Fuzzy design of process tolerances to maximise process capability

Fuzzy Systems and Control Fuzzy systems and control are essential components of modern engineering and technology. These systems are designed to handle complex and uncertain information, making them suitable for a wide range of applications such as industrial automation, robotics, and decision-making processes. However, despite their potential, fuzzy systems and control face several challenges that need to be addressed. One of the main issues with fuzzy systems and control is their complexity. Developing and implementing these systems requires a deep understanding of fuzzy logic, control theory, and mathematical modeling. This complexity can be a barrier for engineers and researchers who are not familiarwith these concepts, limiting the widespread adoption of fuzzy systems and control in various industries. Another challenge is the lack of standardized methodologies for designing and evaluating fuzzy systems and control. Unlike traditional control systems, which have well-established design and analysis techniques, fuzzy systems and control lack a unified framework for development. This makes it difficult to compare different approaches and assess their performance, hindering the advancement of the field. Furthermore, the interpretability of fuzzy systems and control is a concern. While these systems excel at handling vague and imprecise information, their decision-making processes can be difficult to understand and interpret. This lack of transparency can leadto skepticism and reluctance to adopt fuzzy systems and control in critical applications where explainability is crucial. In addition, the integration of fuzzy systems and control with other technologies, such as machine learning and artificial intelligence, poses a significant challenge. While these fields have shown great promise in addressing complex problems, the combination of fuzzy systems and control with these technologies requires careful consideration of compatibility, scalability, and performance. Moreover, the real-time implementation of fuzzy systems and control in dynamic environments is a challenging task. These systems need to adapt to changing conditions and make decisions in a timely manner, which requires efficient algorithms and hardware support. Ensuring the reliability and robustness of fuzzy systems and control in such environments is a critical area of research and development. Despite thesechallenges, there are ongoing efforts to overcome them and advance the field of fuzzy systems and control. Researchers are working on developing simplified design methodologies and tools to facilitate the implementation of fuzzy systems and control in practical applications. Moreover, there is a growing interest in explainable artificial intelligence, which aims to enhance the interpretability of fuzzy systems and control and address the concerns related to transparency. Furthermore, advancements in hardware technology, such as the emergence of high-performance computing and edge computing, are enabling the real-time implementation of fuzzy systems and control in dynamic environments. These developments are paving the way for the integration of fuzzy systems and control with other emerging technologies, opening up new possibilities for their application in diverse fields. In conclusion, while fuzzy systems and control face several challenges, there are promising developments and research efforts aimed at addressing these issues. By overcoming the complexity, standardizing methodologies, improving interpretability, integrating with other technologies, and enhancing real-time implementation, the potential of fuzzy systems and control can be fully realized, leading to significant advancements in engineering and technology.。

一个平行沟槽轴承与建模质量守恒空穴算法青岛理工大学机械工程学院摘要：几种负载支持机制进行了研究处理并行轴承的气蚀问题。

腔及其处置的形成影响的连续薄膜，因此轴承的承载能力产生的压力。

在求解雷诺方程，适当的空化边界条件必须应用。

在这篇文章中，质量守恒ViJayaragHavan-基思空化算法被用于分析的并行子轴承的流体动力润滑性能与一个或多个凹槽。

采用有限差分法，一维雷诺方程离散。

高斯 - 赛德尔迭代来求解得到的线性代数方程组。

对于给定的润滑剂，滑动速度和最小油膜厚度，有几个比较研究Vijayaraghavan 基思空化算法和出版解析解之间进行。

影响了流体动压润滑性能的几个因素考虑，如气穴压力，入口长度，槽数和纹理图案。

分析结果验证了Vijayaraghavan - 基思空化算法。

它被发现Vijayaraghavan-基思算法是不带纹理的沟槽深度敏感。

此外，入口粗糙，进气吸力和准反对称整合被确定是产生平行轴承的动水压力的基本特征。

关键词：液体动压轴承、汽蚀的流体力学、在流体动力学粗糙度１引言在过去的20年中，极大的兴趣一直集中在使用质感轴承，其中Micro pockets 都融入了评分在所述轴承表面中的一个。

表面纹理一直发现提高承载能力，并降低流体动力摩擦在低负载条件。

虽然表面纹理是不是一个新概念，它仍然困难，因邪教作平行轴承内袋清楚如何可以夹带任何润滑剂，以形成一个流体动力膜和支持端口采用经典的流体动压润滑理论的负荷。

加载支持机制许多研究者研究了负载支持机制具有平行表面，其包括表面粗糙度，摆动和弹跳，润滑剂密度变化，非牛顿效应，EC-为中心旋转，波纹或界面表面的翘曲，突出微凹凸，和表面纹理化等。

在20世纪60年代，汉密尔顿，等。

（2）报告最早工作在微织构，润滑表面。

作者描述的润滑理论基于表面微违规行为和相关薄膜腔。

反对称压力分布这通常会发生这些违规行为被修改由薄膜气蚀，这似乎使得薄膜高压力失去平衡低的膜的压力，从而产生一个净负荷支承通过压力的区域整合力。

Friction , Lubrication of BearingIn many of the problem thus far , the student has been asked to disregard or neglect friction . A ctually , friction is present to some degree whenever two parts are in contact and move on each other. The term friction refers to the resistance of two or more parts to movement.Friction is harmful or valuable depending upon where it occurs. friction is necessary for fastening devices such as screws and rivets which depend upon friction to hold the fastener and the parts together. Belt drivers, brakes, and tires are additional applications where friction is necessary.The friction of moving parts in a machine is harmful because it reduces the mechanical advantage of the device. The heat produced by friction is lost energy because no work takes place. A lso , greater power is required to overcome the increased friction. Heat is destructive in that it causes expansion. Expansion may cause a bearing or sliding surface to fit tighter. If a great enough pressure builds up because made from low temperature materials may melt.There are three types of friction which must be overcome in moving parts: (1)starting, (2)sliding,and(3)rolling. Starting friction is the friction between two solids that tend to resist movement. When two parts are at a state of rest, the surface irregularities of both parts tend to interlock and form a wedging action. T o produce motion in these parts, the wedge-shaped peaks and valleys of the stationary surfaces must be made to slide out and over each other. The rougher the two surfaces, the greater is starting friction resulting from their movement .Since there is usually no fixed pattern between the peaks and valleys of two mating parts, the irregularities do not interlock once the parts are in motion but slide over each other. The friction of the two surfaces is known as sliding friction. A s shown in figure ,starting friction is always greater than sliding friction .Rolling friction occurs when roller devces are subjected to tremendous stress which cause the parts to change shape or deform. Under these conditions, the material in front of a roller tends to pile up and forces the object to roll slightly uphill. This changing of shape , known as deformation, causes a movement of molecules. As a result ,heat is produced from the added energy required to keep the parts turning and overcome friction.The friction caused by the wedging action of surface irregularities can be overcome partly by the precision machining of the surfaces. However, even these smooth surfaces may require the use of a substance between them to reduce the friction still more. This substance is usually a lubricant which provides a fine, thin oil film. The film keeps the surfaces apart and prevents the cohesive forces of the surfaces from coming in close contact and producing heat .Another way to reduce friction is to use different materials for the bearing surfaces and rotating parts. This explains why bronze bearings, soft alloy s, and copper and tin iolite bearings are used with both soft andhardened steel shaft. The iolite bearing is porous. Thus, when the bearing is dipped in oil, capillary action carries the oil through the spaces of the bearing. This type of bearing carries its own lubricant to the points where the pressures are the greatest.Moving parts are lubricated to reduce friction, wear, and heat. The most commonly used lubricants are oils, greases, and graphite compounds. Each lubricant serves a different purpose. The conditions under which two moving surfaces are to work determine the type of lubricant to be used and the system selected for distributing the lubricant.On slow moving parts with a minimum of pressure, an oil groove is usually sufficient to distribute the required quantity of lubricant to the surfaces moving on each other .A second common method of lubrication is the splash system in which parts moving in a reservoir of lubricant pick up sufficient oil which is then distributed to all moving parts during each cycle. This system is used in the crankcase of lawn-mower engines to lubricate the crankshaft, connecting rod ,and parts of the piston.A lubrication system commonly used in industrial plants is the pressure system. In this system, a pump on a machine carries the lubricant to all of the bearing surfaces at a constant rate and quantity.There are numerous other sy stems of lubrication and a considerable number of lubricants available for any given set of operating conditions. Modern industry pays greater attention to the use of the proper lubricants than at previous time because of the increased speeds, pressures, and operating demands placed on equipment and devices.Although one of the main purposes of lubrication is reduce friction, any substance-liquid , solid , or gaseous-capable of controlling friction and wear between sliding surfaces can be classed as a lubricant.V arieties of lubricationUnlubricated sliding. Metals that have been carefully treated to remove all foreign materials seize and weld to one another when slid together. In the absence of such a high degree of cleanliness, adsorbed gases, water vapor ,oxides, and contaminants reduce frictio9n and the tendency to seize but usually result in severe wear。

超高压食品工艺设计流程英文回答：Designing a process for ultra-high pressure food processing involves several steps to ensure the safety and quality of the final product. Here is a step-by-step guideto the process:1. Research and Development: The first step in the design process is to conduct thorough research on the food product and its specific requirements for processing. This includes studying the microbial safety, nutritional aspects, and sensory properties of the food. For example, if I am designing a process for high pressure processing of fruit juices, I would research the optimal pressure and time required to achieve the desired microbial reduction while preserving the flavor and nutrients.2. Equipment Selection: Once the research is complete, the next step is to select the appropriate equipment forhigh pressure processing. There are different types of equipment available, such as batch systems and continuous systems. I would consider factors like production capacity, cost, and maintenance requirements before choosing the equipment. For instance, if I am designing a process for high pressure processing of seafood, I might opt for a continuous system that can handle large volumes efficiently.3. Process Design: After selecting the equipment, the next step is to design the process parameters. Thisinvolves determining the pressure and temperature conditions, as well as the processing time required for the food product. It is essential to consider the specific characteristics of the food, such as its composition and structure, to ensure optimal processing. For example, if I am designing a process for high pressure processing of deli meats, I would consider the fat content, texture, and color changes that may occur under high pressure.4. Validation and Optimization: Once the process is designed, it needs to be validated to ensure its effectiveness in achieving the desired objectives. Thisinvolves conducting trials with different parameters and analyzing the results. For instance, I might conduct a series of experiments to determine the optimal pressure and time for high pressure processing of dairy products like yogurt. The results would then be analyzed to optimize the process parameters for maximum microbial reduction and product quality.5. Implementation and Monitoring: After validation and optimization, the designed process is ready for implementation. It is crucial to monitor the process continuously to ensure its consistency and effectiveness. Regular testing of the final product for microbial safety and quality is also necessary. For example, if I am designing a process for high pressure processing of ready-to-eat meals, I would regularly sample the products for microbial testing and sensory evaluation to ensure they meet the desired standards.中文回答：超高压食品工艺的设计流程包括以下几个步骤，以确保最终产品的安全和质量。

英文：Engineering ToleranceIntroductionA solid is defined by its surface boundaries. Designers typically specify a component’s nominal dimensions such that it fulfils its requirements. In reality, components cannot be made repeatedly to nominal dimensions, due to surface irregularities and the intrinsic surface roughness. Some variability in dimensions must be allowed to ensure manufacture is possible. However, the variability permitted must not be so great that the performance of the assembled parts is impaired. The allowed variability on the individual component dimensions is called the tolerance.The term tolerance applies not only to the acceptable range of component dimensions produced by manufacturing techniques, but also to the output of machines or processes. For example , the power produced by a given type of internal combustion engine varies from one engine to another. In practice, the variability is usually found to be modeled by a frequency distribution curve, for example the normal distribution (also called the Gaussian distribution).One of the tasks of the designer is to specify a dimension on a component and the allowable variability on this value that will give acceptable performance.Component TolerancesControl of dimensions is necessary in order to ensure assembly and interchangeability of components. Tolerances are specified on critical dimensions that affect clearances and interferences fits. One method of specifying tolerances is to state the nominal dimension followed by the permissible variation, so a dimension could be stated as 40.000mm ± 0.003mm.This means that the dimension should be machined so that it is between 39.997mm and 40.003mm.Where thevariation can vary either side of the nominal dimension, the tolerance is called a bilateral tolerance. For a unilateral tolerance, one tolerance is zero, e.g. 40+0.006 .0.000Most organizations have general tolerances that apply to dimensions when an explicit dimension is not specified on a drawing. For machined dimensions a general tolerance may be ±0.5mm. So a dimension specified as 15.0mm may range between 14.5mm and 15.5mm. Other general tolerances can be applied to features such as angles, drilled and punched holes, castings，forgings, weld beads and fillets.When specifying a tolerance for a component, reference can be made to previous drawings or general engineering practice. Tolerances are typically specified in bands as defined in British or ISO standards.Standard Fits for Holes and ShaftsA standard engineering ask is to determine tolerances for a cylindrical component, e.g. a shaft, fitting or rotating inside a corresponding cylindrical component or hole. The tightness of fit will depend on the application. For example, a gear located onto a shaft would require a “tight” interference fit, where the diameter of the shaft is actually slightly greater than the inside diameter of the gear hub in order to be able to transmit the desired torque. Alternatively, the diameter of a journal bearing must be greater than the diameter of the shaft to allow rotation. Given that it is not economically possible to manufacture components to exact dimensions, some variability in sizes of both the shaft and hole dimension must be specified. However, the range of variability should not be so large that the operation of the assembly is impaired. Rather than having an infinite variety of tolerance dimensions that could be specified, national and international standards have been produced defining bands of tolerances. To turn this information into actual dimensions corresponding tables exist，defining the tolerance levels for the size of dimension under consideration.Size：a number expressing in a particular unit the numerical value of a dimension.Actual size：the size of a part as obtained by measurement.Limits of size：the maximum and minimum sizes permitted for a feature.Maximum limit of size the greater of the two limits of size.Minimum limit of size：the smaller of the two limits of size.Basic size：the size by reference to which the limits of size are fixed.Deviation：the algebraic difference between a size and the corresponding basic size.Actual deviation：the algebraic difference between the actual size and the corresponding basic size.Upper deviation：the algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size and the corresponding basic size.Lower deviation：the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of size and the corresponding basic size.Tolerance：the difference between the maximum limit of size and the minimum limit of size.Shaft：the term used by convention to designate all external features of a part.Hole：the term used by convention to designate all internal features of a part.Heat Treatment of MetalThe generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions and I or properties.”Heating for the sole purpose of hot working(as in forging operations) is excluded from this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for products such as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．Transformation CurvesThe basis for heat treatment is the time-temperature-transformation curves or TTT curves where，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Becauseof the shape of the curves，they are also sometimes called C-curves or S-curves．To plot TTT curves，the particular steel is held at a given temperature and the structure is examined at predetermined intervals to record the amount of transformation taken place．It is known that the eutectoid steel (T80) under equilibrium conditions contains，all austenite above 723℃，whereas below，it is pearlite．To form pearlite，the carbon atoms should diffuse to form cementite．The diffusion being a rate process，would require sufficient time for complete transformation of austenite to pearlite ．From different samples，it is possible to note the amount of the transformation taking place at any temperature．These points are then plotted on a graph with time and temperature as the axes．Classification of Heat Treating ProcessesIn some instances，heat treatment procedures are clear cut in terms of technique and application．whereas in other instances，descriptions or simple explanations are insufficient because the same technique frequently may be used to obtain different objectives ．For example, stress relieving and tempering are often accomplished with the same equipment and by use of identical time and temperature cycles．The objectives，however，are different for the two processes ．The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships．Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature (usually 50°F to 100 °F or 28 ℃to 56℃) above its specific upper transformation temperature. This is followed by cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low-carbon steels．the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing ；for most ferrous alloys, normalizing and annealing are not synonymous.Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment, notably for refining the grain of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations．The normalizing process usually is succeededby another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening, annealing，or tempering.Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate．It is used primarily to soften metallic materials，but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure．The purpose of such changes may be，but is not confined to, improvement of machinability, facilitation of cold work ( known as in-process annealing)，improvement of mechanical or electrical properties, or to increase dimensional stability．When applied solely to relieve stresses, it commonly is called stress-relief annealing, synonymous with stress relieving．When the term “anneali ng is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification, full annealing is implied．This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature，then applying a cooling cycle which provides maximum softness．This cycle may vary widely, depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy．Quenching is the rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the workpiece in a liquid or gaseous medium．Quenching media commonly used include water，5% brine，5% caustic in an aqueous solution，oil，polymer solutions，or gas(usually air or nitrogen)．Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of the material and the mass of the material being treated(principally section thickness)．The cooling capabilities ofthe above-listed quenching media vary greatly．In selecting a quenching medium, it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results，thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated．Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching，fog quenching，hot quenching，interrupted quenching selective quenching，spray quenching, and time quenching．Tempering ．In heat treating of ferrous alloys ，tempering consists of reheating the austenitized and quench-hardened steel or iron to some preselected temperature that is below the lower transformation temperature (generally below 1300°F or 705℃) ．Tempering offers a means of obtaining various combinations of mechanical properties．Tempering temperatures used for hardened steels are often no higher than 300°F (150℃)．The term “tempering”should not be confused with either process annealing or stress relieving．Even though time and temperature cycles for the three processes may be the same，the conditions of the materials being processed and the objectives may be different．Stress Relieving．Like tempering, stress relieving is always done by heating to some temperature below the lower transformation temperature for steels and irons ．For nonferrous metals，the temperature may vary from slightly above room temperature to several hundred degrees，depending on the alloy and the amount of stress relief that is desired．The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have been imparted to the workpiece from such processes as forming, rolling，machining or welding．The usual procedure is to heat workpieces to the pre-established temperature long enough to reduce the residual stresses (this is a time-and temperature-dependent operation) to an acceptable level；this is followed by cooling at a relatively slow rate to avoid creation of new stresses．Introduction to CAD/CAMThroughout the history of our industrial society, many inventions have been patented and whole new technologies have evolved. Perhaps the single development that has impacted manufacturing more quickly and significantly than any previous technology is the digital computer. Computers are being used increasingly for both design and detailing of engineering components in the drawing office.Computer-aided design (CAD) is defined as the application of computers and graphics software to aid or enhance the product design from conceptualizationto documentation. CAD is most commonly associated with the use of an interactive computer graphics system, referred to as a CAD system. Computer-aided design systems are powerful tools and are used in the mechanical design and geometric modeling of products and components.There are several good reasons for using a CAD system to support the engineering design function：⑴To increase the productivity⑵To improve the quality of the design⑶To uniform design standards⑷To create a manufacturing data base⑸To eliminate inaccuracies caused by hand-copying of drawingsand inconsistency between drawingsComputer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is defined as the effective use of computer technology in manufacturing planning and control. CAM is most closely associated with functions in manufacturing engineering, such as process and production planning, machining, scheduling, management, quality control, and numerical control (NC) part programming. Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing are often combined into CAD/CAM systems.This combination allows the transfer of information from the design stage into the stage of planning for the manufacturing of a product, without the need to reenter the data on part geometry manually. The database developed during CAD is stored; then it is processed further, by CAM, into the necessary data and instructions for operating an controlling production machinery, material-handling equipment, and automated testing and inspection for product quality.Rationale for CAD/CAMThe rationale for CAD/CAM is similar to that used to justify any technology-based improvement in manufacturing. It grows out of a need to continually improve productivity, quality and competitiveness. There are also other reasons why a company might make a conversion from manual processes toCAD/CAM：⑴Increased productivity⑵Better quality⑶Better communication⑷Common database with manufacturing⑸Reduced prototype construction costs⑹Faster response to customersCAD/CAM HardwareThe hardware part of a CAD/CAM system consists of the following components：(1) one or more design workstations,(2) digital computer, (3) plotters, printers and other output devices, and (4) storage devices. In addition, the CAD/CAM system would have a communication interface to permit transmission of data to and from other computer systems, thus enabling some of the benefits of computer integration.The workstation is the interface between computer and user in the CAD system. The design of the CAD workstation and its available features have an important influence on the convenience, productivity, and quality of the user’s output. The workstation must include a graphics display terminal and a set of user input devices. CAD/CAM applications require a digital computer with a high-speed control processing unit (CPU). It contains the main memory and logic/arithmetic section for the system. The most widely used secondary storage medium in CAD/CAM is the hard disk, floppy diskette, or a combination of both.Input devices are generally used to transfer information from a human or storage medium to a computer where “CAD functions” are carried out. There are two basic approaches to input an existing drawing:model the object on a drawing or digitize the drawing. The standard output device for CAD/CAM is a CRT display. There are two major types of CRT displays: random-scan-line-drawing displays and raster-scan displays. In addition to CRT, there are also plasma paneldisplays and liquid-crystal displays.CAD/CAM SoftwareSoftware allows the human user to turn a hardware configuration into a powerful design and manufacturing system. CAD/CAM software falls into two broad categories, 2-D and 3-D, based on the number of dimensions visible in the finished geometry. CAD packages that represent objects in two dimensions are called 2-D software. Early systems were limited to 2-D. This was a serious shortcoming because 2-Drepresentations of 3-Dobjects is inherently confusing. Equally problem has been the inability of manufacturing personnel to properly read and interpret complicated 2-D representations of objects. 3-D software permits the parts to be viewed with the three-dimensional planes-height, width, and depth-visible. The trend in CAD/CAM is toward 3-D representation of graphic images. Such representations approximate the actual shape and appearance of the object to be produced; therefore, they are easier to read and understand.Applications of CAD/CAMThe emergence of CAD/CAM has had a major impact on manufacturing, by standardizing product development and by reducing design effort, tryout, and prototype work; it has made possible significantly reduced costs and improved productivity.Numerical ControlNumerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in which the processing equipment is controlled by means of numbers，letters，and other symbols．The numbers，letters，and symbols are coded in an appropriate format to define a program of instructions for a particular workpart or job. Theinstructions are provided by either of the two binary coded decimal systems: the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) code, or the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). ASCII-coded machine control units will not accept EIA coded instructions and vice versa. Increasingly, however, control units are being made to accept instructions in either code. Automation operation by NC is readily adaptable to the operation of all metalworking machines. Lathes, milling machines, drill presses, boring machines, grinding machines, turret punches, flame or wire-cutting and welding machines, and even pipe benders are available with numerical controls.Basic Components of NCA numerical control system consists of the following three basic components：(1) Program instructions(2) Machine control unit(3) Processing equipmentThe program instructions are the detailed step by step commands that direct the processing equipment In its most common form，the commands refer to positions of a machine tool spindle with respect to the worktable on which the part is fixed．More advanced instructions include selection of spindle speeds，cutting tools，and other functions.The machine control unit (MCU) consists of the electronics and control hardware that reads and interprets the program of instructions and convert it into mechanical actions of the machine tool or other processing equipment ．The processing equipment is the component that performs metal process．In the most common example of numerical control ，it is used to perform machining operations. The processing equipment consists of the worktable and spindle as well as the motors and controls needed to drive them．Types of NCThere are two basic types of numerical control systems：point to point and contouring ．Point to point control system, also called positioning, are simpler than contouring control system．Its primary purpose is to move a tool or workpiece from one programmed point to another. Usually the machine function，such as a drilling operation，is also activated at each point by command from the NC Program．Point to point systems are suitable for hole machining operations such as drilling, countersinking，counterboring，reaming，boring and tapping. Hole punching machines，spotwelding machines，and assembly machines also use point to point NC systems．Contouring system，also known as the continuous path system，positioning and cutting operations are both along controlled paths but at different velocities．Because the tool cuts as it travels along a prescribed path ，accurate control and synchronization of velocities and movements are important．The contouring system is used on lathes，milling machines，grinders，welding machinery，and machining centers．Movement along the path，or interpolation, occurs incrementally，by one of several basic methods ．There are a number of interpolation schemes that have been developed to deal with the various problems that are encountered in generating a smooth continuous path with a contouring type NC system．They include linear interpolation, circular interpolation, helical interpolation, parabolic interpolation and cubic interpolation. In all interpolations，the path controlled is that of the center of rotation of the tool．Compensation for different tools，different diameter tools，or tools wear during machining，can be made in the NC program．Programming for NCA program for numerical control consists of a sequence of directions that causes an NC machine to carry out a certain operation ，machining being the most commonly used process ．Programming for NC may be done by aninternal programming department，on the shop floor，or purchased from an outside source．Also，programming may be done manually or with computer assistance．The program contains instructions and commands．Geometric instructions pertain to relative movements between the tool and the workpiece. Processing instructions pertain to spindle speeds，feeds，tools，and so on．Travel instructions pertain to the type of interpolation and slow or rapid movements of the tool or worktable．Switching commands pertain to on/off position for coolant supplies，spindle rotation，direction of spindle rotation tool changes，workpiece feeding，clamping，and so on. The first NC programming language was developed by MIT developmental work on NC programming systems in the late 1950s and called APT(Automatically Programmed Tools).DNC and CNCThe development of numerical control was a significant achievement in batch and job shop manufacturing，from both a technological and a commercial viewpoint．There have been two enhancements and extensions of NC technology，including：(1) Direct numerical control(2) Computer numerical controlDirect numerical control can be defined as a manufacturing system in which a number of machines are controlled by a computer through direct connection and in real time．The tape reader is omitted in DNC，thus relieving the system of its least reliable component．Instead of using the tape reader，the part program is transmitted to the machine tool directly from the computer memory．In principle，one computer can be used to control more than 100 separate machines．(One commercial DNC system during the l970s boasted a control capability of up to 256 machine tools.) The DNC computer is designed to provide instructions to each machine tool on demand ．When the machine needs control commands ，they are communicated to it immediately．Since the introduction of DNC ，there have been dramatic advances in computer technology．The physical size and cost of a digital computer has been significantly reduced at the same time that its computational capabilities have been substantially increased．In numerical control，the result of these advances has been that the large hard-wired MCUs of conventional NC have been replaced by control units based on the digital computer．Initially，minicomputers were utilized in the early 1970s ．As further miniaturization occurred in computers ，minicomputers were replaced by today’s microcomputers．Computer numerical control is an NC system using dedicated microcomputer as the machine control unit ．Because a digital computer is used in both CNC and DNC，it is appropriate to distinguish between the two types of system．There are three principal differences：(1) DNC computers distribute instructional data to，and collect data from， a large number of machines．CNC computers control only one machine，or a small number of machines．(2) DNC computers occupy a location that is typically remote from the machines under their control. CNC computer are located very near their machine tools.(3) DNC software is developed not only to control individual pieces of production equipment, but also to serve as part of a management information system in the manufacturing sector of the firm. CNC software is developed to augment the capabilities of a particular machine tool.中文翻译：工程公差引言固体由其表面边界确定界限。

机械设计名词术语中英文对照表燃点spontaneous ignition热平衡heat balance, thermal equilibrium人字齿轮herringbone gear冗余自由度redundant degree of freedom柔轮flexspline柔性冲击flexible impulse, soft shock柔性制造系统flexible manufacturing system, FMS 柔性自动化flexible automation润滑油膜lubricant film润滑装置lubrication device润滑lubrication润滑剂lubricantS三角形花键serration spline三角形螺纹V thread screw三档third gear三维凸轮three-dimensional cam三心定理Kennedy`s theorem砂轮越程槽grinding wheel groove砂漏hour-glass少齿差行星传动planetary drive with small teeth difference 设计方法学design methodology设计变量design variable设计约束design constraints深沟球轴承deep groove ball bearing生产阻力productive resistance升程rise升距lift实际齿数actual number of teeth实际廓线cam profile实际啮合线段长度effective length of line of action十字滑块联轴器double slider coupling, Oldham‘s coupling 矢量vector输出功output work输出构件output link输出机构output mechanism输出力矩output torque输出轴output shaft输入构件input link数学模型mathematic model实际啮合线actual line of action双滑块机构double-slider mechanism, ellipsograph双曲柄机构double crank mechanism双曲面齿轮hyperboloid gear双头螺柱studs双万向联轴节constant-velocity (or double) universal joint 双摇杆机构double rocker mechanism双转块机构Oldham coupling双列轴承double row bearing双向推力轴承double-direction thrust bearing松边slack-side顺时针clockwise瞬心instantaneous center死点dead point四杆机构four-bar linkage速度velocity速度不均匀( 波动) 系数coefficient of speed fluctuation速度波动speed fluctuation速度曲线velocity diagram速度瞬心instantaneous center of velocityT塔轮step pulley踏板pedal台钳、虎钳vice太阳轮sun gear弹簧[刚度]系数spring constant弹性滑动elasticity sliding motion弹性联轴器elastic coupling, flexible coupling弹性套柱销联轴器rubber-cushioned sleeve bearing coupling 套筒sleeve梯形螺纹acme thread form特殊运动链special kinematic chain特性characteristics梯形螺纹；爱克米螺纹acme, acme thread替代机构equivalent mechanism调节modulation, regulation调心滚子轴承self-aligning roller bearing调心球轴承self-aligning ball bearing 调心轴承self-aligning bearing调速speed governing调速电动机adjustable speed motors 调速系统speed control system调压调速variable voltage control 调速器regulator, governor铁磁流体密封ferrofluid seal停车阶段stopping phase停歇dwell同步带synchronous belt同步带传动synchronous belt drive 凸的，凸面体convex凸轮cam凸轮倒置机构inverse cam mechanism 凸轮机构cam , cam mechanism 凸轮廓线cam profile凸轮廓线绘制layout of cam profile凸轮理论廓线pitch curve凸缘联轴器flange coupling图册、图谱atlas图解法graphical method推程rise推力球轴承thrust ball bearing推力轴承thrust bearing退刀槽tool withdrawal groove 退火anneal陀螺仪gyroscopeVV 带V beltW外力external force外圈outer ring外形尺寸boundary dimension万向联轴器Hooks coupling, universal coupling 外齿轮external gear弯曲应力beading stress弯矩bending moment腕部wrist往复移动reciprocating motion往复式密封reciprocating seal网上设计on-net design, OND微动螺旋机构differential screw mechanism位移displacement位移曲线displacement diagram位姿pose , position and orientation稳定运转阶段steady motion period稳健设计robust design蜗杆worm蜗杆传动机构worm gearing蜗杆头数number of threads蜗杆直径系数diametral quotient蜗杆蜗轮机构worm and worm gear蜗杆形凸轮步进机构worm cam interval mechanism蜗杆旋向hands of worm蜗轮worm gear涡圈形盘簧power spring无级变速装置stepless speed changes devices无穷大infiniteX系杆crank arm, planet carrier现场平衡field balancing向心轴承radial bearing向心力centrifugal force相对速度relative velocity相对运动relative motion相对间隙relative gap象限quadrant橡皮泥plasticine细牙螺纹fine threads销pin消耗consumption小齿轮pinion小径minor diameter橡胶弹簧balata spring修正梯形加速度运动规律modified trapezoidal acceleration motion修正正弦加速度运动规律modified sine acceleration motion斜齿圆柱齿轮helical gear斜键、钩头楔键taper key泄漏leakage谐波齿轮harmonic gear谐波传动harmonic driving谐波发生器harmonic generator斜齿轮的当量直齿轮equivalent spur gear of the helical gear 心轴spindle行程速度变化系数coefficient of travel speed variation行程速比系数advance-to return-time ratio行星齿轮装置planetary transmission行星轮planet gear行星轮变速装置planetary speed changing devices行星轮系planetary gear train形封闭凸轮机构positive-drive (or form-closed) cam mechanism虚拟现实virtual reality虚拟现实技术virtual reality technology, VRT虚拟现实设计virtual reality design, VRD虚约束redundant (or passive) constraint许用不平衡量allowable amount of unbalance许用压力角allowable pressure angle许用应力allowable stress, permissible stress悬臂结构cantilever structure悬臂梁cantilever beam循环功率流circulating power load旋转力矩running torque旋转式密封rotating seal旋转运动rotary motion选型type selectionY压力pressure压力中心center of pressure压缩机compressor压应力compressive stress压力角pressure angle牙嵌式联轴器jaw (teeth) positive-contact coupling 雅可比矩阵Jacobi matrix摇杆rocker液力传动hydrodynamic drive液力耦合器hydraulic couplers液体弹簧liquid spring液压无级变速hydraulic stepless speed changes液压机构hydraulic mechanism一般化运动链generalized kinematic chain移动从动件reciprocating follower移动副prismatic pair, sliding pair移动关节prismatic joint移动凸轮wedge cam盈亏功increment or decrement work应力幅stress amplitude应力集中stress concentration应力集中系数factor of stress concentration应力图stress diagram应力—应变图stress-strain diagram优化设计optimal design油杯oil bottle油壶oil can油沟密封oily ditch seal有害阻力useless resistance有益阻力useful resistance有效拉力effective tension有效圆周力effective circle force有害阻力detrimental resistance余弦加速度运动cosine acceleration (or simple harmonic) motion 预紧力preload原动机primer mover圆带round belt圆带传动round belt drive圆弧齿厚circular thickness圆弧圆柱蜗杆hollow flank worm圆角半径fillet radius圆盘摩擦离合器disc friction clutch圆盘制动器disc brake原动机prime mover原始机构original mechanism圆形齿轮circular gear圆柱滚子cylindrical roller圆柱滚子轴承cylindrical roller bearing圆柱副cylindric pair圆柱式凸轮步进运动机构barrel (cylindric) cam圆柱螺旋拉伸弹簧cylindroid helical-coil extension spring圆柱螺旋扭转弹簧cylindroid helical-coil torsion spring圆柱螺旋压缩弹簧cylindroid helical-coil compression spring 圆柱凸轮cylindrical cam圆柱蜗杆cylindrical worm圆柱坐标操作器cylindrical coordinate manipulator圆锥螺旋扭转弹簧conoid helical-coil compression spring圆锥滚子tapered roller圆锥滚子轴承tapered roller bearing圆锥齿轮机构bevel gears圆锥角cone angle原动件driving link约束constraint约束条件constraint condition约束反力constraining force跃度jerk跃度曲线jerk diagram运动倒置kinematic inversion运动方案设计kinematic precept design运动分析kinematic analysis运动副kinematic pair运动构件moving link运动简图kinematic sketch运动链kinematic chain运动失真undercutting运动设计kinematic design运动周期cycle of motion运动综合kinematic synthesis运转不均匀系数coefficient of velocity fluctuation 运动粘度kenematic viscosityZ载荷load载荷—变形曲线load—deformation curve载荷—变形图load—deformation diagram窄V 带narrow V belt毡圈密封felt ring seal展成法generating张紧力tension张紧轮tension pulley振动vibration振动力矩shaking couple振动频率frequency of vibration振幅amplitude of vibration正常齿高制system of normal addendum正公差positive allowrance正切机构tangent mechanism正向运动学direct (forward) kinematics正弦机构sine generator, scotch yoke织布机loom正应力、法向应力normal stress制动器brake直齿圆柱齿轮spur gear直齿锥齿轮straight bevel gear直角三角形right triangle直角坐标操作器Cartesian coordinate manipulator 直径系数diametral quotient直径系列diameter series直廓环面蜗杆hindley worm直线运动linear motion直轴straight shaft质量mass质心center of mass执行构件executive link, working link质径积mass-radius product智能化设计intelligent design, ID中间平面mid-plane中心距center distance中心距变动center distance change中心轮central gear中径mean diameter终止啮合点final contact, end of contact周节pitch周期性速度波动periodic speed fluctuation周转轮系epicyclic gear train肘形机构toggle mechanism轴shaft轴承盖bearing cup轴承合金bearing alloy轴承座bearing block轴承高度bearing height轴承宽度bearing width轴承内径bearing bore diameter轴承寿命bearing life轴承套圈bearing ring轴承外径bearing outside diameter轴颈journal轴瓦、轴承衬bearing bush轴端挡圈shaft end ring轴环shaft collar轴肩shaft shoulder轴角shaft angle轴向axial direction轴向齿廓axial tooth profile轴向当量动载荷dynamic equivalent axial load 轴向当量静载荷static equivalent axial load轴向基本额定动载荷basic dynamic axial load rating 轴向基本额定静载荷basic static axial load rating轴向接触轴承axial contact bearing轴向平面axial plane轴向游隙axial internal clearance轴向载荷axial load轴向载荷系数axial load factor轴向分力axial thrust load主动件driving link主动齿轮driving gear主动带轮driving pulley转动导杆机构whitworth mechanism转动副revolute (turning) pair转速swiveling speed, rotating speed转动关节revolute joint转轴revolving shaft转子rotor转子平衡balance of rotor装配条件assembly condition锥齿轮bevel gear锥顶common apex of cone锥距cone distance锥轮bevel pulley, bevel wheel锥齿轮的当量直齿轮equivalent spur gear of the bevel gear 锥面包络圆柱蜗杆milled helicoids worm准双曲面齿轮hypoid gear子程序subroutine子机构sub-mechanism自动化automation自锁self-locking自锁条件condition of self-locking自由度degree of freedom, mobility总重合度total contact ratio总反力resultant force总效率combined efficiency, overall efficiency 组成原理theory of constitution组合齿形composite tooth form组合安装stack mounting组合机构combined mechanism阻抗力resistance最大盈亏功maximum difference work between plus and minus work 纵向重合度overlap contact ratio纵坐标ordinate组合机构combined mechanism最少齿数minimum teeth number最小向径minimum radius作用点application point；action spot ;application point ;point of ac tion ;working point作用力applied force坐标系coordinate frameG杆组Assur group干涉interference刚度stiffiness; rigidity; severity; toughness刚度系数stiffness coefficient刚轮rigid circular spline钢丝软轴wire soft shaft刚体导引机构body guidance mechanism刚性冲击rigid impulse (shock)刚性转子rigid rotor刚性轴承rigid bearing刚性联轴器rigid coupling高度系列height series高速带high speed belt高副higher pair格拉晓夫定理Grashoff`s law根切undercutting公称直径nominal diameter高度系列height series高速档 a higher gear，top gear功work工况系数application factor工艺设计technological design工作循环图working cycle diagram工作机构operation mechanism工作载荷external loads工作空间working space工作应力working stress工作阻力effective resistance工作阻力矩effective resistance moment 公法线common normal line公共约束general constraint公制齿轮metric gears功率power功能分析设计function analyses design共轭齿廓conjugate profiles共轭凸轮conjugate cam构件link鼓风机blower固定构件fixed link, frame固体润滑剂solid lubricant关节型操作器jointed manipulator惯性力inertia force惯性力矩moment of inertia ,shaking moment 惯性力平衡balance of shaking force惯性力完全平衡full balance of shaking force惯性力部分平衡partial balance of shaking force惯性主矩resultant moment of inertia惯性主失resultant vector of inertia冠轮crown gear广义机构generation mechanism广义坐标generalized coordinate轨迹生成path generation轨迹发生器path generator滚刀hob滚道raceway滚动体rolling element滚动轴承rolling bearing滚动轴承代号rolling bearing identification code 滚针needle roller滚针轴承needle roller bearing滚子roller滚子轴承roller bearing滚子半径radius of roller滚子从动件roller follower滚子链roller chain滚子链联轴器double roller chain coupling滚珠丝杆ball screw滚柱式单向超越离合器roller clutch过度切割undercuttingH函数发生器function generator函数生成function generation含油轴承oil bearing耗油量oil consumption耗油量系数oil consumption factor赫兹公式H. Hertz equation合成弯矩resultant bending moment 合力resultant force合力矩resultant moment of force 黑箱black box横坐标abscissa互换性齿轮interchangeable gears花键spline滑键、导键feather key滑动轴承sliding bearing滑动率sliding ratio滑块slider环面蜗杆toroid helicoids worm环形弹簧annular spring缓冲装置shocks, shock-absorber 灰铸铁grey cast iron回程return回转体平衡balance of rotors混合轮系compound gear trainJ积分integrate机电一体化系统设计mechanical-electrical integration system design 机构mechanism机构分析analysis of mechanism机构平衡balance of mechanism机构学mechanism机构运动设计kinematic design of mechanism机构运动简图kinematic sketch of mechanism机构综合synthesis of mechanism机构组成constitution of mechanism机架frame, fixed link机架变换kinematic inversion机器machine机器人robot机器人操作器manipulator机器人学robotics机械machinery机械创新设计mechanical creation design, MCD机械系统设计mechanical system design, MSD机械动力分析dynamic analysis of machinery机械动力设计dynamic design of machinery机械动力学dynamics of machinery机械的现代设计modern machine design机械系统mechanical system机械利益mechanical advantage机械平衡balance of machinery机械手manipulator机械设计machine design, mechanical design 机械特性mechanical behavior机械调速mechanical speed governors机械效率mechanical efficiency机械原理theory of machines and mechanisms 机械运转不均匀系数coefficient of speed fluctuation机械无级变速mechanical stepless speed changes 基础机构fundamental mechanism基本额定寿命basic rating life基于实例设计case-based design,CBD基圆base circle基圆半径radius of base circle基圆齿距base pitch基圆压力角pressure angle of base circle基圆柱base cylinder基圆锥base cone急回机构quick-return mechanism急回特性quick-return characteristics急回系数advance-to return-time ratio急回运动quick-return motion技术过程technique process技术经济评价technical and economic evaluation 技术系统technique system棘爪pawl极限啮合点limit of action极位夹角crank angle between extreme (or limiting) positions 极限位置extreme (or limiting) position计算机辅助设计computer aided design, CAD计算机辅助制造computer aided manufacturing, CAM计算机集成制造系统computer integrated manufacturing system, CIMS计算力矩factored moment, calculation moment计算弯矩calculated bending moment加权系数weighting efficient加速度acceleration加速度分析acceleration analysis加速度曲线acceleration diagram尖点pointing, cusp尖底从动件knife-edge follower间隙backlash间歇运动机构intermittent motion mechanism减速比reduction ratio减速齿轮、减速装置reduction gear减速器speed reducer减摩性anti-friction quality渐开螺旋面involute helicoid渐开线involute渐开线齿廓involute profile渐开线齿轮involute gear渐开线发生线generating line of involute渐开线方程involute equation渐开线函数involute function渐开线蜗杆involute worm渐开线压力角pressure angle of involute渐开线花键involute spline简谐运动simple harmonic motion键key键槽keyway检修门Access door交变应力repeated stress交变载荷repeated fluctuating load交叉带传动cross-belt drive交错轴斜齿轮crossed helical gears胶合scoring角加速度angular acceleration角速度angular velocity角速比angular velocity ratio角接触球轴承angular contact ball bearing 角接触推力轴承angular contact thrust bearing 角接触向心轴承angular contact radial bearing 角接触轴承angular contact bearing铰链、枢纽hinge校正平面correcting plane接触应力contact stress接触式密封contact seal阶梯轴multi-diameter shaft结构structure结构设计structural design截面section节点pitch point节距circular pitch, pitch of teeth节线pitch line节圆pitch circle节圆齿厚thickness on pitch circle节圆直径pitch diameter节圆锥pitch cone节圆锥角pitch cone angle解析设计analytical design紧边tight-side紧固件fastener精加工余量allowance for finish精密度accuracy径节diametral pitch径向radial direction径向当量动载荷dynamic equivalent radial load 径向当量静载荷static equivalent radial load径向基本额定动载荷basic dynamic radial load rating 径向基本额定静载荷basic static radial load tating径向接触轴承radial contact bearing径向平面radial plane径向游隙radial internal clearance径向载荷radial load径向载荷系数radial load factor径向间隙clearance静力static force静密封static seal静平衡static balance静载荷static load局部自由度passive degree of freedom矩阵matrix矩形螺纹square threaded form锯齿形螺纹buttress thread form矩形牙嵌式离合器square-jaw positive-contact clutch 绝对尺寸系数absolute dimensional factor绝对运动absolute motion绝对速度absolute velocity均衡装置load balancing mechanismK抗压强度compression strength 开口传动open-belt drive开式链open kinematic chain 开链机构open chain mechanism 可靠度degree of reliability可靠性reliability可靠性设计reliability design, RD 空气弹簧air spring空间机构spatial mechanism空间连杆机构spatial linkage空间凸轮机构spatial cam空间运动副spatial kinematic pair 空间运动链spatial kinematic chain空转idle宽度系列width series框图block diagramL雷诺方程Reynolds‘s equation离心力centrifugal force离心应力centrifugal stress离合器clutch离心密封centrifugal seal理论廓线pitch curve理论啮合线theoretical line of action隶属度membership力force力多边形force polygon力封闭型凸轮机构force-drive (or force-closed) cam mechanism力平衡equilibrium力偶couple力偶矩moment of couple连杆connecting rod, coupler连杆机构linkage连杆曲线coupler-curve连心线line of centers链chain链传动装置chain gearing链轮sprocket, sprocket-wheel, sprocket gear, chain wheel 联组V 带tight-up V belt联轴器coupling, shaft coupling两维凸轮two-dimensional cam邻角adjacent angle临界转速critical speed六杆机构six-bar linkage龙门刨床double Haas planer轮坯blank轮系gear train螺杆screw螺距thread pitch螺母screw nut螺旋锥齿轮helical bevel gear螺钉screws螺栓bolts螺纹导程lead螺纹效率screw efficiency螺旋传动power screw螺旋密封spiral seal螺纹thread (of a screw)螺旋副helical pair螺旋机构screw mechanism螺旋角helix angle螺旋线helix ,helical line绿色设计green design, design for environmentM马耳他机构Geneva wheel, Geneva gear马耳他十字Maltese cross脉动无级变速pulsating stepless speed changes脉动循环应力fluctuating circulating stress脉动载荷fluctuating load美国齿轮制造业协会AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association)铆钉rivet迷宫密封labyrinth seal密封seal密封带seal belt密封胶seal gum密封元件potted component密封装置sealing arrangement面对面安装face-to-face arrangement面向产品生命周期设计 design for product`s life cycle, DPLC名义应力、公称应力nominal stress模块化设计modular design, MD模块式传动系统modular system模幅箱morphology box模糊集fuzzy set模糊评价fuzzy evaluation模数module摩擦friction摩擦角friction angle摩擦力friction force摩擦学设计tribology design, TD摩擦阻力frictional resistance摩擦力矩friction moment摩擦系数coefficient of friction摩擦圆friction circle磨料磨损abrasive wear磨蚀剂abrasive磨损abrasion, wear, scratching, abrade末端执行器end-effector目标函数objective functionN耐腐蚀性corrosion resistance耐磨性wear resistance挠性机构mechanism with flexible elements挠性转子flexible rotor内齿轮internal gear内齿圈ring gear内力internal force内圈inner ring能量energy能量指示图viscosity逆时针counterclockwise (or anticlockwise)粘附adhere啮出engaging-out啮合engagement, mesh, gearing, action啮合点contact points啮合轨迹path of action啮合弧arc of action啮合角working pressure angle, angle of action 啮合曲面surface of action啮合区域zone of action啮合线line of action啮合线长度length of line of action啮入engaging-in牛头刨床shaper凝固点freezing point, solidifying point 扭转应力torsion stress扭矩moment of torque扭簧helical torsion spring诺模图NomogramOO 形密封圈密封O ring sealP盘形凸轮disk cam盘形转子disk-like rotor抛物线运动parabolic motion疲劳极限fatigue limit疲劳强度fatigue strength偏置式offset偏( 心) 距offset distance偏心率eccentricity ratio偏心质量eccentric mass偏距圆offset circle偏心盘eccentric偏置滚子从动件offset roller follower偏置尖底从动件offset knife-edge follower偏置曲柄滑块机构offset slider-crank mechanism 拼接matching评价与决策evaluation and decision频率frequency平带flat belt平带传动flat belt driving平底从动件flat-face follower平底宽度face width平分线bisector平均应力average stress平均中径mean screw diameter平均速度average velocity平衡balance平衡机balancing machine平衡品质balancing quality平衡平面correcting plane平衡质量balancing mass平衡重counterweight平衡转速balancing speed平面副planar pair, flat pair平面机构planar mechanism平面运动副planar kinematic pair平面连杆机构planar linkage平面凸轮planar cam平面凸轮机构planar cam mechanism平面轴斜齿轮parallel helical gears普通平键parallel keyQ其他常用机构other mechanism in common use起动阶段starting period启动力矩starting torque气动机构pneumatic mechanism奇异位置singular position起始啮合点initial contact , beginning of contact气体轴承gas bearing千斤顶jack嵌入键sunk key强迫振动forced vibration切齿深度depth of cut切削精度cutting accuracy曲柄crank曲柄存在条件Grashoff`s law曲柄导杆机构crank shaper (guide-bar) mechanism曲柄滑块机构slider-crank (or crank-slider) mechanism 曲柄摇杆机构crank-rocker mechanism曲齿锥齿轮spiral bevel gear曲率curvature曲率半径radius of curvature曲面从动件curved-shoe follower曲线拼接curve matching曲线运动curvilinear motion曲轴crank shaft驱动力driving force驱动力矩driving moment (torque)全齿高whole depth权重集weight sets球ball球面滚子convex roller球轴承ball bearing球面副spheric pair球面渐开线spherical involute球面运动spherical motion球销副sphere-pin pair球坐标操作器polar coordinate manipulator。

运动链kinematic chain运动设计kinematicdesign运动失真undercutting运动粘度kenematicviscosity运动周期cycle of motion运动综合kinematicsynthesis运转不均匀系数coefficient of velocityfluctuation 载荷load载荷-变形曲线load-deformationcurve载荷-变形图load-deformationdiagram窄V带narrow V belt毡圈密封felt ring seal展成法generating张紧力tension张紧轮tension pulley振动vibration振动力矩shaking couple振动频率frequency ofvibration振幅amplitude ofvibration正切机构tangentmechanism正弦机构sine generator，scotchyoke正向运动学direct （forward）kinematics正应力、法向应力normalstress织布机loom直齿圆柱齿轮spur gear直齿锥齿轮straight bevelgear直角三角形right triangle直角坐标操作器Cartesian coordinatemanipulator 直径系列diameter series直径系数diametralquotient直廓环面蜗杆hindley worm直线运动linear motion直轴straight shaft执行构件executive link；workinglink制动器brake智能化设计intelligent design，ID质径积mass-radiusproduct质量mass质心center of mass中间平面mid-plane中径mean diameter中心距center distance中心距变动center distancechange中心轮central gear终止啮合点final contact，end ofcontact重合点coincidentpoints重合度contact ratio周节pitch周期性速度波动periodic speedfluctuation周转轮系epicyclic geartrain轴shaft轴承盖bearing cup轴承高度bearing height轴承合金bearing alloy轴承宽度bearing width轴承内径bearing borediameter轴承寿命bearing life轴承套圈bearing ring轴承外径bearing outsidediameter轴承座bearing block轴端挡圈shaft end ring轴环shaft collar轴肩shaft shoulder轴角shaft angle轴颈journal轴瓦、轴承衬bearing bush轴向axial direction轴向齿廓axial toothprofile轴向当量动载荷dynamic equivalent axialload轴向当量静载荷static equivalent axialload轴向分力axial thrustload轴向基本额定动载荷basic dynamic axialload rating 轴向基本额定静载荷basic static axial loadrating轴向接触轴承axial contactbearing轴向平面axial plane轴向游隙axial internalclearance轴向载荷axial load轴向载荷系数axial loadfactor肘形机构togglemechanism主动齿轮driving gear主动带轮driving pulley主动件driving link转动导杆机构whitworthmechanism转动副revolute （turning）pair转动关节revolute joint转速swiveling speed rotatingspeed转轴revolving shaft转子rotor转子平衡balance ofrotor装配条件assemblycondition锥齿轮bevel gear锥齿轮的当量直齿轮equivalent spur gear ofthe bevel gear锥顶common apex ofcone锥距cone distance锥轮bevel pulley；bevelwheel锥面包络圆柱蜗杆milled helicoidsworm准双曲面齿轮hypoid gear子程序subroutine子机构sub-mechanism自动化automation自锁self-locking自锁条件condition ofself-locking自由度degree of freedom，mobility总反力resultant force总效率combined efficiency；overallefficiency总重合度total contactratio纵向重合度overlap contactratio纵坐标ordinate阻抗力resistance组成原理theory ofconstitution组合安装stack mounting组合齿形composite toothform组合机构combinedmechanism最大盈亏功maximum difference workbetween plus and minus work 最少齿数minimum teethnumber最小向径minimum radius作用力applied force坐标系coordinate frameII 级杆组dyadO 形密封圈密封O ring sealV 带V belt（疲劳）点蚀pitting偏心质量eccentric mass偏置滚子从动件offset rollerfollower偏置尖底从动件offset knife-edgefollower偏置曲柄滑块机构offset slider-crankmechanism偏置式offset拼接matching频率frequency平带flat belt平带传动flat beltdriving平底从动件flat-facefollower平底宽度face width平分线bisector平衡balance平衡机balancingmachine平衡品质balancingquality平衡平面correctingplane平衡质量balancing mass平衡重counterweight平衡转速balancing speed平均速度averagevelocity平均应力average stress平均中径mean screwdiameter平面副planar pair，flatpair平面机构planarmechanism平面连杆机构planarlinkage平面凸轮planar cam平面凸轮机构planar cammechanism平面运动副planar kinematicpair平面轴斜齿轮parallel helicalgears评价与决策evaluation anddecision普通平键parallel key其他常用机构other mechanism in commonuse奇异位置singularposition起动阶段starting period起始啮合点initial contact ，beginningof contact启动力矩starting torque气动机构pneumaticmechanism气体轴承gas bearing千斤顶jack嵌入键sunk key强迫振动forcedvibration切齿深度depth of cut球ball球面副spheric pair球面滚子convex roller球面渐开线sphericalinvolute球面运动sphericalmotion球销副sphere-pin pair球轴承ball bearing球坐标操作器polar coordinatemanipulator曲柄crank曲柄存在条件Grashoff`slaw曲柄导杆机构crank shaper （guide-bar）mechanism曲柄滑块机构slider-crank （orcrank-slider）mechanism曲柄摇杆机构crank-rockermechanism曲齿锥齿轮spiral bevelgear曲率curvature曲率半径radius ofcurvature曲面从动件curved-shoefollower曲线拼接curve matching曲线运动curvilinearmotion曲轴crank shaft驱动力driving force驱动力矩driving moment（torque）权重集weight sets全齿高whole depth燃点spontaneousignition热平衡heat balance；thermalequilibrium人字齿轮herringbonegear冗余自由度redundant degree offreedom柔轮flexspline柔性冲击flexible impulse；softshock柔性制造系统flexible manufacturingsystem；FMS柔性自动化flexibleautomation润滑lubrication润滑剂lubricant润滑油膜lubricant film润滑装置lubricationdevice三角形花键serrationspline三角形螺纹V thread screw三维凸轮three-dimensionalcam三心定理Kennedy`stheorem砂漏hour-glass砂轮越程槽grinding wheelgroove少齿差行星传动planetary drive withsmall teeth difference 设计变量design variable设计方法学designmethodology设计约束designconstraints深沟球轴承deep groove ballbearing生产阻力productiveresistance升程rise升距lift十字滑块联轴器double slider coupling；Oldham's coupling 实际廓线cam profile实际啮合线actual line ofaction矢量vector输出功output work输出构件output link输出机构outputmechanism输出力矩output torque力矩moment力偶couple力偶矩moment of couple力平衡equilibrium联轴器coupling shaftcoupling联组V 带tight-up Vbelt连杆connecting rod，coupler连杆机构linkage连杆曲线coupler-curve连心线line of centers链chain链传动装置chain gearing链轮sprocket sprocket-wheelsprocket gear chain wheel 两维凸轮two-dimensionalcam临界转速critical speed六杆机构six-bar linkage龙门刨床double Haasplaner绿色设计green design design forenvironment轮坯blank轮系gear train螺钉screws螺杆screw螺距thread pitch螺母screw nut螺栓bolts螺纹thread （of ascrew）螺纹导程lead螺纹效率screwefficiency螺旋传动power screw螺旋副helical pair螺旋机构screw mechanism螺旋角helix angle螺旋密封spiral seal螺旋线helix ，helicalline螺旋锥齿轮helical bevelgear马耳他机构Geneva wheel Genevagear马耳他十字Maltese cross脉动无级变速pulsating stepless speedchanges脉动循环应力fluctuating circulatingstress脉动载荷fluctuatingload铆钉rivet迷宫密封labyrinth seal密封seal密封带seal belt密封胶seal gum密封元件pottedcomponent密封装置sealingarrangement面对面安装face-to-facearrangement面向产品生命周期设计design for product`slife cycle，DPLC 名义应力、公称应力nominalstress模幅箱morphology box模糊集fuzzy set模糊评价fuzzyevaluation模块化设计modular design，MD模块式传动系统modularsystem模数module磨损abrasion wear；scratching摩擦friction摩擦角friction angle摩擦力friction force摩擦力矩friction moment摩擦系数coefficient offriction摩擦学设计tribology design，TD摩擦圆friction circle摩擦阻力frictionalresistance末端执行器end-effector目标函数objectivefunction耐腐蚀性corrosionresistance耐磨性wear resistance挠性机构mechanism with flexibleelements挠性转子flexible rotor内齿轮internal gear内齿圈ring gear内力internal force内圈inner ring能量energy能量指示图viscosity逆时针counterclockwise （oranticlockwise）啮出engaging-out啮合engagement，mesh，gearing啮合点contact points啮合角working pressureangle啮合线line of action啮合线长度length of line ofaction啮入engaging-in凝固点freezing point；solidifyingpoint牛头刨床shaper扭簧helical torsionspring扭矩moment of torque扭转应力torsion stress诺模图Nomogram盘形凸轮disk cam盘形转子disk-like rotor抛物线运动parabolicmotion疲劳极限fatigue limit疲劳强度fatiguestrength偏（心）距offsetdistance偏距圆offset circle偏心率eccentricityratio偏心盘eccentric间歇运动机构intermittent motionmechanism 简谐运动simple harmonicmotion减摩性anti-frictionquality减速比reduction ratio减速齿轮、减速装置reductiongear减速器speed reducer键key键槽keyway渐开螺旋面involutehelicoid渐开线involute渐开线齿廓involuteprofile渐开线齿轮involute gear渐开线发生线generating line ofinvolute渐开线方程involuteequation渐开线函数involutefunction渐开线花键involutespline渐开线蜗杆involute worm渐开线压力角pressure angle ofinvolute胶合scoring交变应力repeated stress交变载荷repeated fluctuatingload交叉带传动cross-beltdrive交错轴斜齿轮crossed helicalgears铰链、枢纽hinge角加速度angularacceleration角接触球轴承angular contact ballbearing角接触推力轴承angular contact thrustbearing 角接触向心轴承angular contact radialbearing 角接触轴承angular contactbearing角速比angular velocityratio角速度angular velocity接触式密封contact seal接触应力contact stress阶梯轴multi-diametershaft截面section节点pitch point节距circular pitch；pitch ofteeth节线pitch line节圆pitch circle节圆齿厚thickness on pitchcircle节圆直径pitch diameter节圆锥pitch cone节圆锥角pitch coneangle结构structure结构设计structuraldesign解析设计analyticaldesign紧边tight-side紧固件fastener静力static force静密封static seal静平衡static balance静载荷static load径节diametral pitch径向radial direction径向当量动载荷dynamic equivalent radialload径向当量静载荷static equivalent radialload径向基本额定动载荷basic dynamic radialload rating 径向基本额定静载荷basic static radialload tating径向间隙clearance径向接触轴承radial contactbearing径向平面radial plane径向游隙radial internalclearance径向载荷radial load径向载荷系数radial loadfactor局部自由度passive degree offreedom矩形螺纹square threadedform矩形牙嵌式离合器square-jawpositive-contact clutch 矩阵matrix 锯齿形螺纹buttress threadform绝对尺寸系数absolute dimensionalfactor绝对速度absolutevelocity绝对运动absolute motion均衡装置load balancingmechanism开口传动open-belt drive开链机构open chainmechanism开式链open kinematicchain抗压强度compressionstrength可靠度degree ofreliability可靠性reliability可靠性设计reliability design，RD空间机构spatialmechanism空间连杆机构spatiallinkage空间凸轮机构spatial cam空间运动副spatial kinematicpair空间运动链spatial kinematicchain空气弹簧air spring空转idle宽度系列width series框图block diagram雷诺方程Reynolds'sequation离合器clutch离心力centrifugalforce离心密封centrifugalseal离心应力centrifugalstress理论廓线pitch curve理论啮合线theoretical line ofaction隶属度membership力force力多边形force polygon力封闭型凸轮机构force-drive （orforce-closed）cam mechanism 滚珠丝杆ball screw滚柱式单向超越离合器rollerclutch滚子roller滚子半径radius ofroller滚子从动件rollerfollower滚子链roller chain滚子链联轴器double roller chaincoupling滚子轴承roller bearing过度切割undercutting含油轴承oil bearing函数发生器functiongenerator函数生成functiongeneration耗油量oil consumption耗油量系数oil consumptionfactor合成弯矩resultant bendingmoment合力resultant force合力矩resultant moment offorce赫兹公式H. Hertzequation黑箱black box横坐标abscissa互换性齿轮interchangeablegears花键spline滑动率sliding ratio滑动轴承sliding bearing滑键、导键feather key滑块slider环面蜗杆toroid helicoidsworm环形弹簧annular spring缓冲装置shocks；shock-absorber灰铸铁grey cast iron回程return回转体平衡balance ofrotors混合轮系compound geartrain基本额定寿命basic ratinglife基础机构fundamentalmechanism基于实例设计case-baseddesign，CBD基圆base circle基圆半径radius of basecircle基圆齿距base pitch基圆压力角pressure angle of basecircle基圆柱base cylinder基圆锥base cone机电一体化系统设计mechanical-electricalintegration system design 机构mechanism机构分析analysis ofmechanism机构平衡balance ofmechanism机构学mechanism机构运动简图kinematic sketch ofmechanism机构运动设计kinematic design ofmechanism机构综合synthesis ofmechanism机构组成constitution ofmechanism机架frame，fixed link机架变换kinematicinversion机器machine机器人robot机器人操作器manipulator机器人学robotics机械machinery机械创新设计mechanical creationdesign，MCD机械的现代设计modern machinedesign机械调速mechanical speedgovernors机械动力分析dynamic analysis ofmachinery机械动力设计dynamic design ofmachinery机械动力学dynamics ofmachinery机械利益mechanicaladvantage机械平衡balance ofmachinery机械设计machine design；mechanicaldesign机械手manipulator机械特性mechanicalbehavior机械无级变速mechanical stepless speedchanges机械系统mechanicalsystem机械系统设计mechanical system design，MSD机械效率mechanicalefficiency机械原理theory of machines andmechanisms机械运转不均匀系数coefficient of speedfluctuation积分integrate极位夹角crank angle between extreme（or limiting）positions极限位置extreme （or limiting）position棘轮ratchet棘轮机构ratchetmechanism棘爪pawl急回机构quick-returnmechanism急回特性quick-returncharacteristics急回系数advance-to return-timeratio急回运动quick-returnmotion技术过程techniqueprocess技术经济评价technical and economicevaluation技术系统techniquesystem计算机辅助设计computer aided design，CAD计算机辅助制造computer aidedmanufacturing，CAM计算机集成制造系统computer integratedmanufacturing system，CIMS 计算力矩factored moment；calculationmoment计算弯矩calculated bendingmoment加权系数weightingefficient加速度acceleration加速度分析accelerationanalysis加速度曲线accelerationdiagram尖底从动件knife-edgefollower尖点pointing；cusp间隙backlash额定载荷load rating发生面generating plane发生线generating line法面normal plane法面参数normalparameters法面齿距normal circularpitch法面模数normal module法面压力角normal pressureangle法向齿距normal pitch法向齿廓normal toothprofile法向力normal force法向直廓蜗杆straight sided normalworm反馈式组合feedbackcombining反向运动学inverse （or backward）kinematics反正切Arctan反转法kinematicinversion范成法generatingcutting方案设计、概念设计concept design，CD防振装置shockproofdevice仿形法form cutting非标准齿轮nonstandardgear非接触式密封non-contactseal非圆齿轮non-circulargear非周期性速度波动aperiodic speedfluctuation飞轮flywheel飞轮矩moment offlywheel分度线reference line；standardpitch line分度圆reference circle；standard（cutting）pitch circle 分度圆柱导程角lead angle at referencecylinder分度圆柱螺旋角helix angle at referencecylinder分度圆锥reference cone；standardpitch cone分母denominator分析法analyticalmethod分子numerator粉末合金powdermetallurgy封闭差动轮系planetarydifferential复合铰链compound hinge复合轮系compound （or combined）geartrain复合平带compound flatbelt复合式组合compoundcombining复合应力combined stress复式螺旋机构Compound screwmechanism复杂机构complexmechanism干涉interference杆组Assur group刚度系数stiffnesscoefficient刚轮rigid circularspline刚体导引机构body guidancemechanism刚性冲击rigid impulse（shock）刚性联轴器rigid coupling刚性轴承rigid bearing刚性转子rigid rotor钢丝软轴wire soft shaft高度系列height series高副higher pair高速带high speed belt格拉晓夫定理Grashoff`slaw根切undercutting工况系数applicationfactor工艺设计technologicaldesign工作机构operationmechanism工作空间working space工作循环图working cyclediagram工作应力working stress工作载荷external loads工作阻力effectiveresistance工作阻力矩effective resistancemoment功work功率power功能分析设计function analysesdesign公称直径nominaldiameter公法线common normalline公共约束generalconstraint公制齿轮metric gears共轭齿廓conjugateprofiles共轭凸轮conjugate cam构件link鼓风机blower固定构件fixed link；frame固体润滑剂solidlubricant关节型操作器jointedmanipulator冠轮crown gear惯性力inertia force惯性力部分平衡partial balance ofshaking force 惯性力矩moment of inertia ，shakingmoment 惯性力平衡balance of shakingforce惯性力完全平衡full balance of shakingforce惯性主矩resultant moment ofinertia惯性主失resultant vector ofinertia广义机构generationmechanism广义坐标generalizedcoordinate轨迹发生器path generator轨迹生成path generation滚刀hob滚道raceway滚动体rolling element滚动轴承rolling bearing滚动轴承代号rolling bearingidentification code滚针needle roller滚针轴承needle rollerbearing传动系统driven system传动轴transmissionshaft传动装置gearing；transmissiongear串级调速cascade speedcontrol*式组合combination inseries*式组合机构series combinedmechanism创新innovationcreation创新设计creation design垂直载荷、法向载荷normalload唇形橡胶密封lip rubberseal磁流体轴承magnetic fluidbearing从动带轮driven pulley从动件driven link，follower从动件平底宽度width offlat-face从动件停歇follower dwell从动件运动规律followermotion从动轮driven gear粗线bold line粗牙螺纹coarse thread打包机packer打滑slipping大齿轮gear wheel带传动belt driving带轮belt pulley带式制动器band brake单列轴承single rowbearing单万向联轴节single universaljoint单位矢量unit vector单向推力轴承single-direction thrustbearing弹性滑动elasticity slidingmotion弹性联轴器elastic coupling flexiblecoupling弹性套柱销联轴器rubber-cushioned sleevebearing coupling 当量齿轮equivalent spur gear；virtual gear当量齿数equivalent teeth number；virtual number of teeth 当量摩擦系数equivalent coefficient offriction当量载荷equivalent load刀具cutter倒角chamfer导程lead导程角lead angle导热性conduction ofheat导数derivative等加等减速运动规律parabolic motion；constant acceleration and deceleration motion 等径凸轮conjugate yoke radialcam等宽凸轮constant-breadthcam等速运动规律uniform motion；constantvelocity motion等效动力学模型dynamically equivalentmodel等效构件equivalent link等效力equivalent force等效力矩equivalent moment offorce等效量equivalent等效质量equivalent mass等效转动惯量equivalent moment ofinertia低副lower pair底座chassis点划线chain dottedline垫片密封gasket seal垫圈gasket调节modulation，regulation调速speed governing调速电动机adjustable speedmotors调速器regulator，governor调速系统speed controlsystem调心滚子轴承self-aligning rollerbearing调心球轴承self-aligning ballbearing调心轴承self-aligningbearing调压调速variable voltagecontrol碟形弹簧bellevillespring顶隙bottom clearance定轴轮系ordinary gear train；geartrain with fixed axes动力润滑dynamiclubrication动力学dynamics动力粘度dynamicviscosity动密封kinematical seal动能dynamic energy动平衡dynamic balance动平衡机dynamic balancingmachine动态分析设计dynamic analysisdesign动态特性dynamiccharacteristics动压力dynamic reaction动载荷dynamic load端面transverse plane端面参数transverseparameters端面齿距transverse circularpitch端面齿廓transverse toothprofile端面模数transversemodule端面压力角transverse pressureangle端面重合度transverse contactratio锻造forge对称循环应力symmetry circulatingstress对心滚子从动件radial （or in-line ）roller follower对心曲柄滑块机构in-line slider-crank （orcrank-slider）mechanism 对心移动从动件radial reciprocatingfollower对心直动从动件radial （or in-line ）translating follower多列轴承multi-rowbearing多项式运动规律polynomialmotion多楔带poly V-belt多质量转子rotor with severalmasses惰轮idle gear额定寿命rating life阿基米德蜗杆Archimedes worm安全系数safety factor；factor ofsafety安全载荷safe load凹面、凹度concavity摆动从动件oscillatingfollower摆动从动件凸轮机构cam with oscillatingfollower摆动导杆机构oscillating guide-barmechanism摆杆oscillating bar摆线齿轮cycloidal gear摆线齿形cycloidal toothprofile摆线运动规律cycloidalmotion摆线针轮cycloidal-pinwheel扳手wrench板簧flat leaf spring半圆键woodruff key包角angle of contact保持架cage背对背安装back-to-backarrangement背锥back cone；normalcone背锥角back angle背锥距back conedistance比例尺scale比热容specific heatcapacity闭链机构closed chainmechanism闭式链closed kinematicchain臂部arm变频调速frequency control of motorspeed变频器frequencyconverters变速speed change变速齿轮change gear changewheel变位齿轮modified gear变位系数modificationcoefficient变形deformation标准齿轮standard gear标准直齿轮standard spurgear表面传热系数surface coefficient ofheat transfer表面粗糙度surfaceroughness表面质量系数superficial massfactor并联机构parallelmechanism并联式组合combination inparallel并联组合机构parallel combinedmechanism并行工程concurrentengineering并行设计concurred design，CD波发生器wave generator波数number of waves补偿compensation不平衡imbalance （orunbalance）不平衡量amount ofunbalance不平衡相位phase angle ofunbalance不完全齿轮机构intermittentgearing参数化设计parameterization design，PD残余应力residual stress操纵及控制装置operation controldevice槽轮Geneva wheel槽轮机构Geneva mechanism ；Maltesecross槽数Geneva numerate槽凸轮groove cam侧隙backlash插齿机gear shaper差动轮系differential geartrain差动螺旋机构differential screwmechanism差速器differential常用机构conventional mechanism；mechanism in common use 车床lathe成对安装paired mounting承载量系数bearing capacityfactor承载能力bearingcapacity齿槽tooth space齿槽宽spacewidth齿侧间隙backlash齿顶高addendum齿顶圆addendum circle齿根高dedendum齿根圆dedendum circle齿厚tooth thickness齿距circular pitch齿宽face width齿廓tooth profile齿廓曲线tooth curve齿轮gear齿轮变速箱speed-changing gearboxes齿轮插刀pinion cutter；pinion-shapedshaper cutter 齿轮齿条机构pinion andrack齿轮传动系pinion unit齿轮滚刀hob ，hobbingcutter齿轮机构gear齿轮联轴器gear coupling齿轮轮坯blank齿式棘轮机构tooth ratchetmechanism齿数tooth number齿数比gear ratio齿条rack齿条插刀rack cutter；rack-shapedshaper cutter齿条传动rack gear齿形链、无声链silent chain齿形系数form factor尺寸系列dimensionseries冲床punch传动比transmission ratio，speedratio传动角transmissionangle机械行业常用英语词汇一览机床machinetool金属工艺学technologyof metals刀具cutter摩擦friction联结link传动drive/transmission轴shaft弹性elasticity频率特性frequencycharacteristic误差error响应response定位allocation机床夹具jig动力学dynamic运动学kinematic静力学static分析力学analysemechanics拉伸pulling压缩hitting剪切shear扭转twist弯曲应力bending stress强度intensity三相交流电three-phase AC磁路magnetic circles变压器transformer异步电动机asynchronousmotor几何形状geometrical精度precision正弦形的sinusoid交流电路AC circuit机械加工余量machiningallowance 变形力deforming force变形deformation应力stress硬度rigidity热处理heat treatment退火anneal正火normalizing脱碳decarburization渗碳carburization电路circuit半导体元件semiconductorelement 反馈feedback发生器generator直流电源DC electricalsource门电路gate circuit逻辑代数logic algebra外圆磨削externalgrinding内圆磨削internalgrinding平面磨削plane grinding变速箱gearbox离合器clutch绞孔fraising绞刀reamer螺纹加工threadprocessing螺钉screw铣削mill铣刀milling cutter功率power工件workpiece齿轮加工gear mechining齿轮gear主运动main movement主运动方向direction of mainmovement进给方向direction offeed进给运动feed movement合成进给运动resultant movement offeed合成切削运动resultant movement ofcutting合成切削运动方向direction of resultantmovement of cutting 切削深度cutting depth前刀面rake face刀尖nose of tool前角rake angle后角clearance angle龙门刨削planing主轴spindle主轴箱headstock卡盘chuck加工中心machiningcenter车刀lathe tool车床lathe钻削镗削bore车削turning磨床grinder基准benchmark钳工locksmith锻forge压模stamping焊weld拉床broaching machine拉孔broaching装配assembling铸造found流体动力学fluid dynamics流体力学fluid mechanics加工machining液压hydraulicpressure切线tangent机电一体化mechanotronicsmechanical-electrical integration 气压air pressure pneumaticpressure稳定性stability介质medium液压驱动泵fluid clutch液压泵hydraulic pump阀门valve失效invalidation强度intensity载荷load应力stress安全系数safty factor可靠性reliability螺纹thread螺旋helix键spline销pin 滚动轴承rolling bearing滑动轴承sliding bearing弹簧spring制动器arrester brake十字结联轴节crosshead联轴器coupling链chain皮带strap精加工finish machining粗加工rough machining变速箱体gearbox casing腐蚀rust氧化oxidation磨损wear耐用度durability随机信号random signal离散信号discrete signal超声传感器ultrasonicsensor集成电路integratecircuit挡板orifice plate残余应力residual stress套筒sleeve扭力torsion冷加工cold machining电动机electromotor汽缸cylinder过盈配合interferencefit热加工hotwork摄像头CCD camera倒角rounding chamfer优化设计optimal design工业造型设计industrial mouldingdesign有限元finite element滚齿hobbing插齿gear shaping伺服电机actuating motor铣床milling machine钻床drill machine镗床boring machine步进电机stepper motor丝杠screw rod导轨lead rail组件subassembly可编程序逻辑控制器Programmable LogicController PLC 电火花加工electric sparkmachining电火花线切割加工electrical dischargewire-cutting相图phase diagram热处理heat treatment固态相变solid state phasechanges有色金属nonferrousmetal陶瓷ceramics合成纤维synthetic fibre电化学腐蚀electrochemicalcorrosion车架automotivechassis悬架suspension转向器redirector变速器speed changer板料冲压sheet metalparts孔加工spot facingmachining车间workshop工程技术人员engineer气动夹紧pneuma lock数学模型mathematicalmodel画法几何descriptivegeometry机械制图Mechanicaldrawing投影projection视图view剖视图profile chart标准件standardcomponent零件图part drawing装配图assembly drawing尺寸标注size marking技术要求technicalrequirements刚度rigidity内力internal force位移displacement截面section疲劳极限fatigue limit断裂fracture塑性变形plasticdistortion脆性材料brittlenessmaterial刚度准则rigiditycriterion垫圈washer垫片spacer直齿圆柱齿轮straight toothed spurgear斜齿圆柱齿轮helical-spurgear直齿锥齿轮straight bevelgear运动简图kinematicsketch齿轮齿条pinion and rack蜗杆蜗轮worm and wormgear虚约束passiveconstraint曲柄crank摇杆racker凸轮cams共轭曲线conjugate curve范成法generationmethod定义域definitionaldomain值域range导数\\微分differentialcoefficient求导derivation定积分definiteintegral不定积分indefiniteintegral曲率curvature偏微分partialdifferential毛坯rough游标卡尺slide caliper千分尺micrometercalipers攻丝tap二阶行列式second orderdeterminant逆矩阵inverse matrix线性方程组linearequations概率probability随机变量random variable排列组合permutation andcombination气体状态方程equation of state ofgas动能kinetic energy势能potential energy机械能守恒conservation of mechanicalenergy动量momentum桁架truss轴线axes余子式cofactor逻辑电路logic circuit触发器flip-flop脉冲波形pulse shape数模digital analogy液压传动机构fluid drivemechanism机械零件mechanicalparts淬火冷却quench淬火hardening回火tempering调质hardening andtempering磨粒abrasive grain结合剂bonding agent砂轮grinding wheeladapter转接器alum.adjesove tape胶带bearing 活动轴承bellows 橡胶防尘罩（风箱）bore钻孔bracket支座by-pass valve旁通阀，辅助阀，回流阀cardan shaft万向联轴节chain track guard护链槽clamping box夹紧盒clamping socket夹紧插座clevis pin u形夹销clip压板clutch/coupling连轴带companion flange成对法兰结合法兰配对法兰compression spring弹簧垫片connection set连接装置control block hydraulic unit withcontrol液压控制部件control box操纵台，控制箱，操作箱controllerelectronic电子调节器，电控装置cored-wire焊丝crane龙头cyl.roller bearing轴承diaph.Accumulator气串瓶diff.pressuregaue压力表direct.contr.valve直控阀directional sign定向信号disc spring盘簧distance piece隔板dowels销子einbaruventil 阀elbow弯头extension bar加长杆file 锉filter element 过滤芯flat iron扁铁flat packing 密封floor plate地板flow control valvegas-valve insert阀芯gasket set密封圈装置gasket密封geared pump齿轮泵grease润滑油hand pump 手动泵handle.spin type malesquare销式手柄heating cable耐热电缆hexagon bolt六角螺栓hexagon nut六角螺母hose assembly软组件hose clip软管卡hose管子hose胶皮管hydr.cyl.flattype液压缸（板型），水平水压气缸hydraulic hose水力管hydraulic 液压的intermed. Piece中圆片l-section组装列表lateral wall单侧墙levelcontrol水平控制，水准控制level switch 开关lift check valve阀lineal线lining ring衬垫locating washer定位垫片lubricating equipmentowge润滑用具measuringinstrument计量工具monitoringtransd.变送器nitrogenload.dev.负载氮气notched nail凹槽钉o-ring o形圈o-seal o形密封圈packing list 装箱单pick-up传感器pin销子plug-in connector插座接头press.reliefvalve安全阀pression hose压力软管pressure gauge压力表progr.Distributor分配器progr.distributor程序寄存器prop.contr.valve阀proximity switchinductive非接触式电感开关pulse generator脉冲发生器pump set泵机组pumping element 泵件rating plate标牌reraining washer固定垫片resist.thermometer oilleak-proof油封式变阻温度计resist.thermometer变阻温度计retainingplate固定板，支撑板roller press液压机rotary seal回转密封rotational lock旋转锁定round steel圆钢rubber plate 橡胶板sandwich plate夹层板screw clamp 螺丝钳screw flat countersunk nibbolt螺旋平头垫头螺栓screw hexagon socket head capscrew六角螺钉screw nipple螺纹连接管screw 螺丝钉screwingarmature螺纹电枢sensor传感器sets of suction抽水机，抽水泵setting tool安装工具shackle钩环shaft lip seal 密封shim薄垫片shrink disc 缩紧盘sight glass量位计simpl.rollerchain单缸棍子链slide rail滑轨sliding caliper游标卡尺sliding plate 滑板socket wrench squaredrive套筒扳手speicherblase气串spheric. Pl. bearing球面轴承spring lockwasher螺丝弹簧垫片spring lockwasher弹簧锁架垫片sprocket wheel for rollerchain链轮square key方键srppressor plug插座stick electrodecovered焊条stud screw柱螺栓螺钉support支座temperaturesensor传感器thread cutt.Screw旋转螺纹threaded joint螺纹接合threaded rod螺纹杆thread穿线thrust roll. Bear. Spherical轴承thrust washer止推拴片transm. Pressure压力表，压力传动器tube fitting 管接头tubular cored ele.焊丝twin nipple双喷嘴tyre 轮带v-seal v-密封variab.displ.motor可旋转电机ventilating filter滤芯ventileinheit阀芯vice抬物架wrench扳手。

Fundamentals of Mechanical DesignMechanical design means the design of things and systems of a mechanical nature—machines, products, structures, devices, and instruments. For the most part mechanical design utilizes mathematics, the materials sciences, and the engineering-mechanics sciences.The total design process is of interest to us. How does it begin? Does the engineer simply sit down at his desk with a blank sheet of paper? And, as he jots down some ideas, what happens next? What factors influence or control the decisions which have to be made? Finally, then, how does this design process end?Sometimes, but not always, design begins when an engineer recognizes a need and decides to do something about it. Recognition of the need and phrasing it in so many words often constitute a highly creative act because the need may be only a vague discontent, a feeling of uneasiness, of a sensing that something is not right.The need is usually not evident at all. For example, the need to do something about a food-packaging machine may be indicated by the noise level, by the variations in package weight, and by slight but perceptible variations in the quality of the packaging or wrap.There is a distinct difference between the statement of the need and the identification of the problem. Which follows this statement? The problem is more specific. If the need is for cleaner air, the problem might be that of reducing the dust discharge from power-plant stacks, or reducing the quantity of irritants from automotive exhausts.Definition of the problem must include all the specifications for the thing that is to be designed. The specifications are the input and output quantities, the characteristics of the space the thing must occupy and all the limitations on these quantities. We can regard the thing to be designed as something in a black box. In this case we must specify the inputs and outputs of the box together with their characteristics and limitations. The specifications define the cost, the number to be manufactured, the expected life, the range, the operating temperature, and the reliability.There are many implied specifications which result either from the designer's particular environment or from the nature of the problem itself. The manufacturing processes which are available, together with the facilities of a certain plant,constitute restrictions on a designer's freedom, and hence are a part of the implied specifications. A small plant, for instance, may not own cold-working machinery. Knowing this, the designer selects other metal-processing methods which can be performed in the plant. The labor skills available and the competitive situation also constitute implied specifications.After the problem has been defined and a set of written and implied specifications has been obtained, the next step in design is the synthesis of an optimum solution. Now synthesis cannot take place without both analysis and optimization because the system under design must be analyzed to determine whether the performance complies with the specifications.The design is an iterative process in which we proceed through several steps, evaluate the results, and then return to an earlier phase of the procedure. Thus we may synthesize several components of a system, analyze and optimize them, and return to synthesis to see what effect this has on the remaining parts of the system. Both analysis and optimization require that we construct or devise abstract models of the system which will admit some form of mathematical analysis. We call these models mathematical models. In creating them it is our hope that we can find one which will simulate the real physical system very well.Evaluation is a significant phase of the total design process. Evaluation is the final proof of a successful design, which usually involves the testing of a prototype in the laboratory. Here we wish to discover if the design really satisfies the need or needs. Is it reliable? Will it compete successfully with similar products? Is it economical to manufacture and to use? Is it easily maintained and adjusted? Can a profit be made from its sale or use?Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available to us. There are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. Atechnically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the find analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all.Introduction to Machine DesignMachine design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of machine design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Machine design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of machine design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Machine design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions to produce a good design. On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that is the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assuranceof success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have “bugs” or unforeseen problems which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowed to flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Initially the designer must communicate a preliminary design to get management approval. This is usually done by verbal discussions in conjunction with drawing layouts and written material. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1)Does the design really serve a human need?(2)Will it be competitive with existing products of rivalcompanies?(3)Is it economical to produce?(4)Can it be readily maintained?(5)Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem well occur during the manufacturing cycle. It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or telegramming of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This falls in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.MachiningTurning The engine lathe, one of the oldest metal removal machines, has a number of useful and highly desirable attributes. Today these lathes are used primarily in small shops where smaller quantities rather than large production runs are encountered.The engine lathe has been replaced in today's production shops by a wide variety of automatic lathes such as automatic of single-point tooling for maximum metal removal, and the use of form tools for finish and accuracy, are now at the designer's fingertips with production speeds on a par with the fastest processing equipment on the scene today.Tolerances for the engine lathe depend primarily on the skill of the operator. The design engineer must be careful in using tolerances of an experimental part that has been produced on the engine lathe by a skilled operator. In redesigning an experimental part for production, economical tolerances should be used.Turret Lathes Production machining equipment must be evaluated now, more than ever before, in terms of ability to repeat accurately and rapidly. Applying this criterion for establishing the production qualification of a specific method, the turret lathe merits a high rating.In designing for low quantities such as 100 or 200 parts, it is most economical to use the turret lathe. In achieving the optimum tolerances possible on the turret lathe, the designer should strive for a minimum of operations.Automatic Screw Machines Generally, automatic screw machines fall into several categories; single-spindle automatics, multiple-spindle automatics andautomatic chucking machines. Originally designed for rapid, automatic production of screws and similar threaded parts, the automatic screw machine has long since exceeded the confines of this narrow field, and today plays a vital role in the mass production of a variety of precision parts. Quantities play an important part in the economy of the parts machined on the automatic to set up on the turret lathe than on the automatic screw machine. Quantities less than 1000 parts may be more economical to set up on the turret lathe than on the automatic screw machine. The cost of the parts machined can be reduced if the minimum economical lot size is calculated and the proper machine is selected for these quantities.Automatic Tracer Lathes Since surface roughness depends greatly upon material turned, tooling, and fees and speeds employed, minimum tolerances that can be held on automatic tracer lathes are not necessarily the most economical tolerances.Is some case, tolerances of ±0.05mm are held in continuous production using but one cut. Groove width can be held to ±0.125mm on some parts. Bores and single-point finishes can be held to ±0.0125mm. On high-production runs where maximum output is desirable, a minimum tolerance of ±0.125mm is economical on both diameter and length of turn.Milling With the exceptions of turning and drilling, milling is undoubtedly the most widely used method of removing metal. Well suited and readily adapted to the economical production of any quantity of parts, the almost unlimited versatility of the milling process merits the attention and consideration of designers seriously concerned with the manufacture of their product.As in any other process, parts that have to be milled should be designed with economical tolerances that can be achieved in production milling. If the part is designed with tolerances finer than necessary, additional operations will have to be added to achieve these tolerances——and this will increase the cost of the part.Grinding is one of the most widely used methods of finishing parts to extremely close tolerances and low surface roughness. Currently, there are grinders for almost for almost every type of grinding operation. Particular design features of a part dictate to a large degree the type of grinding machine required. Where processing costs are excessive, parts redesigned to utilize a less expensive, higher output grinding method may be well worthwhile. For example, wherever possible the production economy of center less grinding should be taken advantage of by proper design consideration.Although grinding is usually considered a finishing operation, it is often employed as a complete machining process on work which can be ground down from rough condition without being turned or otherwise machined. Thus many types of forgings and other parts are finished completely with the grinding wheel at appreciable savings of time and expense.Classes of grinding machines include the following: cylindrical grinders, center less grinders, internal grinders, surface grinders, and tool and cutter grinders.The cylindrical and center less grinders are for straight cylindrical or taper work; thus splices, shafts, and similar parts are ground on cylindrical machines either of the common-center type or the center less machine.Thread grinders are used for grinding precision threads for thread gages, and threads on precision parts where the concentricity between the diameter of the shaft and the pitch diameter of the thread must be held to close tolerances.The internal grinders are used for grinding of precision holes, cylinder bores, and similar operations where bores of all kinds are to be finished.The surface grinders are for finishing all kinds of flat work, or work with plain surfaces which may be operated upon either by the edge of a wheel or by the face of a grinding wheel. These machines may have reciprocating or rotating tables.机械设计基础机械设计基础是指机械装置和机械系统——机器、产品、结构、设备和仪器的设计。

Unit 1 MetalsUnit 2 Selection of Construction Materials淬透性：指在规定条件下，决定钢材淬硬深度和硬度分布的特性。

即钢淬火时得到淬硬层深度大小的能力，它表示钢接受淬火的能力。

钢材淬透性好与差，常用淬硬层深度来表示。

淬硬层深度越大，则钢的淬透性越好。

钢的淬透性是钢材本身所固有的属性，它只取决于其本身的内部因素，而与外部因素无关。

钢的淬透性主要取决于它的化学成分，特别是含增大淬透性的合金元素及晶粒度，加热温度和保温时间等因素有关。

淬透性好的钢材，可使钢件整个截面获得均匀一致的力学性能以及可选用钢件淬火应力小的淬火剂，以减少变形和开裂。

淬透性主要取决于其临界冷却速度的大小，而临界冷却速度则主要取决于过冷奥氏体的稳定性，影响奥氏体的稳定性主要是：1.化学成分的影响碳的影响是主要的，当C％小于1.2％时，随着奥氏体中碳浓度的提高，显著降低临界冷却速度，C曲线右移，钢的淬透性增大；当C％大于时，钢的冷却速度反而升高，C曲线左移，淬透性下降。

其次是合金元素的影响，除钴外，绝大多数合金元素溶入奥氏体后，均使C曲线右移，降低临界冷却速度，从而提高钢的淬透性。

2.奥氏体晶粒大小的影响奥氏体的实际晶粒度对钢的淬透性有较大的影响，粗大的奥氏体晶粒能使C曲线右移，降低了钢的临界冷却速度。

但晶粒粗大将增大钢的变形、开裂倾向和降低韧性。

3.奥氏体均匀程度的影响在相同冷度条件下，奥氏体成分越均匀，珠光体的形核率就越低，转变的孕育期增长，C曲线右移，临界冷却速度减慢，钢的淬透性越高。

4.钢的原始组织的影响钢的原始组织的粗细和分布对奥氏体的成分将有重大影响。

5.部分元素，例如Mn，Si等元素对提高淬透性能起到一定作用，但同时也会对钢材带来其他不利的影响。

可锻性(forgeability)金属具有热塑性，在加热状态(各种金属要求温度不同)，可以进行压力加工，称为具有可锻性。

可锻性：指金属材料在压力加工时，能改变形状而不产生裂纹的性能。

Fuzzy Logic and SystemsFuzzy logic and systems have become increasingly important in various fields, including engineering, artificial intelligence, and decision-making processes. This approach allows for the handling of imprecise and uncertain information, which is often encountered in real-world applications. Fuzzy logic provides a framework for reasoning and decision-making in situations where traditional binary logic may not be suitable. In this discussion, we will explore the concept of fuzzy logic and systems from multiple perspectives, considering its applications, advantages, and potential challenges. From an engineering standpoint, fuzzy logic offers a valuable means of modeling and controlling complex systems. Traditional control systems rely on precise mathematical models, which may not always accurately capture the behavior of real-world systems. Fuzzy logic, on the other hand, allows for the representation of linguistic variables and the incorporation of expert knowledge into the control process. This flexibility enables engineers to develop control systems that can adapt to changing conditions and handle imprecise input data more effectively. In the realm of artificial intelligence, fuzzy logic plays a significant role in mimicking human reasoning and decision-making processes. Unlike classical AI systems that operate on strict rules and precise data, fuzzy logic enables AI systems to deal with uncertainty and make decisions based on approximate reasoning. This is particularly valuable in applications such as pattern recognition, image processing, and natural language understanding, where the input data may be inherently fuzzy and ambiguous. Moreover, fuzzy logic has found widespread use in decision support systems, where it facilitates the handling of imprecise or vague information. In fields such as finance, healthcare, and risk assessment, decision makers often have to contend with incomplete or uncertain data. Fuzzy logic provides a framework for processing such information and generating useful insights, thereby aiding in the decision-making process. Despite its numerous advantages, fuzzy logic is not without its challenges. One notable issue is the potential for increased computational complexity, particularly when dealing with large-scale systems. The process of fuzzification, inference, and defuzzification can be resource-intensive, requiring careful optimization to ensure efficient performance. Additionally, theinterpretability of fuzzy logic systems can pose challenges, as the mapping of linguistic variables to precise actions or decisions may not always be straightforward. In conclusion, fuzzy logic and systems offer a valuable framework for dealing with uncertainty and imprecision in various domains. From engineering and artificial intelligence to decision support systems, the ability to reason with fuzzy information provides a powerful tool for addressing real-world complexities. While challenges such as computational complexity and interpretability exist, ongoing research and development efforts continue to enhance the applicability and effectiveness of fuzzy logic in diverse fields. As we look to the future, it is likely that fuzzy logic will continue to play a pivotal role in advancing technology and decision-making processes.。

四种类型的阀门回转阀毫无疑问，回转阀是人类构想的第一种截断流体的器具。

它满足人类使用超过两千年，由于它的结构简单，还会将继续使用。

使用的时候通常是通过旋转塞子打开或者关闭四分之一，如图5.13所示。

通过旋转使得塞子与阀体的相对位置发生改变，形成互补，达到各自打开和闭合的目的。

这种阀门源自早期罗马工人的的智慧，并由有兴趣的工人及工程师流传下来。

将锥形塞紧密塞于锥形壳或壳里中做成锥形阀使之保持紧密的想法，但不会太紧密，是其发明者的一个突破。

对于敞开的铅制金属管，老练的管子工会环状滚压，折叠成近似圆弧状，并用其将管道纵向封住。

回转阀的设计主要是凭经验，而不是靠理论确定。

塞子的坡口角度一般是10°，如果角度过小，会导致塞子和阀体卡住或者难以开闭。

闭锁式自由阀虽然，相对于已经使用两千多年的回转阀，闭锁式自由阀算是新东西。

但实际上，它是在钳的基础上改进而成的。

它最初是由我们所知道的历史上两件大事相关联，螺纹车床的发明（1795~1800年）及特里维西克、瓦特的蒸汽机应用。

直到1768年，由于瓦特发明的循环蒸汽机要求锅炉要变得要求更高，普通的旋转阀已经很快不能满足快速增长的蒸汽压强的要求（相对现在的标准说来只能算接近大气压）。

闭锁式自由阀的外观上存在不同，有的采取球形截流阀及环绕封闭的形式，有的却采取水平或直线形式。

这样的截止阀连结点，可以使得主管道流动方向进行九十度的改变，或者导致锅炉的竖向积压，或作为一个可控给水止回阀。

其中活门并不是安装在中轴上（由其中轴控制）以进行单向流动。

只有外螺纹螺旋阀，是面与面相贴紧的，各部分的几何位置使得它们之间产生固定挤压。

楔式闸阀由詹姆斯在1839年发明，它的重要性超过了水管栓旋塞（来源已经不明），历史记载楔式闸阀是由于供水系统阀门的不足启发了内史密斯，希望他能发明出更可靠的东西来代替。

这些流体控制设备有着共同的特点，但是，由于都是依靠楔作用而达到面与面贴近的效果，所以会影响到密封问题，这种阀门一个面是平面，另一个面为圆锥状或圆周面，都经过了一定时效处理，在依照详细设计及所需材质合理改进的。

Fuzzy Logic and FuzzyAlgorithmsCISC871/491Md Anwarul Azim(10036952)Presentation OutlineFuzzy control systemFuzzy Traffic controllerModeling and SimulationHardware DesignConclusion2Figure from Prof. Emil M. Petriu, University of Ottawa6Basic Structure of ControllerDEFUZZIFIER –It extracts a crisp value from a fuzzy set.·Smallest of Maximum.·Largest of Maximum.·Centroid of area.·Bisector of Area·Mean of maximum.FUZZIFIERFuzzifier takes the crisp inputs to a fuzzy controller and converts them into fuzzy inputs.FUZZY RULE BASE (Knowledge base)It consists of fuzzy IF-THEN rules that form the heart of a fuzzy inference system. A fuzzy rule base is comprised of canonical fuzzy IF-THEN rules of the form IF x1 is A1(l) and ... and xn is An (l)THEN y is B(l), where l = 1, 2, ...,M. Should have Completeness, Consistency, Continuity..FUZZY INFERENCE ENGINEFuzzy Inference Engine makes use of fuzzy logic principles to combine the fuzzy IF-THEN rules. Composition based inference (Max/Min,Max/Product)and individual-rule based inference (Mamdani). Other methods like Tsukamoto, Takagi Sugeno Kang (TSK)7“Fuzzy Control”Kevin M. Passino and Stephen Yurkovichhttp://if.kaist.ac.kr/lecture/cs670/textbook/ Fuzzy Traffic controller--Most traffic has fixed cycle controllers that need manual changes to --One of the desirable features of traffic controllers is to dynamically effect the change of signal phase durations--This problem can be solved by use of fuzzy traffic controllers whichadaptively at an intersection.12 /help/toolbox/fuzzy/fp243dup9.html13 /watch?v=hFWGToL-NHw/products/simulink/demos.htmlModeling using Simulink(Cont.)14 /watch?v=hFWGToL-NHw/products/simulink/demos.html15Case Study 2 (Extra)17。

中科院物理所自动流程控制英语## Automatic Process Control at the Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences.The Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IOPCAS) is one of the leading research institutions in physics in China. IOPCAS has a long history of research in automatic process control (APC), and has made significant contributions to the field.APC is a branch of control engineering that deals with the automation of processes. APC systems are used tocontrol a wide variety of processes, including manufacturing processes, chemical processes, and power plants. APC systems can improve the efficiency, safety, and quality of processes.IOPCAS has developed a number of APC systems for a variety of applications. These systems include:A distributed control system (DCS) for a large-scale chemical plant. The DCS controls the plant's entire production process, from raw material input to finished product output. The DCS has improved the plant's efficiency and safety.A model predictive control (MPC) system for a power plant. The MPC system controls the plant's boiler and turbine to optimize power generation. The MPC system has improved the plant's efficiency and reduced its emissions.A fuzzy logic control (FLC) system for a manufacturing process. The FLC system controls the process's temperature and pressure to optimize product quality. The FLC system has improved the product's quality and reduced theprocess's scrap rate.IOPCAS's research in APC has led to a number of innovations in the field. These innovations include:The development of new control algorithms. IOPCAS researchers have developed a number of new controlalgorithms that are more efficient and effective than traditional algorithms. These algorithms are used in a variety of APC systems.The development of new software tools. IOPCAS researchers have developed a number of new software tools that make it easier to design and implement APC systems. These tools are used by engineers and scientists around the world.The development of new hardware technologies. IOPCAS researchers have developed a number of new hardware technologies that make it possible to implement APC systems in a variety of applications. These technologies include new sensors, actuators, and controllers.IOPCAS's research in APC has had a significant impact on the field. IOPCAS's research has led to the development of new control algorithms, software tools, and hardware technologies that have made it possible to implement APC systems in a wider variety of applications. IOPCAS's research has also helped to improve the efficiency, safety,and quality of processes.## Applications of Automatic Process Control.APC systems are used in a wide variety of applications, including:Manufacturing: APC systems are used to control a variety of manufacturing processes, including chemical processes, food processing, and metalworking. APC systems can improve the efficiency, safety, and quality of manufacturing processes.Power generation: APC systems are used to control power plants. APC systems can improve the efficiency and reliability of power plants.Environmental protection: APC systems are used to control pollution control systems. APC systems can help to reduce emissions and protect the environment.Transportation: APC systems are used to controltraffic signals and other transportation systems. APC systems can improve the efficiency and safety of transportation systems.APC systems are becoming increasingly important in a variety of industries. As the demand for efficiency, safety, and quality increases, APC systems will continue to play a vital role in the operation of industrial processes.## Benefits of Automatic Process Control.APC systems offer a number of benefits, including:Improved efficiency: APC systems can improve the efficiency of processes by optimizing process variables. This can lead to increased productivity and reduced costs.Improved safety: APC systems can improve the safety of processes by preventing accidents and minimizing hazards.Improved quality: APC systems can improve the qualityof products by controlling process variables within tighttolerances. This can lead to reduced defects and increased customer satisfaction.Reduced costs: APC systems can reduce costs by improving efficiency, safety, and quality. This can lead to increased profits and reduced operating expenses.APC systems are a valuable investment for any industry that is looking to improve its efficiency, safety, quality, and costs.。

RollingObjectiveTo perform rolling process on an lead bar in order to observe the change in both the cross-sectional area and the general shape.Theory1.DefinitionFlat rolling or Rolling is defined as the reduction of the cross-sectional area of the metal stock, or the general shaping of the metal products, through the use of the rotating rolls [1]. It allows a high degree of closed-loop automation and very high speeds, and is thus capable of providing high-quality, close tolerance starting material for various secondary sheet metal working processes at a low cost [1].2.Schematic Drawing of Rolling ProcessFigure 1. Rolling Process [2]The rolls rotate as illustrated in Figure 1. to pull and simultaneously squeeze the work between them. The basic process shown in Figure 1 is flat rolling, used to reduce the thickness of a rectangular cross section.Figure 2. Various configurations of rolling mills: (a) two high, (b) three high, (c) four high,(d) cluster mill, and (e) tandem rolling mill [2].Various rolling mill configurations are available to deal with the variety of applications and technical problems in the rolling process. The basic rolling mill consists of two opposite rotating rolls and is referred to as a two-high rolling mill (Figure 2a). In the three-high configuration Figure 2(b), there are three rolls in a vertical column, and the direction of rotation of each roll remains unchanged. To achieve a series of reductions, the work can be a passed through from either side by raising or lowering the strip after each pass. Theequipment in a three-high rolling mill becomes more complicated, because an elevator mechanism is needed to raise and lower the work [2].Roll-work contact length is reduced with a lower roll radius, and this lads to lower forces, torque, and power. The four-high rolling mill uses two smaller diameter rolls to contact the work and two backing rolls behind them. Another roll configuration that allows smaller working rolls against the work is the cluster rolling mill.To achieve higher throughput rates in standard products, a tandem rolling mill is often used. This configuration consists of a series of rolling stands. With each rolling step, work velocity increases, and the problem of synchronizing the roll speeds at each stand is significant [2].3.General Overview of ProcessThe primary objectives of the flat rolling process are to reduce the cross-section of the incoming material while improving its properties and to obtain the desired section at the exit from the rolls. The process can be carried out hot, warm, or cold, depending on the application and the material involved. The rolled products are flat plates and sheets. Rolling of blooms, slabs, billets, and plates is usually done at temperatures above the recr ystallization temperature (hot rolling). Sheet and strip often are rolled cold in order to maintain close thickness tolerances.Basically flat rolling consists of passing metal between two rolls that revolve in oppositedirections, the space between the rolls being somewhat less than the thickness of the entering metal. Because the rolls rotate with a surface velocity exceeding the speed of the incoming metal, friction along the contact interface acts to propel the metal forward. The metal is squeezed and elongated and usually changed in cross section. The amount of deformation that can be achieved in a single pass between a given pair of rolls depend on the friction conditions along the interface. If too much is demanded, the rolls will simply skid over stationery metal. Too little deformation per pass results in excessive cost.Rolling involves high complexity of metal flow during the process. From this point of view, rolling can be divided into the following categories [3]:•Uniform reduction in thickness with no change in width: Here, the deformation is in plane strain, that is, in the directions of rolling and sheet thickness. This type occurs in rolling of strip, sheet, or foil.•Uniform reduction in thickness with an increase in width: Here, the material is elongated in the rolling direction, is spread in the width direction, and is compressed uniformly in the thickness direction. This type occurs in the rolling of blooms, slabs, and thick plates.•Moderately non-uniform reduction in cross section: Here, the metal is elongated in the rolling direction, is spread in the width direction, and is reduced non-uniformly in the thickness direction.•Highly non-uniform reduction in cross section: Here, the reduction in the thicknessdirection is highly non-uniform. A portion of the rolled section is reduced in thickness while other portions may be extruded or increased in thickness. As a result, in the width direction metal flow may be toward the center [3].Hot RollingThe distinctive mark of hot rolling is not a crystallized structure, but the simultaneous occurrence of dislocation propagation and softening processes, with or without recrystallization during rolling. The dominant mechanism depends on temperature and grain size. In general, the recrystallized structure becomes finer with lower deformation temperature and faster cooling rates and material of superior properties are obtained by controlling the finishing temperature [1].Hot rolling offers several advantages [1]:1)Flow stresses are low, hence forces and power requirements are relatively low, andeven very large workpieces can be deformed with equipment of reasonable size.2)Ductility is high; hence large deformations can be taken.3)Complex part shapes can be generated.The upper limit for hot rolling is determined by the temperature at which either melting or excessive oxidation occurs. Generally, the maximum working temperature is limited to 50°C below the melting temperature. This is to allow the possibility of segregated regions of lowermelting material [4].Cold RollingCold rolling, in the everyday sense, means rolling at room temperature, although the work of deformation can raise temperatures to 100-200°C. Cold rolling usually follows hot rolling. A material subjected to cold rolling strain hardness considerably. Dislocation density increases, and when a tension test is performed on this strain-hardened material, a higher stress will be needed to initiate and maintain plastic deformation; thus, the yield stress increases. However, the ductility of the material – as expressed by total elongation and reduction of area – drops because of the higher initial dislocation density. Similarly, strength coefficient rises and strain-hardening exponent drops. Crystals (grains) become elongated in the direction of major deformation [1].Cold rolling has several advantages [1]:1)In the absence of cooling and oxidation, tighter tolerances and better surface finish canbe obtained.2)Thinner walls are possible.3)The final properties of the workpiece can be closely controlled and, if desired, thehigh strength obtained during cold rolling can be retained or, if high ductility is needed, grain size can be controlled before annealing.4)Lubrication is, in general, easier.Rolling Problems and DefectsThe main problem during rolling process is the calibration of rollers. This calibration faults may occur in case of used bearings and may affect the thickness of parts. A simple classification is as here below:a.Lengthwise Occurring DefectsChange of rollers speedMaterial temperatureRoller temperatureInlet thicknessMaterial propertiesEccentric and conical rollersUsed bearingsb.Transversally Occurring DefectsParallel position of rollersSurface geometry of rollers轧制目的：为了观察在执行轧制过程中铅条的横截面积和一般形状的变化。

附录附录1An Improved Rough Set Approach to Design of Gating Scheme for Injection MouldingF. Shi,1 Z. L. Lou,1 J.G. Lu2 and Y. Q. Zhang1 1Department of Plasticity Engineering, Shanghai Jiaotong University, P. R. China; and 2Center of CAD, Nanjing University of Chemical Technology, P. R. ChinaThe gate is one of the most important functional structures in an injection mould, as it has a direct influence on the quality of the injection products. The design of a gating scheme includes the selectionof the types of gate and calculation of the sizes and determination of the location, which depends heavily on prior experience and knowledge and involves a trial-and-error process. Due to the vagueness and uncertainty in the design of a gating scheme, classical rough set theory is not effective. In this paper, a fuzzy rough set model is proposed, which is not based on equivalent relationships but on fuzzy similarity relationships. An inductive learning algorithm based on the fuzzy rough set model (FRILA) is then presented. Compared to decision tree algorithms, the proposed algorithm can generate fewer classification rules; moreover, the generated rules are more concise. Finally, an intelligent prototype system for the design of a gating scheme based on an induced fuzzy knowledge base is developed. An illustrative example proves the effectiveness of the proposed method.Keywords: Fuzzy rough set; Gating scheme; Injection mold;Intelligent design; Knowledge acquisition1. IntroductionThe manufacturing industry for plastic products has been growing rapidly in recent years, and plastics are used widely to substitute for metals. The injection moulding process is the most popular moulding process for making thermoplastic parts. The feeding system, which is one of the important functional structures, comprises a sprue, a primary runner, a secondary runner and a gate. The molten plastic flows from the machine nozzle through the sprue and runner system and into the cavities through the gate. Acting as the connection between the runner and the cavity, the gate can influence directly the mould venting, the occurrence of jetting, the location of weld lines, and warpage, shrinkage and residual stresses. Hence, the gate design is important for assuring the quality of the mould.The design of a gate includes the selection of the type of gate, calculation of the size and determination of the location. And the design of a gate is based on the experience and knowledge of the designers. The determinations of the location and sizes are made based on atrial-and-error process. In recent years, a feature-modelling environment and intelligent technology have been introduced for gate design. Lee and Kim investigated gate locations using the evaluation criteria of warpage, weld lines and izod impact strength. A local search was used to determine the nodes of the location of the gate [1]. Saxena and Irani proposed a frame for a non-manifoldtopology-based environment. A prototype system for gate location design was developed. The criteria for evaluation were based on geometry-related parameters [2]. Lin selected the injection location and size of the gate as the major control parameters, and chose the product performance (deformation) as the optimising parameter. Combining the technologies of abductive networks and simulation annealing optimisation algorithms, the optimal model for the location and size of the gate was constructed [3,4]. Zhou et al. established a rule set for determining the location of the gate based on analysis of the plastic parts. The location of the gate was determined through reasoning with rules [5]. Pandelidis et al. developed a system which can optimise gate location based on the initial gating plans. The system used MOLDFLOW software for flow analysis, and controlled the temperature differential and the number of elements overpacked with an optimisation strategy [6].Deng used ID3 and its modified algorithms to generate the rule set for the selection of the gate types [7]. However, there are many fuzzy or vague attributes in the selection of the types, such as the attribute of loss of pressure that has two fuzzy linguistic variables i.e. can be high and must be low. The ID3 algorithms cannot deal with fuzzy o r “noise” information efficiently. It is also difficult to control the size of the decision tree extracted by the algorithms and sometimes very large trees are generated, making comprehensibility difficult [7,8].Rough set theory provides a new mathematical approach to vague and uncertain data analysis [9,10]. This paper introduces the theory of rough sets for the design of a gating scheme. The selection of the type of gate is based on the theory of rough sets. Considering the limitations of rough sets, this paper proposes an improved approach based on rough set theory for the design of the gating scheme. The improved rough set approach to the scheme design will be given first. A fuzzy rough-set-based inductive learning algorithm (FRILA), which is applied in the improved approach, will then be presented. An example of the design of a gate will finally be given.Table 1. Classification criteria.Condition attributes Fuzzy linguistic variablesStyle of plastic parts (p)(Deep, Middle, Shallow) Shell, (Deep, Middle, Shallow) Tube, (Deep, Middle, Shallow)RingNumber of cavities (n) Single-cavity, Multi-cavityLoss of pressure (l) Can be high, Must be lowCondition of separating gateMust be easy, Not request speciallyfrom parts (q)Machining performance (m) Must be easy, Not request specially2. A Rough Set Approach to Gating Scheme Design2.1 Design of the Gating SchemeThe model of the gating scheme design can be described as follows. A decision table with 4-tuples can be represented as T = （U, C, D, T）. where U is the universe. C = {C1, C2, …, Ck} is the set of condition attributes, each of which measures some important feature of an object in the universe U. T(Ck) = { Tk 1,T2k ,...,TkSk} is the set of discrete linguistic terms. In other words, T(Ck)is the value set of the condition attributes. D = {D1, D2, …, Dl} is the set of decision attributes, that is, each object in the universe is classified by the set D.Generally, the condition attributes can be classified as five sets, including style of plastic parts, number of cavities, loss of pressure, condition of separating gate from parts and machine performance. The details of the five condition attributes and corresponding variables of the fuzzy linguistic are shown in Table 1.From the table, it can be seen that most of the attributes are vague since they represent a human perception and desire. For instance, shell, tube and ring are selected for the classification of plastic parts and their fuzzy linguistic values are “deep”, “middle” and “shallow”, respectively. For the attribute loss of pressure, “can be high” and “must be low” are selected to approximate the fuzzy attribute.A fuzzy rule for gating scheme design can be written in the following form:IF (C1 is T1 i1) AND … (Ck is Tik) THEN (DisDj) (1) where Tkik is the linguistic term of condition attribute Ck, and Dj is a class term of the decision attribute D.Fuzzy rules with the form of Eq. (1) are used to perform min-max fuzzy inference. Let ck be the membership value of an object in Tk and d be the forecast value of Dj, where d = ik min(ck) and min is the minimum operator. If two or more rules have the sameconclusion, the conclusion with the largest value of d, which is also named the certainty factor is chosen.For the problem of the gating schemedesign, a fuzzy design rule can be described as follows.IF (Type of plastic part = middle shell)AND (Number of cavities = single)AND (Condition of separating gate from part = not request especially)(2)THEN (Gating scheme = straight gate)CF = 0.825From the above rule, the gating scheme of the straight gate will be selected is s with a certainty factor of 0.825, if the type of part is middle shell and the number of cavities is single and the condition of separating gate from part is not required. The above is just like human language and is easy to understand.2.2 Basic Concepts of Rough SetsIn recent years, the rough set (RS) theory, proposed by Pawlak, has been attracting the attention of the researchers. The basic idea of RS is to classify the objects of interest into similarity classes (equivalent classes) containing indiscernible objects via the analysis of attribute dependency and attribute reduction. The rule induction from the original data model is data-driven without any additional assumptions. Rough sets have been applied in medical diagnosis, pattern recognition, machine learning, and expert systems [10,11].A decision table with a 4-tuple can be represented as T = <U, A, V, f>, where U is the universe, , C and D are the sets of condition and decision attributes, respectively, V is the value set of the attribute a in A, and f is an information function.Assuming a subset of the set of attributes, two objects x and y in U are indiscernible with respect to P if and only if , .The indiscernibility relation is written as IND(P). U/IND(P) is used to denote the partition of U given the indiscernibility relation IND(P).A rough set approximates traditional sets by a pair of sets, which are the lower and the upper approximations of the sets. The lower and upper approximations of a set Y . U given an equivalence relation IND(P) are defined as follows:The definition of the lower approximation of a set involves an inclusion relation whereby the objects in an equivalence class of the attributes are entirely contained in the equivalence class for the decision category. This is the case of a perfect or unambiguous classification. For the upper approximation, the objects are possibly classified using the information in attribute set P.Attribute reduction is important for rough set theory. Based on the above definitions, the concept of reduction, denoted by RED(P), is defined as follows: Q . P is a reduction of P if and only if IND(P)=IND(Q).2.3 An Improved Rough Set ApproachIn the design of the gating scheme, it is crucial to acquire the fuzzy rules efficiently.Knowledge acquisition is the bottleneck. A rough set is applied to solve the problem for the design of the gating scheme. The block diagram for the design of the gating scheme with the rough set is shown in Fig. 1. The case library is obtained from the experience and knowledge of experts and some reference books. A rough-set-based inductive learning algorithm is adoptedto identify the hidden patterns and relationships in the case library and acquire knowledge.The knowledge is represented as a set of fuzzy “if–Then” rules. During the design stage, the system employs the fuzzy rules to perform fuzzy inference according to the design requirements. Then the appropriate gating scheme can be obtained.Although the rough set is efficient for knowledge acquisition, there are some limitationsfor the application of the original rough set in the selection of the gating scheme.1. The original rough set is efficient for problems with discrete attributes, but it cannot deal with the fuzzy attributes efficiently. For fuzzy attributes, the traditional decision table is normally transformed into a binary table by obtaining Fig. 1. Block diagram of the gating scheme design with RS. the -cut set of the fuzzy set. Obviously, there is no crisp boundary between the fuzzy attributes.2. The original rough set is based on the indiscernibility relation. The universe is classified intoa set of equivalent classes with the indiscernibility relation. The lower and upper approximations are generated in terms of the equivalent classes. In practice, the original rough set classifies the knowledge too fussily, which leads to the complexity of the problem.The fuzzy set and rough set theories are generalisations of classical set theory for modelling vagueness and uncertainty. Pawlak and Dubois proposed that the two theories were not competitive but complementary [11,16]. Both of the theories are usually applied to model different types of uncertainty. The rough set theory takes into consideration the indiscernibility between objects, whereas the fuzzy set theory deals with the ill-definition of the boundary of a class through the membership functions. The attributes can be presented by fuzzy variables, facilitating the modelling of the inherent uncertainty of the knowledge domain. It is possible to combine the two theories to solve the design problem of the gating scheme better.A fuzzy rough set model is presented based on the extension of the classical rough set theory. The continuous attributes are fuzzified with the proper fuzzy membership functions. The indiscernibility relation is generalised to the fuzzy similarity relation. An inductive learning algorithm based on fuzzy rough set model (FRILA) is then proposed. The fuzzy design rules are extracted by the proposed FRILA. The gate design scheme is then obtained after fuzzy inference. The detailed implementation will be discussed in the next section.Fig. 1. Block diagram of the gating scheme design with RS.3. Implementation of FRILAA fuzzy rough-set-based inductive learning algorithm consists of three steps. These steps are the fuzzification of the attributes, attribute reduction based on the fuzzy similarity relation and fuzzy rule induction.3.1 Fuzzifying the AttributesGenerally, there are some fuzzy attributes in the decision table, such as loss of pressure. These attributes should be fuzzified into linguistic terms, such as high, average and low. In other words, each attribute a is fuzzified into k linguistic values Ti, i = 1, …, k. The membership function of Ti can be subjectively assigned or transferred from numerical values by a membership function. A triangular membership function is shown in Fig. 2, where (x) is membership value and x is attribute value. For instance, a shell part can be described as{0.8/deep, 0.4/middle, 0/shallow}. It should be mentioned that membership is not probability and the sum of the membership values may not equal 1. The concept of fuzzy distribution is given as follows. Assuming that attribute A has k linguistic terms whosemembership function is Ai(x), respectively, where x is the value of A and i = 1, 2, …, k, the fuzzy distribution of A is,Rough Set Approach to Gating Scheme for Injection Moulding 665 Step 1. Calculate normal similarity relation matrix R.. in termsof de.nition 3.Step 2. Select ,and let and.Step 3.Step 4. If and , then X . X . {xj}, Y . Y{xj}.;Step 5. .Step 6. If j < n, then GOTO Step 4; otherwise, GOTO next step.Step 7. If card(Y) . 1, then and {xi}, GOTO Step 3; otherwise,GOTO next step.Step 8. Output the set X and letStep 9 If , then end; otherwise, GOTO Step 2.In step 7, card (Y) denotes the cardinality of set Y.According to the algorithm, U/IND(R~ {.i}), the partition is calculated given the attribute ai .A with the level value .i. The partition of U given attribute set A with level value set can be de.ned as follows:where A and . are the attribute set and the level value set, respectively, and operator . is de.ned as follows:Considering a subset X C U and a fuzzy similarity relation R. de.ned on U, the lower approximation of X, denoted by R..(X), and the upper approximation of X, denoted by R. .(X), are respectively de.ned as follows:Assuming U/IND(R. ) and Y are two partitions on U, where U/IND(R.) = {X1, X2, …, Xk} and Y = {Y1, Y2, …, Yr}, the positive regio n POS. C(Y)isde.ned as follows:.The amount of data is normally very large and there is a lot of redundant information. Attribute reduction can remove the redundant or noise information successfully. In the attribute reduction, the attribute reduction set is not single. The cardi-nality of the reduction set determines the dimensionality of problem, so it is important to select a minimal reduction. The minimal reduction can be de.ned as follows:Assuming a subset C′. C and C is the attribute set, C′ is the minimal reduction, if and only if C′ is characterised by following two properties.In order to construct the fuzzy similarity relation, the measurement of the fuzzy similarity relation should be introduced first.Generally, the max–min method, the relational factor method and the Minkowski distance-based closeness degree method are used to calculate the factor rij. Considering R. is a fuzzy similarity matrix and . is the level value, the matrix R. . is called normal similarity relation matrix after the following operation.The matrix R has the properties of reflexivity and the symmetrivity. In order to obtain the partition of U given the fuzzy similarity relation R an algorithm is given as follows.Input: fuzzy similarity matrix R. and level value . Output: U/IND(R), which is a partition of U given fuzzy similarity relation R. and level value.Calculate normal similarity relation matrix R. in terms of definition 3.Step 2. Select xj. U,and let X and Y.Step 3. j. 0.Step 4. If rij = 1 and xj .X, then X . X . xj}, Y . Y{xj}.;Step 5. j . j + 1.Step 6. If j < n, then GOTO Step 4; otherwise, GOTO next step.Step 7. If card(Y) . 1, then select xi . Y and Y . Y . {xi}, GOTO Step 3; otherwise, GOTO next step.Step 8. Output the set X and let U . U . X. Step 9 If U = , then end; otherwise, GOTO Step 3.2In step 7, card (Y) denotes the cardinality of set Y. {a}According to the algorithm, U/IND(R~ {i}), the partition is calculated given the attribute ai .A with the level value i. The partition of U given attribute set A with level value set can be defined as follows: U/IND(R. A) =. {U/IND(R~ {{a} i}): ai . A, i . } (3) where A and . are the attribute set and the level value set, respectively, and operator . is defined as follows: Considering a subset X C U and a fuzzy similarity relation .AR. defined on U, the lower approximation of X, denoted by (X), and the upper approximation of X, denoted by R. (X), are respectively defined as follows: .(X) = {Y:Y. U/IND(R), Y . X) (5) .A .AR(X) = {Y:Y. U/IND(R), Y . X (6) CAssuming U/IND(R) and Y are two partitions on U, where .CU/IND(R) = {X1, X2, …, Xk} and Y = {Y1, Y2, …, Yr}, the positive region POS.The amount of data is normally very large and there is a lot of redundant information.Attribute reduction can remove the redundant or noise information successfully. In the attribute reduction, the attribute reduction set is not single. The cardinality of the reduction set determines the dimensionality of problem, so it is important to select a minimal reduction. The minimal reduction can be defined as follows:Assuming a subset C′. C and C is the attribute set, C′ is the minimal reduction, if and only if C′ is characterised by following two properties:Assuming a condition attribute set C and a decision attribute set D, the degree of dependency of C on D, denoted by where card(X) denotes the cardinality of set X and 0 . According to the definition of the degree of dependency, the attribute significance for every attribute a . C . R can be defined as follows.In order to obtain the minimal reduction, a hierarchy attribute reduction algorithm is proposed as follows. Step 2. Compute the attribute significance SIG(x, R, D) for Step 3. Select the attribute x with the highest value SIG.The computational complexity of the algorithm is O(m2), where m is the number of the algorithm,attribute reduction can be treated as a tree traversal. Each node of the tree represents the condition attribute Calculating the minimal reduction can be transformed to picking the best based on some heuristic information. The operator can reduce the computation by using refrom .3.3 Fuzzy Rules InductionBased on the above fuzzy rough set model, the rule inductive learning algorithm is proposed, and is described as follows.1. Fuzzify the attributes and compute the fuzzy distribution of them.2. Calculate the fuzzy similarity matrix for every attribute.3. Calculate the fuzzy partition U/IND(R. ) given the fuzzy similarity relation R. with the value set . based on Algorithm 1.4. Calculate the minimal attribute reduction based on Algorithm5. Calculate the attribute core of the condition attribute with respect to the decision attribute and obtain the minimal reduction of the condition attribute, then delete the redundant objects.6. For every object, calculate the value core of the condition attribute, and then delete the redundant attribute values and objects.7. Delete the same objects in decision table and translate the decision rules.4. A Case StudyIn order to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed method, an example shown in Fig. 3 is chosen in this section. The design requirements are given as follows:Part style: middle shellNumber of cavities: single Loss of pressure: may be high Condition of separating gate fromparts: must be easy Machining performance: must be easy Part material: ABS4.1 Fuzzy Knowledge Acquisition Eliciting knowledge from any source of data is notoriously difficult, so knowledge acquisition is a bottleneck. There are five condition attributes for the gating scheme design as shown in Table 1. The attribute number of cavities has no fuzziness for its value is either “single” or “multiple”, so it is represented as {0, 1}, and the other four attributes are fuzzy ones and are represented by membership functions. The decision attribute of the gating scheme has nine linguistic terms, which correspond to nine gating schemes, respectively. First, a fuzzy decision table including 144 objects is constructed by calculating the fuzzy distributions of each attribute. Second, The fuzzy similarity relations of six attributes are constructed in terms of the Euclid distance based closeness degree. Then given the level values, the fuzzy similarity matrix is transformed to a normal similarity matrix. Third, the fuzzy partition U/IND(R)is calculated in terms of Algorithm 1 given the fuzzy similarity relation R. with the value set . where the level values of the condition attributes are as follows: the one of decision attribute, denoted .Fig. 3. An example part.Rough Set Approach to Gating Scheme for Injection Moulding 667 by d, is 0.8. Fourth, Calculate the attribute reduction so there is no redundant attribute. Finally, 22 fuzzy rules with the form of Eq. (2) are obtained.According to the different level values, the different number of fuzzy rules can be obtained.In practice, it is shown that the value of d has the largest effect on the number of rules.If the level values of condition attributes are given as follows: the value of d and the number of rules (num) is obtained, and shown in Fig. 4.4.2 DiscussionAs stated previously, the different number of fuzzy rules can be obtained in terms of the level values. In reference [7], the D3 algorithm and ID3-like algorithms are used to extract rules. However, the algorithms tend to involve more attributes than FRILA for the hierarchical structure of its output decision rules. In other words, the rules induced by the ID3-like algorithms have redundant attributes and are not more concise than the rules induced by FRILA. In the gating scheme design, on one hand, more concise and fewer rules lead to a more efficient selection of gate; on the other hand, more rules with higher level values lead to a higher selection accuracy. These two factors have to be traded off to satisfy application-dependent specifications. The comparison of ID3-like algorithms and FRILA is shown as Table 2, where the algorithms of MNIDR and MNID are improved versions of classical ID3 in reference [7].It is seen from Table 2 that higher . may lead to a bigger rule set with higher accuracy rate; moreover, when the accuracy rate is 100%, the number of rules induced by FRILA is fewer than that induced by ID3-like algorithms. Therefore, FRILA can induce fewer fuzzy rules with different level knowledge to cover the field and reduce the possibility of combination explosion.4.3 Design ImplementationWith the rule set for gating scheme design incorporated in an integrated environment, a prototype intelligent gating scheme design system has been developed. A commercial CAD system, named Pro/Engineering, is selected as the software platform, and Visual C++ language and Pro/Toolkit are selected as the developing tools. The prototype system can implement the Table 2. Comparison of four algorithms.Algorithm Number of rules Accuracy (num) rate (%) ID3 70 100 MNIDR 60 100 MNID 49 100 FRILA: automatic design of the gate. The prototype system employs the induced rules to perform fuzzy inference. For each datum to be classified, all rules are applied. Based on the fuzzy classification model described in Section 2, the following rule is selected: IF (Number of cavities = single) AND (Loss of pressure = may be high) AND(Condition of separating gate from parts = must be easy) THEN (Gating scheme = point gate) CF = 0.93 Therefore, a point gate is suitable for the part. The sizes of the gate are designed using the reference manuals, for instance, point gates vary in size from diameters of 0.8–2 mm for unloaded materials to diameters of 2.5–3 mm for loaded grades [21]. In order to facilitate the automation of the gating design, a gate feature library is provided, which contains nine types of classical gates. Modifications of gate features can be done by changing the key shape parameters.According to the designer’s choice, the gate feature is then added to the plastic part through assembly operations, such as mating, aligning and orienting. The gate is finally designed as shown in Fig. 5.Fig. 4. Relation between d and num. Fig. 5. The final design of point gate.Fig. 4. Relation between �d and num5. ConclusionsIn the design of a gate, the design of a gating scheme relies heavily on the knowledge and experience of the mold engineer and involves a trial-and-error process. In this paper, the design of a gating scheme is discussed in detail. Due to the vagueness and uncertainty in the selection of the gate, the classical rough set theory is not effective. By combining a fuzzy set with a rough set, a fuzzy rough-set-based inductive learning algorithm is proposed. Using the algorithm, the fuzzy rule set for the selection of a gate is established. Compared to the decision tree algorithms, the proposed algorithm can generate fewer classification rules and the generated rules are more concise. An intelligent gating scheme design prototype system based on the gating scheme knowledge base is developed, which can improve the efficiency of the gate design.AcknowledgementThe paper is partly supported by National Natural Science Foundation of P. R. China (No. 60175019) and the Youth Foundation of Science, Shanghai, P. R. China.References1. B. H. Lee and B. H. Kim, “Optimization of part wall thickness to reduce warpage of injection-molded parts based on the modified complex method”, Polymer Plastics Technology Engineering, 34, pp. 793–811, 1995.2. Saxena and R. K. Irani, “An integrated NMT-based CAE environment-part : Application to automated gating plan synthesis for injection molding”, Engineering with Computers, 9, pp.220– 230, 1993.3. Lin, “Optimum gate design of freeform injection mould using the abductive network”, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 17, pp. 297–304, 2001.4. C. C. Tai and J. C. Lin, “The optimal position for the injection gate of a die-casting die”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 86, pp. 87–100, 1999.5. Z. Y. Zhou, Z. Zh. Gu and J. Y. Shi, Research on integrated design techniques for injection mold runner system”, Journal of Computer-Aided Design and Computer Graphics, 12(1), pp.6–10, 2000 (in Chinese).6. I. Pandelidis, Q. Zou and T. J. Lingard, “Optimizat ion of gate location and operational molding conditions for injection molding”, Proceedings ANTEC, 46, pp. 18–20, 1988.7. Q. Deng, “The key technologies in mold intelligent manufacture”, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, 1996 (in Chinese).8. J. Wang, J. Cui and K. Zhao, “Investigation on AQ11, ID3 and the principle of discernibility matrix”, Journal of Computer Science and Technology, 16(1), pp. 1–12, 2001. 9. Y. Yuan and M. J. Shaw, Induction of fuzzy decision trees”, Fuzzy Sets and System s, 69(2), pp. 125–139, 1995.10. Z. Pawlak, “AI and intelligent industrial applications: the rough set perspective”, Cybernetics and Systems: An International Journal, 31(4), pp. 227–252, 2000.11. Z. Pawlak, “Rough sets and fuzzy sets”, Fuzzy Sets and S ystems, 17(1), pp. 88–102, 1985.12. R. Slowinski and D. Vanderpooten, “A generalized definition of rough approximations based on similarity”, IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 12(2), pp. 331–336, 2000.13. Z. L. Lou and Y. Q. Zhang, “Fuzzy knowledge acquisition in gate design”, Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 13(1), 14. Q. Shen and A. Chouchoulas, “FuREAP: A fuzzy-rough estimator of algae populations”, Artificial Intelligence in Engineering, 15, F. Shi, Z. L. Lou and Y. Q. Zh ang, “An improved strategy for attribute reduction in rough set”, Sixth International Conference for Young Computer Scientists, 1, pp. 41–44, October 2001.16. D. Dubois and H. Prade, “Rough fuzzy sets and fuzzy rough sets”, International Journal General Systems, 17, pp. 191–208, 1990.17. L. P. Khoo, S. B. Tor and L. Y. Zhai, “A rough-set-based approach for classification and rule induction”, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 15, pp. 438–444, 1999.18. L. P. Khoo, S. B. Tor and J. R. Li,“A rough set approach to the ordering of basic events in a fault tree for fault diagnosis”,。

机械工艺里流程的专业英文Here's a piece of writing about mechanical process flow in a conversational and informal English style, while maintaining independence between paragraphs:When it comes to mechanical processes, there's a whole lot of steps involved. First things first, you gotta have a clear blueprint of what you're aiming for. That's the foundation of any good workflow.Once you've got your plan in place, it's time to start gathering the necessary tools and equipment. Nothing can go wrong if you've got the right stuff on hand. Make sure to double-check the measurements and specifications to avoid any nasty surprises.Then, comes the actual assembly part. This is where things start to get exciting. Each piece needs to fit perfectly into its designated spot. It's like a puzzle, but with metal and bolts instead of colorful pieces.After the assembly, testing is crucial. You don't want to send out a faulty product, right? So, make sure to run it through its paces and check for any issues or irregularities.And finally, comes the packaging and shipping. This is where all your hard work pays off. Packaging should be done securely to ensure the product arrives in one piece. Then, it's off to its new home, ready to serve its purpose.So, that's a quick overview of the mechanical process flow. Each step is crucial and needs to be done with precision and care. But, with the right tools and a bit of patience, you can create something amazing.。