject 2A characteristic 1B characteristic 2C characteristic 3,4,5…IV Concluding SentencesMode 2: (preferable in long essays where many aspects are mentioned)I Topic SentenceII Characteristic 1A Subject 1B Subject 2 (in comparison/ contrast to A Subject 1)III Characteristic 2A Subject 1B Subject 2IV Characteristic 3A Subject 1B Subject 2V Concluding Sentence3. Example 1:I IntroductionII Discussing Object A------Beijing JeepA Point 1------PriceB Point 2------Options AvailableC Point 3------Gas MileageD Point 4------Frequency of RepairIII Discussing Object B------ Shanghai SuntanaA Point 1------PriceB Point 2------Options AvailableC Point 3------Gas MileageD Point 4------Frequency of RepairIV ConclusionExample 2:I IntroductionII Point 1-------PriceA Discussing Object A------Beijing JeepB Discussing Object B------Shanghai SuntanaIII Point 2------Options AvailableA Discussing Object A------Beijing JeepB Discussing Object B------Shanghai SuntanaIV Point 3------Gas MileageA Discussing Object A------Beijing JeepB Discussing Object B------Shanghai SuntanaV Point 4------Frequency of RepairA Discussing Object A------Beijing JeepB Discussing Object B------Shanghai SuntanaVI Conclusion4. Useful Expressions in Comparison Essay:1)Both X and Y are _________.2)X and Y have/ seem to have/ seemed to have/ happen to have sth in common/ much in common/ some features in common/ many features in common/ some common features.3)4)In the same way X ________, Y __________.5)X corresponds to ___________.6)A comparison between X and Y demonstrates/ results in/ reveals/ suggests/ shows/ seems interesting.7)X is like Y in ____________.Useful Expressions in Contrastive Essay:1)X is different from Y.2)X differs from Y.3)X and Y differ/ seem to differ as far as the main postulates are concerned.4)There are some/ a great difference between X and Y.5)In contrast to X, Y __________.6)Unlike X, Y __________.7)Whereas/ While/ Whilst X ___________, Y ____________.8)X ___________ in contrast, Y __________.9)Y __________, while/ whereas/ whilst on the other hand, X ___________.5. Some transitions used in comparison:both, each, at the same time, similarly, like, likewise, as, too, also, compared with, etc.Some transitions used in Contrast:on the other hand, on the contrary, in contrast (with/ to), instead (of), the opposite (of), unlike, although, while, whereas, but, however, yet, nevertheless, etc.6. Example: Traditional Family and Modern FamilyI Similarities (general idea)A Nuclear FamilyB The Role of FatherC The Role of MotherII DifferencesA The Man Role1.Traditional Family: Head of the household (work outside)Modern Family: Both work2.Traditional Family: Man makes big decisionModern family: Shared by couples3.Traditional Family: Man not help with houseworkModern Family: Shared by couplesB The Women’s Role1.Traditional Family: Quit for birthModern Family: Work after birth2.Traditional Family: Live on man’s incomeModern Family: Live on her own incomeC The Role of Children1.Traditional Family: Taken care by motherModern Family: Child-care centre2.Traditional Family: School-age children dependentModern Family: School-age children independent6. Exercises1)Travelling by Train and by Plane2)Chinese and Western Medicine or Food4. Cause and Effect1. A cause paper begins with an introduction which briefly describes the effect, and then the entire body of the paper analyses the causes, each of which is generally discussed in one paragraph.An effect paper reverses the procedure. It begins with an introduction describing the cause, and the rest of the paper discusses the effects.2. Modes(1) Effect—Cause (eg. Smoking results in a series of negative effects)I Topic SentenceII Effect 1III Effect 2IV Effect 3,4,5…V Concluding Sentence(2) Cause—Effect (eg. Students study English for different reasons)I Topic SentenceII Cause 1III Cause 2IV Cause 3,4,5…V Concluding Sentence3. To introduce cause:because, since, if, as a result of, is caused by, due to, owing toTo introduce effect:as a result, cause, lead to, for this reason, so, therefore, thusGroup 1Because of/ Since/ If (CAUSE) + SV (ie main sentence)(EFFECT) :eg. Because/ Since children watch too much TV, they lose creative ability.If children watch too much TV, they will lose creative ability.Group 2SV (CAUSE) + so/ as a result/ for this reason/ consequently/ therefore/ hence/ because of this/thus, + Clause (EFFECT)eg. Children watch too much TV, as a result/ consequently/ for this reason, they lose creative ability.Group 3As a result of/ Because of/ Due to/ Owing to (CAUSE) + noun or gerund, + Clause (EFFECT)eg. As a result of /Because of too much TV/ watching too much TV, the children lose creative ability.Exercises:Smoking has always been a controversial question throughout the world. Some people say smoking is very bad to the health while others insist that it is very good. What is your idea on this? Clarify your reasons.5. DefinitionDefinition is necessary when one uses a term that may have various denotative and connotative meanings or shades of meanings.There are two main types of definition---logical or formal, and extended or informal.The logical or formal definition is the dictionary definition which is rigid in form. It is often used in clarifying meanings of concrete or non-controversial terms. It consists of three essential parts: t he term, the class, and the difference. For example, “A dentist is a person whose work is filling. Cleaning, taking out teeth and fitting artificial teeth.”Extended of informal definitions are used when discussing ideals, concepts, or emotions. They also use classification and differentiation, but they are not rigid in form and are extended. The principles for giving an extended definition is:1)A definition paper discusses abstract terms such as liberty, individualism, love, beauty,etc.2)It answers fully, though often implicitly, the question “What is… ?”3)It may be either deductive or inductive.●The deductive essay begins with a definition which is followed by other expositorypatterns: general statement to specific conclusion●The inductive essay reaches the definition after employing any of the other methodsof development: facts to general conclusion●The final part of the essay is often a restatement, in which the essentials of thedefinition are summed up or reinforced,Exercises:1.Happiness2.Values3.Individualism6.Argumentation1. general ideaThe purpose of exposition is to inform, while the purpose of argumentation is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes.Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing--- description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and exposition are very closely related--- argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.1.Modes of argumentative paperModel 1A IntroductionB Body: Present problem 1, 2, 3…C Conclusion: Give solutions (give possible solutions; or give alternative strategies)Model 2A Introduction: Provide a brief overviewB Body: Effects to cause 1, 2, 3…; or Causes to effect 1, 2, 3…C Conclusion: Give more undesirable consequences (Effects)2.Requirements for argumentative essay:(1)A debatable point(2)Sufficient evidence(3)Good logic: All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence should be logicallyconnected with the conclusion and with each other.●Inductive reasoning: It starts with facts and proceeds from facts to a generalconclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement.●Deductive reasoning: It moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion.(4)Clear logic: A typic argumentative essay consists of three parts:●Introduction: identify the issue to be discussed and explain the importance of such adiscussion;●Body: present the evidence;●Conclusion: reaffirm the proposition stated at the beginning.In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views.Then in each paragraph that follows, you add something new and important to your argument. The evidence you provide should be arranged:a.from the least to the most importantb.from the most familiar to the least familiar, andc.from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult(5)Good use of the other three types of writing--- description, narration, and especially thevarious methods of exposition. (6)An honest and friendly attitude3.Exercises:1)New Technology --- Good or Bad2)Smoking Does Harm to Your Health7.Argumentation1. general ideaThe purpose of exposition is to inform, while the purpose of argumentation is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes.Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing--- description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and exposition are very closely related--- argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.4.Modes of argumentative paperModel 1A IntroductionB Body: Present problem 1, 2, 3…C Conclusion: Give solutions (give possible solutions; or give alternative strategies)Model 2A Introduction: Provide a brief overviewB Body: Effects to cause 1, 2, 3…; or Causes to effect 1, 2, 3…C Conclusion: Give more undesirable consequences (Effects)5.Requirements for argumentative essay:(7)A debatable point(8)Sufficient evidence(9)Good logic: All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence should be logicallyconnected with the conclusion and with each other.●Inductive reasoning: It starts with facts and proceeds from facts to a generalconclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement.●Deductive reasoning: It moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion.(10)Clear logic: A typic argumentative essay consists of three parts:●Introduction: identify the issue to be discussed and explain the importance of such adiscussion;●Body: present the evidence;●Conclusion: reaffirm the proposition stated at the beginning.In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views.Then in each paragraph that follows, you add something new and important to your argument. The evidence you provide should be arranged:d.from the least to the most importante.from the most familiar to the least familiar, andf.from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult(11)Good use of the other three types of writing--- description, narration, and especiallythe various methods of exposition.(12)An honest and friendly attitude6.Exercises:3)New Technology --- Good or Bad4)Smoking Does Harm to Your Health。