产品设计外文文献及翻译

摘要本文阐述了作业基础的应用管理在一个小公司。

这个项目发生在艾凡马斯蒂尔的公司，该公司生产机器照片框架产业。

这个项目的目的是发展一个反导系统的公司从而导致适当的改进措施的基础上使或购买的决定迪。

不同地区的机器,。

首先,理论分析框架的设计开发反弹道导弹系统。

然后,其次是用来提高经营业绩的金属薄片制造。

活动所需的该机具有生产识别,然后通过他们的资源消耗。

引起或驾驶的因素成本(成本驱动程序)活动的问题已经识别和用来识别信息和非增值活动。

另外,一些建议:提高公司的工作使用基于活动的管理系统。

关键词：作业成本管理；中小企业；案例分析中小企业作业成本管理的案例研究美国的张德雄,罗马尼亚的麦克内尔和荷兰的辛格1.介绍分析和成本的活动提供财政和非财政信息作业基础的基础管理。

基于活动的管理使得这一成本和通过提供一个操作信息有用价值分析、成本动因以及性能测试的开始,开车或支持改进运动,从而导致提高决策过程。

成本核算的国际管理作为“新的基于活动的管理学科,重点是管理活动通往提高价值受到客户和职业的实现提供相应的价值”。

本学科包括成本动因分析、活动分析和性能测定。

基于活动的管理吸引在作业成本法,作为它的主要来源信息。

美国广播公司的目标能够实现管理活动。

,认识到这一点很重要管理活动不是一个囚犯的任务。

相反,它是一个过程的无情的,持续改进的各方面一个业务。

这就牵涉到一个不断寻找机会提高依次包括仔细有条理的研究活动(卡普兰1984)。

在本文中,现实生活中的例子相片的框架工业,宝石,被认为是解释基于活动的管理的应用在这家小公司。

在这个项目,一个美国广播公司系统用于精确的计算成本的公司的主要产品和不同组件的成本到制作或购买决定。

美国广播公司有助于分析不同的活动在公司和显示增值与非增值之间不同的活动。

基于活动的管理的目的是指导改进运动管理的权利方向提供准确的信息活动。

该组织提出如下:第二节处理一个概念模型为基于活动的管理。

利用一案例在第三章提出的应用来说明模型在一家小公司。

Estonian Journal of Engineering, 2008, 14, 1, 3–16 doi: 10.3176/eng.2008.1.01A conceptual design method for the generalelectric vehicleRaivo Sell a, Mart Tamre a, Madis Lehtla b and Argo Rosin ba Department of Mechatronics, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia; {raivo,mart}@staff.ttu.eeb Department of Electrical Drives and Power Electronics, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia; {mlehtla,vagur}@cc.ttu.eeReceived 19 January 2007Abstract.The paper discusses conceptual design of mechatronic systems considering a mobile electrical vehicle platform as an application example. A set of design templates are developed and organized into libraries for the use in early stages of the system design. The advantages of retaining usability of component libraries, allowing verification of design alternatives on the conceptual level are demonstrated.Key words: mechatronics, mobile robotics, system design, conceptual modelling, simulation.1. INTRODUCTIONThe design of mechatronic systems differs considerably from the domains like mechanics, electronics, etc. Although mechatronics is often defined as a combina-tion of mechanics, electronics and control theory, design of a mechatronic product can not be divided into three separate parts. A mechatronic system needs to be designed as an integrated product from the very beginning. Domain-specific design plays also a certain role but the designer must always be aware of the interaction of design aspects of various components. Mechatronic system design is closely related to system engineering and therefore many tools and techniques used in system engineering are applicable also in the mechatronic system design.Decomposition of the general design cycle has been considered by several authors [1–3]. The design cycle starts with a conceptual stage, which consists of the specification of the requirements and situation analysis. According to French [4], the conceptual design stage puts greatest demands on the designer and in this stage the most important decisions are made. The result of this process is a candidate for the design solution and a clearly formulated set of desired measur-able properties of the future product, which introduces the quality measure into3the design process. This cross-domain design takes into account the overall system requirements and goals. The conceptual design as well as other design stages are implemented in many cycles. Complex mechatronic product design cycles (macrocycles) are described in greater detail in [5].In real design, many tools and techniques are used to carry out the whole design process. For the domain-specific stage, a large selection of most advanced tools exist. Conventional domains like mechanics, electronics and control engineering are well exploited. Computer-aided engineering (CAE) tools like computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), finite element method (FEM), printed circuit board (PCB) routing & layout, etc. are probably known for every engineer. In software design, computer aided software engineering (CASE) and the unified modelling language (UML) are used [6,7].On the conceptual design stages fewer tools are available, although there is a great needed for CAE. Domain-independent techniques as Bond graphs [8], Petri nets [9] and hybrid automata [10] are not widely used in the design of mechatronic systems. However, recent research is focused on the conceptual design and automation of the generation of the candidate for the design solution. Several investigations [11–13] exploit the combination of artificial intelligence and domain-independent techniques. One of the reasons why the conceptual level lacks computer support is that the used methodology must support high-level conceptual design with the option to apply very specific constraints at the same time. The system design stage needs similar tools, but the system must be modelled on a more detailed level. The system components, subcomponents, behaviour and per-formance, etc., must be modelled in the frame of the whole system. The most used technique here is block diagrams of different modifications. In the recent years many efforts are put on the system design and mechatronics software development. Some software package examples are AMESim [14], Dymola [15], 20-sim [16] and also the well known MatLab/Simulink environment.Methodology of the mechatronic design process is presented in the mechatronic design guideline VDI 2206 [5], which proposes several tools and techniques for the design of mechatronic systems.The objective of the present work is to combine mechatronics design methods with the system modelling language and to develop practical tools for the design of a mobile electrical vehicle platform on conceptual level. We create a specific toolbox for a general electric vehicle, which can be utilized in the conceptual design process. Some practical examples are shown, based on current projects at Tallinn University of Technology.2. DESIGN APPROACHThe conceptual design method, considered in this paper, expands the approach [5] with the design templates and concept simulation aids. System modelling language (SysML) [17] is used as the basic modelling language. The general conceptual design modelling approach is described in Fig. 1.4Fig. 1. The SysML toolbox for mobile platform design.The approach consists of three integrated substages: requirements modelling, conceptual solution development and design candidate simulation. All stages are supported by specific template libraries. A template class from the template library provides a parameterized description of the model element, specifying its attributes and operations. By binding multiple elements to the template it is possible to generate new elements with the same characteristics as the template.SysML is used for requirement and concept modelling and Simulink for conceptual simulation, although other tools are not excluded. The proposed approach relies on the design methodology [18] and the SysML toolbox for the mobile platform design, which is taken as an example. The mobile platform is a generalization of different types of (mainly electrical) vehicles. Mobile robots, unmanned ground vehicles (UGV) and railway vehicles are used as examples for different diagrams later on.3. MODELLING OF THE REQUIREMENTSFormulation of the requirements is the foundation of a project. Every require-ment is tightly related to the cost and therefore the requirements modelling and analysis must be carried out with great care. Big changes in requirements in later stages of the design process may increase significally the cost of the whole project. Requirements arise from customer needs, regulations, legislation, organiza-tion environment, technology availability, etc.Definition of the requirements is a complex process and typically includes performance analysis, trade studies, constraint evaluation and cost analysis. Requirements modelling is not just a top-down process, but must be carried out with the interaction of the initial analysis and simulation of the concepts.Initial requirements model is completed usually on the system level. Oncearchived, it is necessary to allocate and flow the requirements down to lower56levels. According to [19], the requirements modelling process is iterative for each phase, with continuous feedback as the level of design specifications increases. The design of an electrical vehicle and mobile platform follows the system engineering concept. The general requirements model is shown in Fig. 2. The model is based on the SysML requirements diagram and describes general con-cept of the requirements model. A single requirement is described as a box with various parameters. The requirement can be decomposed into subrequirements and is linked with each of them as well as with analysis, design, implementation and testing elements. In a general requirement element the following parameters are used: ID (unique identifier across the model), priority, text (textual repre-sentation of the requirement or reference to a document), risk, weight, type, etc. According SysML specification, a requirement can be generated or deduced from another requirement using Derive relationship. A requirement can be ful-filled by another model element using Satisfy relationship. A requirement can be verified by various behaviours using the Verify relationship. Standard or specific test cases ()TestCase are developed for this purpose. All of these are specializa-tions of the UML Trace relationship; which is used to track requirements and changes across the model [17].Requirements template. Introducing new design tools to practising engineers is often related with various problems as people are used to work with habitual tools and methods. Therefore it is important to make the implementation of the new system as easy as possible. One way to do this is to use pre-defined modelFig. 2. Metamodel of the requirements.7templates. Templates are defined according to the specific product domain. In this paper we focus on the general electrical vehicle platform design. Templates are still general enough to be adopted to other subdomains.A requirement is defined by ID, textual representation and parameters. Default parameters are Weight , Risk , OptimizationDirection , and Source . Optional parameters are ConsistentStandard and MaxCost (Fig. 3). Every single requirement has to be verified on some level by one of the following methods: test, demonstration, analysis, inspection. Therefore every single requirement has a relationship with the activity TestCase . If a requirement needs multiple tests, the requirement should be decomposed into multiple subrequirements.When the process proceeds, the requirement can be connected with design elements as block, assembly, activity, etc. This relationship indicates specific design elements, which satisfy the particular requirement.Templates are intended to be used for effective and professional requirement modelling. The engineer can pick the best matching template according to the design scope and start to bind the predefined requirement parameters with real values. Requirement templates consists of activities like standardized TestCases . These activities are collected to the knowledge base library, where they can be extracted and redesigned if necessary.Fig. 3. Requirements metaclass and Activity relationship.4. CONCEPTUAL MODELS4.1. Conceptual designConceptual design is actually the first stage, where engineers start to develop the target system, corresponding in an optimal way to requirements. This stage is tightly related to the previous one, to the requirements modelling part. After starting to develop actual concepts of the system, often new aspects arise and very often they cause some changes in initial requirements. This is an interactive process and must be well coordinated.A frequent mistake in this interactive process, made by beginners, is that the very fist idea is taken as the best one and is developed into a product [3]. This may be a very costly approach. Correction of design mistakes and conceptual changes in a later, product development or integration stage, will cost much more than in the conceptual stage. Therefore it is very important to develop more than one candidate for the solution. Methodical comparison and initial simulation will ensure that the optimal solution is selected and the risk of project failure is reduced.4.2. Development of the conceptual solutionDevelopment of a candidate for a conceptual solution is the next step after the requirements model is established. Our concept is described by the static structure, interaction of components, behaviour and dynamic parameters. All these aspects are modelled with a corresponding diagram. At the same time, the diagrams can interact with each other and one diagram can consist of parts from other diagrams. In the concept design process, the requirements model must be kept in mind and relationships with the requirements diagram are allowed and strictly suggested through the <<satisfy>> relationship. Diagram template library incorporates categories for concept design shown in Table 1. Diagram templates are divided logically according to SysML diagram types.The interaction levels are as follows:Level I – System and subsystem hierarchy, subsystem general interactions are defined; main functionality and system states are indicated.Level II – Subsystems are opened and defined in general ‘black box’ components;parameters of subsystems are initiated, subsystem inner activities aredistinguished.Table 1. Diagram template libraryLevel(acronym)Name DiagramFor the whole conceptHierarchical structure Block Definition (bdd) ISystem usage Use Case (uc) IFor every solution candidateComponent interaction Internal Block diagram (ibd) IBehaviour Activity(act) II(par) II Dynamics Parametric8The first two diagrams (bdd, uc) are common for all solution candidates because in the context level they do not differ very much for various solution candidates.System usage at the context level is defined by the Use Case diagram. Use Case diagram defines the usage of the system under the development. This is particularly important in the early design stage. The diagram describes high-level behaviour and bounding of the system at the same time. This diagram can be compared with the context diagram in the data flow diagram (DFD). We use the original structure of the Use Case package. The syntax is analogous to UML. In that way the software engineers and mechanical engineers use the same syntax to describe the system usage and context. This ensures that the gap in understanding will be reduced to minimum.The concept level structure of the system is described by the Block Definition diagram (bdd). A Block is defined as a modular unit of the system and depending on the design detailization level the block describes different things. In the beginning of the conceptual stage, the hierarchy of the components is defined and disclosed to assembly level, e.g. vehicle drive. The Block encapsulates its contents, which include attributes, operations and constraints.Every system has interconnections between its blocks. These connections can be quite different, e.g. flow of energy or material, software operations, data exchange, analogue signals, etc. In the system hierarchy a model generalization relationship is used instead of interactions between the components. The system is decomposed and linked with parts or assemblies from the model library.Both the Block Definition diagram and the Use Case diagram are common for all solution candidates due to the reason that these diagrams describe a general view of the perspective system and are derived directly from the requirements. Solution-specific diagrams are more detailed and describe the specific solution.Three different diagrams are defined for the solution-specific development in the conceptual stage:• Internal Structure, describing the interaction between the components in terms of service and flow;• Parametric, describing the key parameters and system dynamics;• Activity, describing the behaviour.4.3. Conceptual design templatesIn the framework of the electrical vehicle profile, several design templates for the Block Definition diagram have been developed. The system hierarchy on the concept level has one main template with mostly common blocks. When starting to use the template, the engineer can select or not select these pre-defined blocks and their attributes. This enables to start quickly the system description without missing relevant components.Most commonly used components in electrical vehicle design are presented with common attributes and the generalization relationship. Attributes are in most cases optional and can be added or removed depending on the design characteristics. The Internal Block diagram template describes the interrelation-910ship between the movement components. Service and flow ports are defined but kept open for most cases.Activity diagram templates are composed with the Swim Lane technique, where activities are mapped with blocks on the basis of functions. An example of this is shown in Fig. 4. Templates based on functions and behaviour describe more specific activities, e.g. MotionTraction , Brake , Accelerate , etc., and TestCase for the satisfaction of the requirements.The general dynamic model [20] of the system or subsystem is shown schematically in Fig. 5. The system S is characterized by a set of state variables X that are influenced by a set of input variables, ,U representing the action of the system’s environment on the system. The set of output variables, ,Y are observable indicators of the system’s response.The general dynamic model can be applied for all subsystems or components. The dynamic model can be executed and by feeding different input parameters different system behaviour is achieved. The system and its model can be linear orFig. 4. Example of an Activity diagram.Fig. 5. Dynamic model of the system. ▪ ▪▪ ▪11non-linear. Linear systems generally can be described by a set of linear first-order differential equations and it is possible to obtain detailed solutions of the system response. If one of the components or a subsystem is non-linear, the overall system is non-linear and conventional analytical tools do not work any more [20]. Solving the non-linear system, the simulations according to time steps must be carried out. The real-world systems are in most cases non-linear and therefore it is important to have tools for early stage simulations, where even the dynamic model of the system is not fully defined yet. The early stage system dynamics is determined by the Parametric diagram. This defines how one value of the structural property affects other values. Parametric constraints are tightly connected with the system structure and are used in combination with Block diagrams.The Parametric diagram is the main input for the system simulation model. Different conceptual solutions can be obtained and simulation results used for the improvement of the design. For example this is used for the performance and reliability analysis as well as for meeting all the requirements, specified by the Requirement diagram.The Parametric diagram template for basic performance of an electrical vehicle is taken as an example (Fig. 6).Fig. 6. Parametric example.5. SIMULATION OF THE ELECTROMECHANICAL (PHYSICAL)MODELTo describe interaction, a pair of variables should be used. One variable is an input, which describes the effect and another is the result or feedback, showing the reaction (or vice versa). The instantaneous power can be calculated from this pair of variables. Equations of the mechanical behaviour of the motors and voltage–electromotive force equations are placed in different blocks [21] accord-ing to the structure of the energetic macromodels. For example, electrical sub-systems, described with transfer functions, have as an input the instantaneous value of voltage and the reaction is calculated as the instantaneous value of the current. Mechanical subsystems can have as input the linear or angular velocity and the calculated reaction is the force or torque.A simulation model should be simplified as much as possible because of energetical, technical and time restrictions. A model is always a simplification of the reality for a certain purpose. The simplified electromechanical model does not always describe electrical parameters of windings, supply network, controllers and converters. The main purpose of modelling of the control object and load is virtual testing of control methods for the simplification of the development process. Models allow the verification of control methods and software in different operation modes, mode-altering conditions and different control modes [22].For the verification of the model and comparison with the real system, it should be divided into subsystems using subsystem macromodels. These subsystem macromodels can be also divided into subsystem and component models. MatLab/ Simulink simulation model has a hierarchical structure and each block can be flexibly composed from configurable subblocks. The grouping of the blocks should take into account different configurations of the drive hardware, such as different motor–wheel configurations, different compositions of supply converters, motors, etc. This can be done via parametric (Fig. 6) and operation mode transition (Fig. 7) diagrams.Events that cause changes in the control structure can be defined as transitions in the operation-mode transition diagram shown in Fig. 7. Each state describes a different set of control structures and algorithms.Conceptual models, developed with design tools in Mobile Platform Toolbox, will be linked with the MatLab/Simulink object in the template model. Toolbox consists of several predefined models for multiple purposes. For example, the simulation models of electrical vehicle performance, current consumption, efficiency, etc., are stored in the simulation template library. A template is a general simulation model for a specific simulation target. Appropriate modification will be done and correct parameters assigned for the picked template model. The following example shows a simple simulation model template for electrical and performance simulation in different operation modes. The Simulink model shown in Fig. 8 uses torque reference values and state variables of wheels as arrays (multiple numbers) indicated with bold lines in the figure.1213Fig. 7. Operation mode transition diagram of the drive.Fig. 8. Simulation model of a multimotor drive describing axial weights, adhesion and wheel diameters.14The models of the mechanical part and control circuits together form the modelof the control object, including load and motor electromagnetic models and models of the electronic part of the converter, hardware of the control part and feedbacks. The model should be simple because of energetic, technical and time limitations and limitations of the available computer hardware. But it should include important properties and parameters needed for the control system design.Using the model of the mechanical part, shown in Fig. 8, and adding the detailed model of the electrical part, gives the opportunity to observe different operation modes and ranges of the system.These operation ranges, shown in Fig. 9, include the torque ramp, constant torque operation, motor field weakening in constant power operation and maximum speed limitation due to the end of field weakening. The torque ramp limits maximal available motor current and is needed for limiting the acceleration. The start of the motor field-weakening process depends on the maximum available supply voltage for drive systems. Control principles (methods) are an important part for system modelling. Most of modern systems are based on a microprocessor control system, thus a dynamic model should also contain descriptions of software based controllers, control algorithms, torque controllers, speed controllers or reference integrators, ramp-functions, anti-slip systems, control of the field weakening, control of the operation mode and control of the braking.Fig. 9. Acceleration process, calculated using a simulation model.6. CONCLUSIONSConceptual modelling for the design of mechatronic systems is described. The method utilizes new rapidly advancing SysML as the modelling language. The concept consists of models of the requirements, structure and behaviour. An important feature of the approach is instantaneous analysis and simulation link to get the fast response of strengths and weaknesses of the developed mechatronic system design candidate. The described method is bounded and specified for the mobile electric vehicle design. Some examples and metamodels for this case are presented. Design templates for modelling and simulation are required to start a fast product development process. Therefore the implemented methodology relies on predefined templates from the template library. The next step is to widen the template library for different design cases. Together with the develop-ment of the design templates, simulation templates (Simulink models) will be designed. Further work lies in the integration of the solution with an automatic mechatronics system development framework, where design concepts can be generated from the requirements diagram in a semiautomatic way.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe work is part of the robotics projects supported by the Estonian Ministry of Science and Education, grant No. 0142506s03.REFERENCES1. Hubka, V. and Eder, W. Design Science: Introduction to the Needs, Scope and Organization ofEngineering Design Knowledge. Springer, London, 1996.2. Pahl, G. and Beitz, W. Engineering Design – A Systematic Approach. Springer, Berlin, 1996.3. Ullman, D. G. Mechanical Design Process. McGraw–Hill, New York, 2002.4. French, M. Conceptual Design for Engineers. Springer, London, 1999.5. Design Methodology for Mechatronic System – VDI 2206. Beuth Verlag GmbH, DI, Düssel-dorf, 2004.6. Gurd, A. Using UMLTM 2.0 to Solve Systems Engineering Problems. Telelogic, 2003.7. Kukkala, P., Riihimäki, J., Hännikäinen, M., Hämäläinen, T. D. and Kronlöf, K. UML 2.0 Pro-file for Embedded System Design. In Proc. Design, Automation and Test in Europe Conference. Munich, 2005, 710–715.8. Gawthrop, P. Metamodelling: for Bond Graphs and Dynamic Systems. Prentice Hall, London,1996.9. Desel, J. and Juhas, G. What is a Petri net? – Informal answers for the informed reader. LectureNotes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2001, 2128, 1–25.10. Davoren, J. M. and Nerode, A. Logics for hybrid systems. Proc. IEEE, 2000, 88, 985–1010.11. Rzevski, G. On conceptual design of intelligent mechatronic system. Mechatronics, 2003, 13,1029–1044.1512. Seo, K., Fan, Z., Hu, J., Goodman, E. D. and Rosenberg, R. C. Toward a unified and automateddesign methodology for multi-domain dynamic systems using bond graphs and genetic programming. Mechatronics, 2003, 13, 851–885.13. Granda, J. J. The role of bond graph modeling and simulation in mechatronics systems. Anintegrated software tool: CAMP-G, MATLAB–SIMULINK. Mechatronics, 2002, 12, 1271–1295.14. AMESim: Modeling & simulation environment for systems engineering. http://www.15. Dymola – dynamic modeling laboratory with Modelica (Dynasim AB). http://www.16. 20-sim, the dynamic modeling and simulation package for iconic diagram, bond graph, blockdiagram and equation models. 17. System modeling language (SysML) specification. Version 1.0, Draft. OMG documentad/2006-03-01, 2006. 18. Sell, R. and Tamre, M. Integration of V-model and SysML for advanced mechatronics systemdesign. In Proc. Research & Education on Mechatronics Conference REM05. Annecy, 2005, 276–280.19. Systems Engineering Handbook. INCOSE-TP-2003-016-02, version 2a. Technical Board ofInternational Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE), 2004. 20. Karnopp, D. C., Margolis, D. L. and Rosenberg, R. C. System Dynamics – Modeling andSimulation of Mechatronic Systems. J. Wiley, New Jersey, 2006.21. Popa, I. S., Popescu, M. O. and Popescu, C. Energetic macroscopic representation applied to anelectrical urban transport system. In The Annals of “Dunarea de Jos”, University Of Galati Fascicle, 2002, III, 34–39.22. Lehtla, M. Microprocessor Control Systems of Light Rail Vehicle Traction Drives. TallinnUniversity of Technology Press, Tallinn, 2006.Mobiilse elektrisõiduki kontseptuaalse modelleerimise metoodika Raivo Sell, Mart Tamre, Madis Lehtla ja Argo Rosin On loodud elektrisõiduki modelleerimise metoodika, mis kasutab modellee-rimiskeelena uut, kiiresti arenevat keelt SysML. Metoodika on suunatud kontsep-tuaalse modelleerimise faasi kiiremale ja efektiivsemale projekteerimisele. Selleks on välja arendatud eeldefineeritud mudelite süsteem, mida arendaja saab andmebaasist valida sõltuvalt süsteemi spetsiifikast. Eeldefineeritud mudelid on nii süsteemi nõuete kui ka lahenduse kirjeldamiseks. Kirjeldatud metoodika abil saab modelleerida süsteemi struktuuri ja käitumist ning siduda erinevaid lahen-dusvariante simulatsioonimudelitega. Väljatöötatud lahendus võimaldab kiiresti ja efektiivselt alustada mehhatroonikasüsteemi arendusprotsessi ning juba kontsep-tuaalses faasis simuleerida erinevaid lahendusvariante. Töö on üks osa meh-hatroonikasüsteemide projekteerimisega seotud uuringust, mille eesmärk on auto-matiseerida tootearenduse kontseptuaalset faasi.16。

I. Simakovaa, A. Koskina, I. Deliya, A. SimakovbaBoreskov Institute of Catalysis, Siberian Branch of Academy of Sciences, pr. Ak. Lavrentieva, 5,630090, Novosibirsk, Russia, simakova@catalysis.ru,bCentro de Ciencias de la MateriaCondensada, Universidad NacionalAutónoma de México,Apdo.Postal 2681, Ensenada, B.C., México, andrey@ccmc.unam.mx摘要纳米钯催化剂的应用已获得超过过去几年中日益增长的重要性。

精细有机合成钯基催化方法允许更换传统的多步有机合成技术的劳动消耗，并从成本和环境影响的角度来看提供改善。

已培育的高比表面积活性炭的“Sibunit”的基板作为催化剂的基材使用，无论是在酸性或是碱性介质，同时在其表面超强酸性中心可以促进催化运行过程中产生不良反应情况下的化学惰性。

一种转换α-蒎烯商业的生物活性化合物衍生品和香水，以及与太阳紫外线过滤属性屏幕，作为一个重要的中间步骤，涉及催化加氢。

目前的工作目的是所要澄清的因素，有利于碳金属Pd的分散。

碳还原温度和预处理影响金属的大小在关于“Sibunit”选择性verbenol转换催化剂制备钯表面研究。

用电子显微镜法（TEM）来显示钯碳表面影响双氧水，硝酸氧化的金属分散度，硝酸。

在Pd / C催化剂样品verbenol加氢反应的催化活性是确定的。

最活跃的催化剂样品动力学特性在verbenol加氢反应获得。

关键词：TEM，钯，活性炭，萜类，香料，精细化学品1．引言超过钯金属催化剂的选择性加氢是用来生产有机化工原料最令人鼓舞的方式，包括染料等东西，药品，香料，维生素和有价值的商业中间体[1]。

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文档下载后可定制修改，请根据实际需要进行调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种类型的经典范文，如工作总结、工作计划、合同协议、条据文书、策划方案、句子大全、作文大全、诗词歌赋、教案资料、其他范文等等，想了解不同范文格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by this editor. I hope that after you download it, it can help you solve practical problems. The document can be customized and modified after downloading, please adjust and use it according to actual needs, thank you!Moreover, our store provides various types of classic sample essays for everyone, such as work summaries, work plans, contract agreements, doctrinal documents, planning plans, complete sentences, complete compositions, poems, songs, teaching materials, and other sample essays. If you want to learn about different sample formats and writing methods, please stay tuned!商务英语产品介绍范文带翻译(实用16篇) 商务英语产品介绍范文带翻译第1篇Please look at the brilliantly attracting mobile phone in front of you.This is the latest product of the NOKIA.I’m sure that you are absolutely amused by its perfect appearance， such as the silver-white metal shell， properly colored keyboard，the crystal screen， etc.Of course， it’s not persuasive to just judge it from the outside.There’s no need to mention the ordinary functions as a mobile，so let me show you the unique and significant functions belonging to it.First， it has the google authorized GPS software， which can bring you a quite clear way when you step out in the open air.Second， the mobile phone can connect to the newly developed 3G net.This can provide you with a series of services such as watching videos， listening to music，delivering pictures and so on.At last， the most essential，it’s not eXpensive in comparison with its fellow products.So if you are considering to buy a new mobile phone and wondering which one to choose， I think this kind is an eXcellent choice.商务英语产品介绍范文带翻译第2篇Computers: Are They Easier to Use ?Here’s my simple test for a product of today’s technology:I go to the bookstore and check the shelves for remedial more books there are， the more my suspicions are computers and computer programs are getting easier to use，why are so many companies still making a nice living publishing books on how to use them?Computers manipulate information，but information is ’s nothing to see or programmer decides what you see on the don’t have knobs like old don’t have buttons， not real buttons.Instead，more and more programs display pictures of buttons，moving even further into abstraction and like computers， but I hope they will disappear，that they will seem as stranger to our descendants as the technologies of our grandparents appear to ’s computers are indeed getting easier to us，but look where they started:so difficult that almost any improvement was have the power to allow people within a company，across a nation or even around the world to work together.But this power will be wasted if tomorrow’s computers aren’t designed around the needs and capabilities of the human beings who must use them —a people-centered philosophy， in other means retooling computers to cope with human strengths，observing， communicating and innovating instead of asking people to conform to the unnatural behavior computers just leads to error.Many of today’s machines try to do too a complicated work processor attempts to double as a desktop pulsing program or a kitchen appliance come with half a dozen attachments，the product is bound to be awkward and burdensome.My favorite eXample of a technological product on just the right scale is an electronic can be made smaller，lighter and far easier to use than a print version，not only giving meanings but even pronouncing the ’s electronic dictionaries，with their tiny keys and barely legible displays，are primitive but they are on the right track.商务英语产品介绍范文带翻译第3篇Now ，we have great pleasure in troducing you our company.our company is found before several decade and producting all kinds of digital products.Have made a market research，we find that these things make our lives easier.The digital products like the computer and the cell phone have completely made a great impact on our life.These products have both led to much greater efficiency in many aspects of our daily lives and produced many economic benefits as well.The digital age has contributed to many labor saving technologiesat the same time as improving the quality standards of production..Because our company wants to eXtend ，so we need to hire someone to our company.If you want to be emploeed，just give your recommend letter to our company.I am looking forward to hearing from you soon.商务英语产品介绍范文带翻译第4篇商务英语：如何向客户推销产品Jennifer要带加拿大客户Bob Mckenzie先生和Andrea Lloyd 小姐参观公司的新产品，他当然要借此机会大力推销这项新开发成功的商品。

3D打印外文文献翻译最新译文文献出处: Paul G. 3D printing technology and its application [J]. Anatomical sciences education, 2021, 10(3): 430-450. 原文3D printing technology and its applicationPaul GAbstract3D printing technology in the industrial product design, especially the application of digital product model manufacturing is becoming a trend and hot topic. Desktop level gradually mature and application of 3D printing devices began to promote the rise of the Global 3D printing market, Global industrial Analysis company (Global Industry Analysis Inc) research report predictsGlobal 3D printing market in 2021 will be $2.99 billion. Keywords: 3D printing; Application; Trend 1 3D printing and 3D printers3D printing and 3D printing are two entirely different concepts.3Dprinting is separated into different angles the picture of the red, blue two images, then the two images according to the regulation of parallax distance overprint together, using special glasses to create the 3D visual effect, or after special treatment, the picture printed directly on the special grating plate, thus rendering 3D visual effect of printing technology. And 3D printing refers to the 3D ink-jet printing technology, stacked with hierarchical processing forms, print increase step by step a material to generate a 3D entity, meet with 3D models, such as laser forming technology of manufacturing the same real 3D object digital manufacturing technology.3D printers, depending on the technology used by its working principle can be divided into two categories: 1.1 3D printer based on 3D printing technologyBased on 3D printing technology of 3D printer, by stored barrels out a certain amount of raw material powder, powder on processing platform is roller pushed into a thin layer, then the print head in need of forming regional jetis a kind of special glue. At this time, met the adhesive will rapidlysolidified powder binder, and does not meet the adhesive powder remain loose state. After each spray layer, the processingplatform will automatically fall a bit, according to the result ofcomputer chip cycle, until the real finished. After just remove the outerlayer of the loose powder can obtain required for manufacturing three-dimensional physical.1.2 3D printers based on fused deposition manufacturing technologyBased on fused deposition manufacturing technology of the workingprinciple of 3D printer is first in the control software of 3D printers into physical data generated by CAD and treated generated to support the movementof materials and thermal spray path. Then hot nozzle will be controlled by computer according to the physical section contour information in printedplanar motion on the plane, at the same time by thermoplastic filamentous material for wire agency sent to the hot shower, and after the nozzle to add heat and melt into a liquid extrusion, and spraying in the corresponding work platform. Spray thermoplastic material on the platform after rapid coolingform the outline of a thickness of 0.1 mm wafer, forming a 3D printing section. The process cycle, load, decrease of bench height then layers of cladding forming stacked 3D printing section, ultimately achieve the desired three-dimensional object.2 The application of 3D printing needsThe 3D printing technology support for a variety of materials, can bewidely used in jewelry, footwear, industrial design, construction, automotive, aerospace, dental, medical, and even food, etc. Different areas., according to the requirements of application targets used by material with resin, nylon, gypsum, ABS, polycarbonate (PC) or food ingredients, etc.3D printers of rapid prototyping technology has a distinct advantage in the market, the huge potential in the production application, hot applications outlined below. 2.1 Industrial applications\cycling\is located in Bristol, UK the European aeronautic defense and Space Company using 3D printers, application of 3D printing technology tocreate the world's first print bike. The bike to use as strong as steel and aluminum alloy material of nylon, the weight is 65% lighter than metal materials. More interestingly, \chain wheels and bearings are printed at a time, without the original manufacture partsfirst, and then the parts together of assembly process, after printing, bicycles will be able to move freely. Bicycle manufacturing process likeprinting discontinuous in graphic print as simple lines, 3D printer can print out the object space is not connected to each other.2.2 Medical applicationsIn medicine, the use of 3D printing will two-photon polymer and biological functional materials combination modified into the capillaries, not only has good flexibility and compatibility of human body, also can be used to replace the necrosis of blood vessels, combined with artificial organs, partly replacing experimental animals in drug development. Biotechnology in Germanyin October 2021 show, Biotechnical Fair), using 3D printers print artificial blood capillary to attract the attention of the participants, these artificial capillary has been applied in clinical medicine.2.3 application of daily life\University in New York, the United States food manufacturing equipment. The \food printer%used similar routine computer printers, the workingprinciple of ingredients and ingredients in the container (cartridge) in advance only need to enter the required recipe, by supporting the CAD software can keep the food \out\For many chefs, the new kitchen cooking means that they can create new dishes make food more individuality, higher food value. Using the \products can significantly reduce the link, so as to avoid the pollution in the links of food processing, transportation, packing and so on and preservation, etc. Because of the cooking materials and ingredients must be placed in the printer, so food raw materials must be liquid or other can \2.4 IT applicationsRecently, a group of researchers in Disney's use of 3D printing in the same effect with the organic glass high pervious to light plastic, at low cost to print out the LCD screen with a variety of sensors, realize the new breakthrough in the IT applications. Using 3D printing light pipe can produce high-tech international chess; the chesspieces can detect and display the current location. Although the monochrome screen compared with in the daily life, rich and colorful display some insignificant, but it has a 3D printing the advantages of low cost, simple manufacturing process. In addition to the display screen, the use of 3D printing will also be able to print out a variety of sensors. These sensors can be through the stimulation such as infrared light to detect touch, vibration, and the results output.3D printing will create more for life and wisdom city of IT applications.3 The development trend of 3D printing technology3D printing technology continues to develop, greatly reduce the cost ofthe already from research and development of niche space into the mainstream market, the momentum of development is unstoppable, has become a widespread concern and civil market rapidly emerging new areas.3D printing production model, the application of gifts, souvenirs and arts and crafts, greatly attracted social attention and investment, development speed, the market began to quantity and qualitative leap. It is predicted that in 2021, 3D printing products will account for 50% of the total production. In the next 10 years on the computer to complete the product design blueprint, gently press the \key,3D printers can bit by bit with the designed model. Now some foundryenterprises began to develop selective laser sintering, 3D printer and its application to complex casting time reduced from 3 months to 10 days. Engine manufacturers through 3D printing, large six-cylinder diesel engine cylinder head of sand core development cycles, reduced to 1 week from the past 5 months. The biggest advantage of 3D printing is to expand the designers’ imagination space. As long as you can on the computer design into 3D graphics, whether is different styles of dress, elegant handicraft, or personalized car, as long as can solve the problem of material, can achieve 3D printing.With 3D printing technology breakthroughs, constantly improved increasingly, the new material of 3D printing in improving speed, size, its technology is constantly optimized, expanding application fields, especiallyin the field of graphic art potential, producer of the concept of 3D model can better communicate ideas or solutions, a picture can be more than a fewhundred or even thousands of words of description.Professionals believe that personalized or customized 3D printing can be envisioned a real-time 3D model in the eyes, can quickly improve product, growth will be more than imagine, will shape the future of socialapplications.3D printing technology to eliminate traditional production line, shorten the production cycle, greatly reduce production waste, raw materials consumption will be reduced to a fraction of the original.3D printing is not only cost savings, improve production precision, also will make up for the inadequacy of traditional manufacturing, and will rise rapidly in the civilian market, thus opening a new era of manufacturing, bring new opportunities and hope for the printing industry. 译文3D打印技术及其应用Paul G摘要3D打印技术在工业产品设计，特别是数字产品模型制造领域的应用正在成为一种潮流和热门话题。

(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文翻译译文CP2102 USB转UART芯片数据手册单芯片USB数据传输到UART-- 综合USB收发器无需外部电阻要求-- 集成的时钟无需外部晶振体要求-- 综合1024-Byte EEPROM用于产品的供应商ID,ID,序列号，电源描述，版本号和产品描述字符串-- 片上电复位电路-- 片上电压调节器：3.3v电压输出-- 100%引脚和软件兼容与CP2101USB功能控制器-- USB规范2.0标准：（全速12 Mbps）-- USB暂停支持国家通过悬浮pins异步串行数据总线（UART）-- 所有的握手和调制解调器借口信号-- 数据格式支持- 数据bits：5，6，7和8- 停止bits：1，1.5和2- 校验：奇，偶，标记，空间，无校验-- 波特率：300 bps到1兆位-- 567字节的接受缓冲区；640字节的发送缓冲区-- 支持硬件或X-On/X-Off 握手-- Event字符支持-- 输电线路中断虚拟设备驱动程序COM口-- 使用现有的COM端口的PC应用-- 免版税发行许可证于Windows Vista / XP / 服务器2003 / 2000 / 1998SE-- 苹果OS-X / 0S-9-- LinuxUSB Express 直接驱动器支持-- 免版税发行许可证-- 于Windows Vista / XP / 服务器2003 / 2000-- 视窗CE 5.0 和4.2应用实例-- 传统设备的RS-232升级到USB-- 蜂巢式电话USB接口电缆-- PDA USB 接口电缆-- USB到RS-232 串行适配器电源电压-- 自供电：3.0 v到3.6 vUSB总线供电：4.0 v到5.25 v包装-- 无铅28-pin QFN （5 * 5mm）订购零件编号-- CP2102-GM温度范围：-40到+85摄氏度图1. 系统功能电路1.系统概述该CP2102是一个高度集成的USB-UART桥控制器提供了一个简单的解决方案更新RS-232设计，USB使用的组件和PCB空间最小，该CP2102包括USB2.0全速功能控制器，USB收发器，振荡器和带有全部的调制解调器控制信号的异步串行数据总线（UART），全部功能集成在一个5 * 5 mm MIP-28封装的IC中，无需其他的外部USB元件，片内EEPROM可用于由原始设备制造商自定义USB 供应商代码、产品代码、产品描述文字、功率标牌、版本号和元件序列号等数据的存储空间。

有关零售超市毕业设计外文翻译毕业设计（论文）外文翻译题目对零售超市数据进行最优产品选择的数据挖掘框架：广义PROFSET模型专业网络工程附录英文原文A Data Mining Framework for OptimalProduct Selection in Retail Supermarket Data:The Generalized PROFSET Model1 IntroductionSince almost all mid to large size retailers today possess electronic sales transaction Systems, retailers realize that competitive advantage will no longer be achieved by the mere use of these systems for purposes of inventory management or facilitating customer check-out. In contrast, competitive advantage will be gained by those retailers who are able to extract the knowledge hidden in the data, generated by those systems, and use it to optimize their marketing decision making. In this context, knowledge about how customers are using the retail store is of critical importance and distinctive competencies will be built by those retailers who best succeed in extracting actionable knowledge from these1data. Association rule mining [2] can help retailers to efficiently extract this knowledge from large retail databases. We assume some familiarity with the basic notions of association rule mining.In recent years, a lot of effort in the area of retail market basket analysis has been invested in the development of techniques to increase the interestingness of association rules. Currently, in essence three different research tracks to study the interestingness of association rules can be distinguished. First, a number of objective measures of interestingness have been developed in order to filter out non-interesting association rules based on a number of statistical properties of the rules, such as support and confidence [2], interest [14], intensity of implication [7], J-measure [15], and correlation [12]. Other measures are based on the syntactical properties of the rules [11], or they are used to discover the least-redundant set of rules [4]. Second, it was recognized that domain knowledge may also play an important role in determining the interestingness of association rules. Therefore, a number of subjective measures2of interestingness have been put forward, such as unexpectedness [13], action ability [1] and rule templates [10]. Finally, the most recent stream of research advocates the evaluation of the interestingness of associations in the light of themicro-economic framework of the retailer [9]. More specifically, a pattern in the data is considered interesting only to the extent in which it can be used in the decision-making process of the enterprise to increase its utility.It is in this latter stream of research that the authors have previously developed a model for product selection called PROFSET [3], that takes into account both quantitative and qualitative elements of retail domain knowledge in order to determine the set of products that yields maximum cross-selling profits. The key idea of the model is that products should not be selected based on their individual profitability, but rather on the total profitability that they generate, including profits from cross-selling. However, in its previous form, one major drawback of the model was its inability to deal with3supermarket data (i.e., large baskets). To overcome this limitation, in this paper we will propose an important generalization of the existing PROFSET model that will effectively deal with large baskets. Furthermore, we generalize the model to include category management principles specified by the retailer in order to make the output of the model even more realistic. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we will focus on the limitations of the previous PROFSET model for product selection. In Section 3, we will introduce the generalized PROFSET model. Section 4 will be devoted to the empirical implementation of the model and its results on real-world supermarket data. Finally, Section 5 will be reserved for conclusions and further research.2 The PROFSET ModelThe key idea of the PROFSET model is that when evaluating the business value of a product, one should not only look at the individual profits generated by that product (the naive approach), but one must also4take into account the profits due tocross-selling effects with other products in the assortment. Therefore, to evaluate product profitability, it is essential to look at frequent sets rather than at individual product items since the former represent frequently co-occurring product combinations in the market baskets of the customer. As was also stressed by Cabena et al. [5], one disadvantage of associations discovery is that there is no provision for taking into account the business value of an association. The PROFSET model was a first attempt to solve this problem. Indeed, in terms of the associations discovered, the sale of an expensive bottle of wine with oysters accounts for as much as the sale of a carton of milk with cereal. This example illustrates that, when evaluating the interestingness of associations, themicro-economic framework of the retailer should be incorporated. PROFSET was developed to maximize cross-selling opportunities by evaluating the profit margin generated per frequent set of products, rather than per product. In the next Section we will discuss the limitations5of the previous PROFSET model. More details can be found elsewhere [3].2.1 LimitationsThe previous PROFSET model was specifically developed for market basket data from automated convenience stores. Data sets of this origin are characterized by small market baskets (size 2 or 3) because customers typically do not purchase many items during a single shopping visit. Therefore, the profit margin generated per frequent purchase combination (X) could accurately be approximated by adding the profit margins of the market baskets (Tj) containing the same set of items, i.e. X = Tj. However, for supermarket data, the existing formulation of the PROFSET model poses significant problems since the size of market baskets typically exceeds the size of frequent item sets. Indeed, in supermarket data, frequent item sets mostly do not contain more than 7 different products, whereas the size of the average market basket is typically 10 to 15. As a result, the existing profit allocation heuristic cannot be used anymore since it would cause the6model to heavily underestimate the profit potential from cross-selling effects between products. However, getting rid of this heuristic is not trivial and it will be discussed in detail in Section 3.1.A second limitation of the existing PROFSET model relates to principles of category management. Indeed, there is an increasing trend in retailing to manage product categories as separate strategic business units [6]. In other words, because of the trend to offer more products, retailers can no longer evaluate and manage each product individually. Instead, they define product categories and define marketing actions (such as promotions or store layout) on the level of these categories. The generalized PROFSET model takes this domain knowledge into account and therefore offers the retailer the ability to specify product categories and place restrictions on them.3 The Generalized PROFSET ModelIn this section, we will highlight the improvements being made to the previous7PROFSET model [3].3.1 Profit AllocationAvoiding the equality constraint X = Tj results in different possible profit allocation systems. Indeed, it is important to recognize that the margin of transaction Tj can potentially be allocated to different frequent subsets of that transaction. In other words, how should the margin m (Tj) be allocated to one or more different frequent subsets of Tj?The idea here is that we would like to know the purchase intentions of the customer who bought Tj . Unfortunately, since the customer has already left the store, we do not possess this information. However, if we can assume that some items occur more frequently together than others because they are considered complementary by customers, then frequent item sets may be interpreted as purchase intentions of customers. Consequently, there is the additional problem of finding out which and how many purchase intentions are represented in a particular transaction Tj . Indeed, a transaction may contain several8frequent subsets of different sizes, so it is not straightforward to determine which frequent sets represent the underlying purchase intentions of the customer at the time of shopping. Before proposing a solution to this problem, we will first define the concept of a maximal frequent subset of a transaction.Definition 1. Let F be the collection of all frequent subsets of a sales transaction Tj . Then YX∈is called maximal, denoted as X max , if and only if.F∀: Y X≤.Y∈Using this definition, we will adopt the following rationale to allocate the margin m(Tj) of a sales transaction Tj .If there exists a frequent set X = Tj, then we allocate m(Tj) to M(X), just as in the previous PROFSET model. However, if there is no such frequent set, then one maximal frequent subset X will be drawn from all maximal frequent subsets according to the probability distribution Tjθ, withAfter this, the margin m(X) is assigned toM(X) and the process is repeated for Tj \ X. In summary:Table 1 contains all frequent subsets of T for a particular transaction database. Inthis example, there is no unique maximal frequent subset of T. Indeed, there are two maximal frequent subsets of T, namely {cola, peanuts} and {peanuts, cheese}. Consequently, it is not obvious to which maximal frequent subset the profit margin m(T) should be allocated. Moreover, we would not allocate the entire profit margin m(T) to the selected item set, but rather the proportion m(X) that corresponds to the items contained in the selected maximal subset.Now how can one determine to which of both frequent subsets of T this marginshould be allocated? As we have already discussed, the crucial idea here is that it really depends on what has been the purchase intentions of the customer who purchased T. Unfortunately, one can never know exactly since we haven't asked the customer at the time of purchase. However, the support of the frequent subsets of T may provide some probabilistic estimation. Indeed, if the support of a frequent subset is an indicator for the probability of occurrence of this purchase combination, then according to the data, customers buy the maximal subset {cola, peanuts} two times more frequently than the maximal subset {peanuts, cheese}. Consequently, we can say that it is more likely that the customer's purchase intention has been {cola, peanuts} instead of {peanuts, cheese}. This information is used to construct the probability distribution Tjθ, reflecting the relative frequencies of the frequent subsets of T. Now, each time a sales transaction {cola, peanuts, cheese} is encountered in the data, a random draw from the probability distribution Tjθwill provide the most probable purchase intention (i.e. frequentsubset) for that transaction. Consequently, on average in two of the three times this transaction is encountered, maximal subset {cola, peanuts} will be selected and m({cola; peanuts}) will be allocated to M({cola; peanuts}). After this, T is split up as follows: T := T \{cola; peanuts}and the process of assigning the remaining margin is repeated as if the new T were a separate transaction, until T does not contain a frequent set anymore.3.2 Category Management RestrictionsAs pointed out in Section 2.1, a second limitation of the previous PROFSET model is its inability to include category management restrictions. This sometimes causes the model to exclude even all products from one or more categories because they do not contribute enough to the overall profitability of the optimal set. This often contradicts with the mission of retailers to offer customers a wide range of products, even if some of those categories or products are not profitable enough. Indeed, customers expect supermarkets to carry a wide variety of products and cutting away categories / departments would be against the customers' expectations about the supermarket and would harm the store's image. Therefore, we want to offer the retailer the ability to include category restrictions into the generalized PROFSET model.This can be accomplished by adding an additional index k to theQ to account for category membership, and by adding product variableiconstraints on the category level. Several kinds of category restrictions can be introduced: which and how many categories should be included in the optimal set, or how many products from each category should be included. The relevance of these restrictions can be illustrated by the following common practices in retailing. First, when composing a promotion leaflet, there is only limited space to display products and therefore it is important to optimize the product composition in order to maximize cross-selling effects between products and avoid product cannibalization. Moreover, according to the particular retail environment, the retailer will include or exclude specific products or product categories in the leaflet. For example, the supermarket in this study attempts to differentiate from the competition by the following image components: fresh, profitable and friendly. Therefore, the promotion leaflet of the retailer emphasizes product categories that support this image, such as fresh vegetables and meat, freshly-baked bread, ready-made meals, and others. Second, product category constraints may reflect shelf space allocations to products. For instance, large categories have more product facings than smaller categories. These kind of constraints can easily be included in the generalized PROFSET model as will be discussed hereafter.中文翻译对零售超市数据进行最优产品选择的数据挖掘框架：广义PROFSET模型第一章引言当今几乎所有的中大型零售商拥有电子销售交易系统，零售商认识到，竞争优势将不再仅仅取决于使用这些系统管理目的的库存或便利客户退房。

中英文资料对照外文翻译微控制器早期的单片机都是8位或4位的。

其中最成功的是INTEL的8031 因为简单可靠而性能不错获得了很大的好评。

此后在8031上发展出了MCS51系列单片机系统。

基于这一系统的单片机系统直到现在还在广泛使用。

随着工业控制领域要求的提高开始出现了16位单片机但因为性价比不理想并未得到很广泛的应用。

90年代后随着消费电子产品大发展单片机技术得到了巨大提高。

随着INTEL i960系列特别是后来的ARM系列的广泛应用 32位单片机迅速取代16位单片机的高端地位并且进入主流市场。

而传统的8位单片机的性能也得到了飞速提高处理能力比起80年代提高了数百倍。

目前高端的32位单片机主频已经超过300MHz 性能直追90年代中期的专用处理器而普通的型号出厂价格跌落至1美元最高端[1]的型号也只有10美元。

当代单片机系统已经不再只在裸机环境下开发和使用大量专用的嵌入式操作系统被广泛应用在全系列的单片机上。

而在作为掌上电脑和手机核心处理的高端单片机甚至可以直接使用专用的Windows和Linux操作系统。

单片机也被称为微控制器MICROCONTROLLER UNIT常用英文字母的缩写MCU表示单片机它最早是被用在工业控制领域。

单片机由芯片内仅有CPU的专用处理器发展而来。

最早的设计理念是通过将大量外围设备和CPU集成在一个芯片中使计算机系统更小更容易集成进复杂的而对体积要求严格的控制设备当中。

INTEL的Z80是最早按照这种思想设计出的处理器从此以后单片机和专用处理器的发展便分道扬镳。

单片机比专用处理器更适合应用于嵌入式系统因此它得到了最多的应用。

事实上单片机是世界上数量最多的计算机。

现代人类生活中所用的几乎每件电子和机械产品中都会集成有单片机。

手机、电话、计算器、家用电器、电子玩具、掌上电脑以及鼠标等电脑配件中都配有1-2部单片机。

而个人电脑中也会有为数不少的单片机在工作。

汽车上一般配备40多部单片机复杂的工业控制系统上甚至可能有数百台单片机在同时工作单片机的数量不仅远超过PC机和其他计算的总和甚至比人类的数量还要多。

编号：毕业设计（论文）外文翻译（译文）学院：国防生学院专业：机械设计制造及其自动化学生姓名：学号：指导教师单位：姓名：职称：2014年3月9日目录快速成型与虚拟成型在产品设计和制造中的应用 (1)基于弯折的模具寿命预测 (9)快速成型与虚拟成型在产品设计和制造中的应用C.K.Chua1, S. H.Tech1,and R.K.Gay1School of Mechanical & Production Engineering; and Gintic Intitute of Manufacturing Techniology,Nanyang Technological University,Singapore引言快速成型是一种从不需任何加工或数控加工程序就得到实体形状的加工过程。

这种技术归诸与阶段制造，材料储存制造业，剩余材料制造，固体形式制造和立体印刷。

在前十年中，一批RP技术得到了发展。

在制造模型中这些技术应用不同的方法和材料，给出不同的收缩量，表面精度和准确度。

VP是一种已经成熟的在计算机模式下执行分析和模拟。

近而像基于实体上一样执行同样的测试。

有时，VP也会涉及到CAE分析和工程模拟。

本论文就着两种技术的联系描述了它们的对比研究。

这次课题研究了两种技术在成型方面的适用性和效率。

这只是总体设计和制造中的一个环节。

关键词：产品设计，快速成型，虚拟成型1. 前言RP做为一种关键的技术正在发展。

它能迅速成型出复杂的零件。

它还能使产品设计人员缩短产品设计和开发周期。

即将到来的这种技术的时代已在当今的CAD系统中的STL反映出来。

STL是一种德国标准，在RP系统中代表实体3D模型。

当RP是一种较新的技术时，VP已经在70年代很多领域里得到了稳定的发展。

采用虚拟成型意味着在计算机上分析3D模型。

现在VP通常综合了CAD/CAM软件，并且涉及到CAE文件包。

RP能在不首先制造这个零件时用一种模拟的方式来测试零件的情况。

Process simulation in stamping – recentapplications for product and process designAbstractProcess simulation for product and process design is currently being practiced in industry. However, a number of input variables have a significant effect on the accuracy and reliability of computer predictions. A study was conducted to evaluate the capability of FE-simulations for predicting part characteristics and process conditions in forming complex-shaped, industrial parts.In industrial applications, there are two objectives for conducting FE-simulations of the stamping process; (1) to optimize the product design by analyzing formability at the product design stage and (2) to reduce the tryout time and cost in process design by predicting the deformation process in advance during the die design stage. For each of these objectives, two kinds of FE-simulations are applied. Pam-Stamp, an incremental dynamic-explicit FEM code released by Engineering Systems Int'l, matches the second objective well because it can deal with most of the practical stamping parameters. FAST_FORM3D, a one-step FEM code released by Forming Technologies, matches the first objective because it only requires the part geometry and not the complex process information.In a previous study, these two FE codes were applied to complex-shaped parts used in manufacturing automobiles and construction machinery. Their capabilities in predicting formability issues in stamping were evaluated. This paper reviews the results of this study and summarizes the recommended procedures for obtaining accurate and reliable results from FE simulations.In another study, the effect of controlling the blank holder force (BHF) during the deep drawing of hemispherical, dome-bottomed cups was investigated. The standard automotive aluminum-killed, drawing-quality (AKDQ) steel was used as well as high performance materials such as high strength steel, bake hard steel, and aluminum 6111. It was determined that varying the BHF as a function of stroke improved the strain distributions in the domed cups.Keywords: Stamping; Process ;stimulation; Process design1. IntroductionThe design process of complex shaped sheet metal stampings such as automotive panels, consists of many stages of decision making and is a very expensive and time consuming process. Currently in industry, many engineering decisions are made based on the knowledge of experienced personnel and these decisions are typically validated during the soft tooling and prototyping stage and during hard die tryouts. Very often the soft and hard tools must be reworked or even redesigned and remanufactured to provide parts with acceptable levels of quality.The best case scenario would consist of the process outlined in Fig. 1. In this design process, the experienced product designer would have immediate feedback using a specially design software called one-step FEM to estimate the formability of their design. This would allow the product designer to make necessary changes up front as opposed to down the line after expensive tooling has been manufactured. One-step FEM is particularly suited for product analysis since it does not require binder, addendum, or even most process conditions. Typically this information is not available during the product design phase. One-step FEM is also easy to use and computationally fast, which allows the designer to play “what if” without much time investment.Fig. 1. Proposed design process for sheet metal stampings.Once the product has been designed and validated, the development project would enter the “time zero” phase and be passed onto the die designer. The die designer would validate his/her design with an incremental FEM code and make necessary design changes and perhaps even optimize the process parameters to ensure not just minimum acceptability of part quality, but maximum achievable quality. This increases product quality but also increase process robustness. Incremental FEM is particularly suited for die design analysis since it does require binder, addendum, and process conditions which are either known during die design or desired to be known.The validated die design would then be manufactured directly into the hard production tooling and be validated with physical tryouts during which the prototype parts would be made. Tryout time should be decreased due to the earlier numerical validations. Redesign and remanufacturing of the tooling due to unforeseen forming problems should be a thing of the past. The decrease in tryout time and elimination of redesign/remanufacturing should more than make up for the time used to numerically validate the part, die, and process.Optimization of the stamping process is also of great importance to producers of sheet stampings. By modestly increasing one's investment in presses, equipment, and tooling used in sheet forming, one may increase one's control over the stamping process tremendously. It has been well documented that blank holder force is one of the most sensitive process parameters in sheet forming and therefore can be used to precisely control the deformation process.By controlling the blank holder force as a function of press stroke AND position around the binder periphery, one can improve the strain distribution of the panel providing increased panel strength and stiffness, reduced springback and residual stresses, increased product quality and process robustness. An inexpensive, but industrial quality system is currently being developed at the ERC/NSM using a combination of hydraulics and nitrogen and is shown in Fig. 2. Using BHF control can also allow engineers to design more aggressive panels to take advantage the increased formability window provided by BHF control.Fig. 2. Blank holder force control system and tooling being developed at the ERC/NSM labs.Three separate studies were undertaken to study the various stages of the design process. The next section describes a study of the product design phase in which the one-step FEM code FAST_FORM3D (Forming Technologies) was validated with a laboratory and industrial part and used to predict optimal blank shapes. Section 4 summarizes a study of the die design stage in which an actual industrial panel was used to validate the incremental FEM code Pam-Stamp (Engineering Systems Int'l). Section 5 covers a laboratory study of the effect of blank holder force control on the strain distributions in deep drawn, hemispherical, dome-bottomed cups.2. Product simulation – applicationsThe objective of this investigation was to validate FAST_FORM3D, to determine FAST_FORM3D's blank shape prediction capability, and to determine how one-step FEM can be implemented into the product design process. Forming Technologies has provided their one-step FEM code FAST_FORM3D and training to the ERC/NSM for the purpose of benchmarking and research. FAST_FORM3D does not simulate the deformation history. Instead it projects the final part geometry onto a flat plane or developable surface and repositions the nodes and elements until a minimum energy state is reached. This process is computationally faster than incremental simulations like Pam-Stamp, but also makes more assumptions. FAST_FORM3D can evaluate formability and estimate optimal blank geometries and is a strong tool for product designers due to its speed and ease of use particularly during the stage when the die geometry is not available.In order to validate FAST_FORM3D, we compared its blank shape prediction with analytical blank shape prediction methods. The part geometry used was a 5 in. deep 12 in. by 15 in. rectangular pan with a 1 in. flange as shown in Fig. 3. Table 1 lists the process conditions used. Romanovski's empirical blank shape method and the slip line field method was used to predict blank shapes for this part which are shown in Fig. 4.Fig. 3. Rectangular pan geometry used for FAST_FORM3D validation. Table 1. Process parameters used for FAST_FORM3D rectangular pan validationFig. 4. Blank shape design for rectangular pans using hand calculations. (a) Romanovski's empirical method; (b) slip line field analytical method.Fig. 5(a) shows the predicted blank geometries from the Romanovski method, slip line field method, and FAST_FORM3D. The blank shapes agree in the corner area, but differ greatly in the side regions. Fig. 5(b)–(c) show the draw-in pattern after the drawing process of the rectangular pan as simulated by Pam-Stamp for each of the predicted blank shapes. The draw-in patterns for all three rectangular pans matched in the corners regions quite well. The slip line field method, though, did not achieve the objective 1 in. flange in the side region, while the Romanovski and FAST_FORM3Dmethods achieved the 1 in. flange in the side regions relatively well. Further, only the FAST_FORM3D blank agrees in the corner/side transition regions. Moreover, the FAST_FORM3D blank has a better strain distribution and lower peak strain than Romanovski as can be seen in Fig. 6.Fig. 5. Various blank shape predictions and Pam-Stamp simulation results for therectangular pan.(a) Three predicted blank shapes; (b) deformed slip line field blank; (c) deformed Romanovski blank; (d) deformed FAST_FORM3D blank.Fig. 6. Comparison of strain distribution of various blank shapes using Pam-Stamp forthe rectangular pan.(a) Deformed Romanovski blank; (b) deformed FAST_FORM3D blank.To continue this validation study, an industrial part from the Komatsu Ltd. was chosen and is shown in Fig. 7(a). We predicted an optimal blank geometry with FAST_FORM3D and compared it with the experimentally developed blank shape as shown in Fig. 7(b). As seen, the blanks are similar but have some differences.Fig. 7. FAST_FORM3D simulation results for instrument cover validation. (a) FAST_FORM3D's formability evaluation; (b) comparison of predicted and experimental blank geometries.Next we simulated the stamping of the FAST_FORM3D blank and the experimental blank using Pam-Stamp. We compared both predicted geometries to the nominal CADgeometry (Fig. 8) and found that the FAST_FORM3D geometry was much more accurate. A nice feature of FAST_FORM3D is that it can show a “failure” contour plot of the part with respect to a failure limit curve which is shown in Fig. 7(a). In conclusion, FAST_FORM3D was successful at predicting optimal blank shapes for a laboratory and industrial parts. This indicates that FAST_FORM3D can be successfully used to assess formability issues of product designs. In the case of the instrument cover, many hours of trial and error experimentation could have been eliminated by using FAST_FORM3D and a better blank shape could have been developed.Fig. 8. Comparison of FAST_FORM3D and experimental blank shapes for theinstrument cover.(a) Experimentally developed blank shape and the nominal CAD geometry; (b) FAST_FORM3D optimal blank shape and the nominal CAD geometry.3. Die and process simulation – applicationsIn order to study the die design process closely, a cooperative study was conducted by Komatsu Ltd. of Japan and the ERC/NSM. A production panel with forming problems was chosen by Komatsu. This panel was the excavator's cabin, left-hand inner panel shown in Fig. 9. The geometry was simplified into an experimental laboratory die, while maintaining the main features of the panel. Experiments were conducted at Komatsu using the process conditions shown in Table 2. A forming limit diagram (FLD) was developed for the drawing-quality steel using dome tests and a vision strain measurement system and is shown in Fig. 10. Three blank holder forces (10, 30, and 50 ton) were used in the experiments to determine its effect. Incremental simulations of each experimental condition was conducted at the ERC/NSM using Pam-Stamp.Fig. 9. Actual product – cabin inner panel.Table 2. Process conditions for the cabin inner investigationFig. 10. Forming limit diagram for the drawing-quality steel used in the cabin innerinvestigation.At 10 ton, wrinkling occurred in the experimental parts as shown in Fig. 11. At 30 ton, the wrinkling was eliminated as shown in Fig. 12. These experimental observations were predicted with Pam-stamp simulations as shown in Fig. 13. The 30 ton panel was measured to determine the material draw-in pattern. These measurements are compared with the predicted material draw-in in Fig. 14. Agreement was very good, with a maximum error of only 10 mm. A slight neck was observed in the 30 ton panel as shown in Fig. 13. At 50 ton, an obvious fracture occurred in the panel.Fig. 11. Wrinkling in laboratory cabin inner panel, BHF=10 ton.Fig. 12. Deformation stages of the laboratory cabin inner and necking, BHF=30 ton.(a) Experimental blank; (b) experimental panel, 60% formed; (c) experimental panel, fully formed;(d) experimental panel, necking detail.Fig. 13. Predication and elimination of wrinkling in the laboratory cabin inner.(a) Predicted geometry, BHF=10 ton; (b) predicted geometry, BHF=30 ton.Fig. 14. Comparison of predicted and measured material draw-in for lab cabin inner,BHF=30 ton.Strains were measured with the vision strain measurement system for each panel, and the results are shown in Fig. 15. The predicted strains from FEM simulations for each panel are shown in Fig. 16. The predictions and measurements agree well regarding the strain distributions, but differ slightly on the effect of BHF. Although the trendsare represented, the BHF tends to effect the strains in a more localized manner in the simulations when compared to the measurements. Nevertheless, these strain prediction show that Pam-Stamp correctly predicted the necking and fracture which occurs at 30 and 50 ton. The effect of friction on strain distribution was also investigated with simulations and is shown in Fig. 17.Fig. 15. Experimental strain measurements for the laboratory cabin inner. (a) measured strain, BHF=10 ton (panel wrinkled); (b) measured strain, BHF=30 ton (panel necked); (c) measured strain, BHF =50 ton (panel fractured).Fig. 16. FEM strain predictions for the laboratory cabin inner.(a) Predicted strain, BHF=10 ton; (b) predicted strain, BHF=30 ton; (c) predicted strain, BHF=50 ton.Fig. 17. Predicted effect of friction for the laboratory cabin inner, BHF=30 ton. (a) Predicted strain, μ=0.06; (b) predicted strain, μ=0.10.A summary of the results of the comparisons is included in Table 3. This table shows that the simulations predicted the experimental observations at least as well as the strain measurement system at each of the experimental conditions. This indicates that Pam-Stamp can be used to assess formability issues associated with the die design.Table 3. Summary results of cabin inner study4. Blank holder force control – applicationsThe objective of this investigation was to determine the drawability of various, high performance materials using a hemispherical, dome-bottomed, deep drawn cup (see Fig. 18) and to investigate various time variable blank holder force profiles. The materials that were investigated included AKDQ steel, high strength steel, bake hard steel, and aluminum 6111 (see Table 4). Tensile tests were performed on these materials to determine flow stress and anisotropy characteristics for analysis and for input into the simulations (see Fig. 19 and Table 5).Fig. 18. Dome cup tooling geometry.Table 4. Material used for the dome cup studyFig. 19. Results of tensile tests of aluminum 6111, AKDQ, high strength, and bake hard steels.(a) Fractured tensile specimens; (b) Stress/strain curves.Table 5. Tensile test data for aluminum 6111, AKDQ, high strength, and bake hard steelsIt is interesting to note that the flow stress curves for bake hard steel and AKDQ steel were very similar except for a 5% reduction in elongation for bake hard. Although, the elongations for high strength steel and aluminum 6111 were similar, the n-value for aluminum 6111 was twice as large. Also, the r-value for AKDQ was much bigger than 1, while bake hard was nearly 1, and aluminum 6111 was much less than 1.The time variable BHF profiles used in this investigation included constant, linearly decreasing, and pulsating (see Fig. 20). The experimental conditions for AKDQ steel were simulated using the incremental code Pam-Stamp. Examples of wrinkled, fractured, and good laboratory cups are shown in Fig. 21 as well as an image of a simulated wrinkled cup.Fig. 20. BHF time-profiles used for the dome cup study.(a) Constant BHF; (b) ramp BHF; (c) pulsating BHF.Fig. 21. Experimental and simulated dome cups.(a) Experimental good cup; (b) experimental fractured cup; (c) experimental wrinkled cup; (d) simulated wrinkled cup.Limits of drawability were experimentally investigated using constant BHF. The results of this study are shown in Table 6. This table indicates that AKDQ had the largest drawability window while aluminum had the smallest and bake hard and high strength steels were in the middle. The strain distributions for constant, ramp, and pulsating BHF are compared experimentally in Fig. 22 and are compared with simulations in Fig. 23 for AKDQ. In both simulations and experiments, it was found that the ramp BHF trajectory improved the strain distribution the best. Not only were peak strains reduced by up to 5% thereby reducing the possibility of fracture, but low strain regions were increased. This improvement in strain distribution can increase product stiffness and strength, decrease springback and residual stresses, increase product quality and process robustness.Table 6. Limits of drawability for dome cup with constant BHFFig. 22. Experimental effect of time variable BHF on engineering strain in an AKDQ steel dome cup.Fig. 23. Simulated effect of time variable BHF on true strain in an AKDQ steel dome cup.Pulsating BHF, at the frequency range investigated, was not found to have an effect on strain distribution. This was likely due to the fact the frequency of pulsation that was tested was only 1 Hz. It is known from previous experiments of other researchers that proper frequencies range from 5 to 25 Hz [3]. A comparison of load-stroke curves from simulation and experiments are shown in Fig. 24 for AKDQ. Good agreement was found for the case where μ=0.08. This indicates that FEM simulations can be used to assess the formability improvements that can be obtained by using BHF control techniques.Fig. 24. Comparison of experimental and simulated load-stroke curves for an AKDQ steel dome cup.5 Conclusions and future workIn this paper, we evaluated an improved design process for complex stampings which involved eliminating the soft tooling phase and incorporated the validation of product and process using one-step and incremental FEM simulations. Also, process improvements were proposed consisting of the implementation of blank holder force control to increase product quality and process robustness.Three separate investigations were summarized which analyzed various stages in the design process. First, the product design phase was investigated with a laboratory and industrial validation of the one-step FEM code FAST_FORM3D and its ability to assess formability issues involved in product design. FAST_FORM3D was successful at predicting optimal blank shapes for a rectangular pan and an industrial instrument cover. In the case of the instrument cover, many hours of trial and error experimentation could have been eliminated by using FAST_FORM3D and a better blank shape could have been developed.Second, the die design phase was investigated with a laboratory and industrial validation of the incremental code Pam-Stamp and its ability to assess forming issuesassociated with die design. This investigation suggested that Pam-Stamp could predict strain distribution, wrinkling, necking, and fracture at least as well as a vision strain measurement system at a variety of experimental conditions.Lastly, the process design stage was investigated with a laboratory study of the quality improvements that can be realized with the implementation of blank holder force control techniques. In this investigation, peak strains in hemispherical, dome-bottomed, deep drawn cups were reduced by up to 5% thereby reducing the possibility of fracture, and low strain regions were increased. This improvement in strain distribution can increase product stiffness and strength, decrease springback and residual stresses, increase product quality and process robustness. It can be expected that improvements in drawability would be further enhanced by optimizing the variation of the BHF in function of time. Further, good agreement was found for experimentally measured and numerically predicted load-stroke curves indicating that FEM simulations can be used to assess the formability improvements that can be obtained using BHF control techniques.Die position in industrial productionMold is a high-volume products with the shape tool, is the main process of industrial production equipment.With mold components, with high efficiency, good quality, low cost, saving energy and raw materials and a series of advantages, with the mold workpieces possess high accuracy, high complexity, high consistency, high productivity and low consumption , other manufacturing methods can not match. Have already become an important means of industrial production and technological development. The basis of the modern industrial economy.The development of modern industrial and technological level depends largely on the level of industrial development die, so die industry to national economic and social development will play an increasing role. March 1989 the State Council promulgated "on the current industrial policy decision points" in the mold as the machinery industry transformation sequence of the first, production and capital construction of the second sequence (after the large-scale power generation equipment and the corresponding power transmission equipment), establish tooling industry in an important position in the national economy. Since 1997, they have to mold and its processing technology and equipment included in the "current national focus on encouraging the development of industries, products and technologies catalog" and "to encourage foreign investment industry directory." Approved by the State Council, from 1997 to 2000, more than 80 professional mold factory owned 70% VAT refund of preferential policies to support mold industry. All these have fully demonstrated the development of the State Council and state departments tooling industry attention and support. Mold around the world about the current annual output of 60 billion U.S. dollars, Japan, the United States and other industrialized countries die of industrial output value of more than machine tool industry, beginning in 1997, China's industrial output value has exceeded the mold machine tool industry output.According to statistics, home appliances, toys and other light industries, nearly 90% of the parts are integrated with production of chopsticks; in aircraft, automobiles,agricultural machinery and radio industries, the proportion exceeded 60%. Such as aircraft manufacturing, the use of a certain type of fighter dies more than 30,000 units, of which the host 8000 sets, 2000 sets of engines, auxiliary 20 000 sets. From the output of view, since the 80's, the United States, Japan and other industrialized countries die industry output value has exceeded the machine tool industry, and there are still rising. Production technology, according to the International Association predicts that in 2000, the product best pieces of rough 75%, 50% will be finished mold completed; metals, plastics, ceramics, rubber, building materials and otherindustrial products, most of the mold will be completed in more than 50% metal . The 19th century, with the arms industry (gun's shell), watch industry, radio industry, dies are widely used. After World War II, with the rapid development of world economy, it became a mass production of household appliances, automobiles, electronic equipment, cameras, watches and other parts the best way. From a global perspective, when the United States in the forefront of stamping technology - many die of advanced technologies, such as simple mold, high efficiency, mold, die and stamping the high life automation, mostly originated in the United States; and Switzerland, fine blanking, cold in Germany extrusion technology, plastic processing of the Soviet Union are at the world advanced. 50's, mold industry focus is based on subscriber demand, production can meet the product requirements of the mold. Multi-die design rule of thumb, reference has been drawing and perceptual knowledge, on the design of mold parts of a lack of real understanding of function. From 1955 to 1965, is the pressure processing of exploration and development of the times - the main components of the mold and the stress state of the function of a mathematical sub-bridge, and to continue to apply to on-site practical knowledge to make stamping technology in all aspects of a leap in development. The result is summarized mold design principles, and makes the pressure machine, stamping materials, processing methods, plum with a structure, mold materials, mold manufacturing method, the field of automation devices, a new look to the practical direction of advance, so that pressing processing apparatus capable of producing quality products from the first stage.Into the 70's to high speed, launch technology, precision, security, development of the second stage. Continue to emerge in this process a variety of high efficiency, business life, high-precision multi-functional automatic school to help with. Represented by the number of working places as much as other progressive die and dozens of multi-station transfer station module. On this basis, has developed both acontinuous pressing station there are more slide forming station of the press - bending machine. In the meantime, the Japanese stand to the world's largest - the mold into the micron-level precision, die life, alloy tool steel mold has reached tens of millions of times, carbide steel mold to each of hundreds of millions of times p minutes for stamping the number of small presses usually 200 to 300, up to 1200 times to 1500 times. In the meantime, in order to meet product updates quickly, with the short duration (such as cars modified, refurbished toys, etc.) need a variety of economic-type mold, such as zinc alloy die down, polyurethane rubber mold, die steel skin, also has been very great development.From the mid-70s so far can be said that computer-aided design, supporting the continuous development of manufacturing technology of the times. With the precision and complexity of mold rising, accelerating the production cycle, the mold industry, the quality of equipment and personnel are required to improve. Rely on common processing equipment, their experience and skills can not meet the needs of mold. Since the 90's, mechanical and electronic technologies in close connection with the development of NC machine tools, such as CNC wire cutting machine, CNC EDM, CNC milling, CNC coordinate grinding machine and so on. The use of computer automatic programming, control CNC machine tools to improve the efficiency in the use and scope. In recent years, has developed a computer to time-sharing by the way a group of direct management and control of CNC machine tools NNC system.With the development of computer technology, computers have gradually into the mold in all areas, including design, manufacturing and management. International Association for the Study of production forecasts to 2000, as a means of links between design and manufacturing drawings will lose its primary role. Automatic Design of die most fundamental point is to establish the mold standard and design standards. To get rid of the people of the past, and practical experience to judge the composition of the design center, we must take past experiences and ways of thinking, for series, numerical value, the number of type-based, as the design criteria to the computer store. Components are dry because of mold constitutes a million other differences, to come up with a can adapt to various parts of the design software almost impossible. But some products do not change the shape of parts, mold structure has certain rules, can be summed up for the automatic design of software. If a Japanese company's CDM system for progressive die design and manufacturing, including the importation of parts of the figure, rough start, strip layout, determine the size and。

The modern design method of the project of machinery productand deveolp trendAbstract:Under the current domestic and foreign scholars for mechanical design product design at the main thinking,product program design methods into a system, modular structure,the characteristics of knowledge-based products and intelligent four types.That the four methods and the characteristics of the organic inter-linkages, product design efforts Computer directionKey words:mechanical products;Program design;TrendINTRODUCTIONThe rapid scientific and technological development,product performance requirements of the growing number and complexity of increased life expectancy shortened.updating speed.However,the design of the products,especially machinery products in the design means,it appears powerless,lags behind the needs of the times.At present,computer-aided product design drawings,design,manufacture and production planning has been the subject of extensive and in-depth research and has achieved initial success,and the early stage of product development of computer-aided design program is far from meeting the design requirements.To this end,the author reading a lot of literature on the basis of summary of the design and scholars at home and abroad program design methods used in and discussed the various methods of organic link between the product and machinery design computer trend of development.Under the current domestic and foreign scholars for mechanical design product design methodology used in the main feature,The program will be of modern design methods summarized as the following four categories.1．Systematic DesignSystematic design of the main features:design as by a number of design elements of a system,Each element is independence between the various elements of an organiclink,and is layered,all combining elements of the design,system design can be realized for the taskSystematic design in the1970s by a German scholar Professor Pahl and Beitz. They system theory as a basis to formulate a general model designed to promote the design of rational should have.German Engineers Association in the design on the basis of formulate standards VDI2221technology systems and product development design methods.The mechanical product design process model,basically adopted the German standards VDI2221the design.In addition,Many scholars in China in product design program design and also quoted from other developed systematic design,which is representative：(1)The user needs functional characteristics as a product concept,design and structure of parts design,process planning,operational control of the foundation,and the macro-product development process,the use of quality function deployment,System users will demand information reasonably and efficiently converted to the various stages of product development objectives of the technical and operational control in order(2)The level of organisms as products of life,and the help of life-support systems theory,the product design process can be divided successfully demand levels,realize the concept of functional requirements and the level of product design level.While using the System icon lives abstract expression products to the functional requirements,and form functional product structure.(3)The mechanical design of science into two basic questions:First,to design the products as a system and to determine the best components(modules)and their mutual relations;Second,the process of product design as a system,based on the design goals,correctly,reasonably ascertain all aspects of design work and the various design stage.As each of the designers to study issues and consider the perspective of the different emphasis program used in the design of the specific research methods,there are also differences.Below introduced some representative systematic design methods.1.1Design Element MethodUsed five design elements(functions,effects,effects vector elements and the surface shape parameters)described"product solution"think of a product design of the five elements value is determined,all the characteristics of the products and eigen value already identified.My design scholars also used a similar method to describe the product's original understanding.1.2graphical modeling methodDeveloped an"analysis and design guidance system"KALEIT，with a clear level of graphic description of the product structure and the function of the abstract information,the realization of the structure,function graphical modeling,and the functional link between the layersWill be divided into design methods and supporting information exchange2, Nijssen Information Analysis using methods can be used graphic symbols,with rich semantic model structure,Integration can be described conditions can be classified types of constraints can be achieved between the arbitrary combination of features Will design solutions and information technology integration,and realizing the process of designing different abstraction layers of information between the graphical modeling.1.3"idea"--"design"Product design into"ideas"and"design"stage two."Concept"stage of the mission is to find,select and mix design tasks required to meet the original understanding. "Design"stage of the work is to realize the conceptual stage,the original understanding.The program will be"ideas"specific description:According to the functional structure suitable for the design tasks required to meet the original understanding. Functional structure of the sub-function by the"structural elements"to achieve,and "structural elements"of the physical link between the definition of"functional vector" "function vector"and"structural elements"of the interaction it has developed the functional diagram(mechanical movement schematic).The program"design"is based on the functional diagram,first of all qualitative description of the"functional vector" and"structural elements"further quantitative description of all the"structural elements" and the Connector("functional vector")the shape and location The structure diagram.Roper,ing graph theory,using his definition of"total design modules(GE)" "structural elements(KE)","functional elements(FKE)","connecting structure elements (VKE)""structural components(KT)","structural elements parts(KET)"concept And describes elements of the structure size,location and transmission parameters of the interaction between a number of diagrams,Expert design and intuitive design of a formal description of the formation of the effective application of existing knowledge, will be applied to the"concept"and"design"stage.Design methodology from the point of view of the clear mandate of the design work is divided into three steps Design:1)Access to function and functional structure (referred to as"functional");2)Find effects(referred to as the"effect");3)Find structure (referred to as"the configuration Rules").And the following four strategies used to describe the conceptual stage machinery products workflow:Strategy1:The consideration"functional""Effect"and"configuration rules."Therefore,it can be in various steps were created variant programs,which have an extensive understanding of the original spectrum.Strategy2:"Effect"and"configuration rules"(including designers create the rules)Association,considered in isolation function(usually associated with the design task).At this time,identify typical configuration rules and their effect needs plenty of experience.The program is far less than the spectrum of a strategy program spectrum.Strategy3:"functional"and"effect","configuration"closely related. Applicable to the function and effects of configuration rules and there is no room forchoice,with special requirements,such as ultra-small machinery,extra large machinery, high-value functional components,and special functional requirements of the parts and so on.Strategy4:According to the structural design requirements of the solution.The strategy from the existing parts,through different parts of the order and connect to achieve the desired function.1.4matrix design:In the program design process"requirements-function"logic tree("or"tree) Description,function of the interaction between,met the requirements of the functional design solution set to provide different design.According the"Request-functional"logic tree"requirement-function"associated matrix,Description to meet the functional requirements for the complex relationship between shows that the functional requirements and the relationship between he gathers.Kotaetal matrix mechanical system as a basis for designing programs,include mechanical systems design space for the functional decomposition of space,each of which only said that the design of a module,abstract stage in the senior,Each module movement and a transformation matrix can operate bound vector;Abstract stage in the low-rise,Each module is represented as a matrix and equations of motion.1.5bond graph:Will form a system into functional components to generate energy,energy consumption,changing energy forms,such as various types of energy transfer,Bonding and borrowing plans expression of functional components solutions,hope will be based on the functional model and Bond Graph integration,achieve functional structure of the automatic generation and functional structure and bonding between the map automatically converted,seek from the bond graph produce multiple design method.2The modular design structure:Products from the planning perspective:Definitions design tasks to the functional structure-based products,use existing product solutions(such as the common parts and components,etc.)to describe the design task that the decomposition of tasks on each task to consider whether there are corresponding product solutions,Thus,in the planning stage product design to eliminate possible contradictions,early production forecasts, costs,and the development of the design process of adjustment,which can improve design efficiency and reliability,while also reducing the cost of new product.Feldman will describe the design of the function of the product mix is divided into four tiers,(1) product→(2)functional components→(3)major functional components→(4) functional components.And using application-oriented features of the directory structure,the functional components for more specific qualitative and quantitative description.Meanwhile develop products suitable for the development of an early design stage and the use of the software tools STRAT.That the majority of machinery specialized function can be used existing product solutions,and with the new solution is only a small number of special features, Therefore,the exclusive use of mechanical design functions of the product mix, machinery specialized for the evaluation of the design,manufacturing risks are very favorable.Promotion of the product function on the basis of the analysis,Decomposition products will have some functions into one or several of the basic modular structure, through options and combinations of these basic modular structure formed into different products.These basic structures can be parts,components,or even a system.Ideal modular structure should be standardized interface(connectivity and with the Department),and is serialized,GE,integrated,hierarchical,flexible,economy, interchangeability is,compatibility and relevance.China's combination of software component technology and CAD technology,design and deformation of composite design combined,Modular principle according to the classification of machine tools from large processing center into product level,component level,component level and the component level,and the use of expert knowledge and technology CAD their portfolio into different varieties and specifications for the functional modules,by thecombination of these functional modules into different processing center overall program.Design options for the directory as a variation of the mechanical structure tools, design elements for the solution of integrity,Structure of the organization formed Solution Set design catalog.And the solution set design directory listed a comment on each of Additional Information Solutions,is very conducive to the solution design engineers to choose elements.3.The characteristics of knowledge-based product design:Knowledge-based product design characteristics of the main features:using computers to identify the language to describe the characteristics of the product and its design experts in the field of knowledge and experience,corresponding inference engine and knowledge base,Reuse stored domain knowledge and reasoning mechanism established by the Computer Aided Design program.Mechanical systems design is mainly based on products with features and the design of experts in the field of knowledge and experience in policy-making and implementation capacity,completing the type,a composite.To achieve this stage of the computer-aided design,research must automatic acquisition of knowledge,expression, integration,coordination,management and use.4.Intelligent Design:Intelligent Design is the main features:design theory,using3D graphics software Intelligent design software and virtual reality technology,and multimedia,hypermedia tools for product development design,Expression product ideas,describing the structure of products.The use of object-oriented technology,focus on the chronology of the agencies synthesis package design expert system,and with the help of high-performance graphicsand the ability to handle the exchange of OpenGL technology,3D environment from all angles of expert system design options for observation,If inter-agency campaign convergence position of conflict,and so on.5.Various design review and development trends:In summary,Systematic Design will design tasks from the abstract to the concrete (from the design of the tasks required to accomplish the mission of the program or structure)hierarchical division drawing up each layer wishes to achieve the goals and methods of elementary,from abstract to concrete floors to be organically linked to the entire design process systematic so that the design rules to follow.There is a way to follow and easy computer-aided design process to achieve.Modular design of the structure,as have some method of achieving functional structure for a module,module structure of the portfolio,product program design.For specific types of mechanical products,as part of its function is clear and relatively stable, Modules of the structure more easily,so that the structure modular approach to program design would be more appropriate.As with the functional entities is not betweenone-to-one correspondence between an entity can usually be a number of different functions,a function can often through several entities to be implemented.Therefore,the structure of the modular design approach for the general design of the product,Modules of the structure and are more difficult to choose,and the requirements of staff with a wide range of design experience and extensive knowledge in many areas.What is worth mentioning is:the above methods are not completely isolated, various methods exist to some extent on the links If modular structure design,module division structure contains a systematic thinking,building products and design features inference engine and knowledge base,it is usually also need to use a systematic and structural modular approach,In addition,the characteristics of knowledge-based products while the design of intelligent design program is one of the foundations.In mechanical design products,as to achieve specific functions common parts,components or structure used for the module body,and the application of systematic design of thelevels of specific design,Modular Approach to the forthcoming financial structure in a systematic design methodology,it can guarantee the standardization of the design,it can simplify the design process,improve design efficiency and quality,and lower design costs.Mechanical Products programs are moving towards computer-aided design to achieve,Intelligent Design Collaborative and meet the needs of design and manufacturing direction.product design computer method of a late start,but there were no mature,be able to reach this target program design software tools.The writer believes that the integrated use of four types of text is designed to achieve this objective effective way.Although these methods are integrated use of the field more,not only with the mechanical design of the domain knowledge,but also to the theory of systems engineering,artificial intelligence,computer hardware and software engineering, Network technology and other fields of knowledge,It is still necessary product design efforts.Abroad in research in this area has achieved initial success.My design scholars have been aware of CAD technology and international exchange and cooperation of the importance and the measures that should be taken.机械产品方案的现代设计方法及发展趋势摘要：根据目前国内外设计学者进行机械产品设计时的主要思维特点，将产品方案的设计方法概括为系统化、结构模块化、基于产品特征知识和智能四种类型。

基于PLC的物料分拣系统毕业设计外文翻译毕业设计外文文献翻译毕业设计题目基于PLC的物料分拣系统设计翻译题目The Design of Material Choose System Based on PLC专业机械设计制造及其自动化姓名朱安乐班级A0916学号指导教师张晓机械与材料工程学院二O一二年十二月译文一:关于可编程控制器技术与未来发展?随着时代的发展,当今的技术也日趋完善、竞争愈演愈烈;单靠人工的操作已不能满足于目前的制造业前景,也无法保证更高质量的要求和高新技术企业的形象。

人们在生产实践中看到,自动化给人们带来了极大的便利和产品质量上的保证,同时也减轻了人员的劳动强度,减少了人员上的编制.在许多复杂的生产过程中难以实现的目标控制、整体优化、最佳决策等,熟练的操作工、技术人员或专家、管理者却能够容易判断和操作,可以获得满意的效果.人工智能的研究目标正是利用计算机来实现、模拟这些智能行为,通过人脑与计算机协调工作,以人机结合的模式,为解决十分复杂的问题寻找最佳的途径。

我们在各种场合看到了继电器连接的控制,那已经是时代的过去,如今的继电器只能作为低端的基层控制模块或者简单的设备中使用到;而PLC的出现也成为了划时代的主题,通过极其稳定的硬件穿插灵活的软件控制,使得自动化走向了新的高潮。

一个系统化的设计?PLC程序的方法可以克服传统程序生产控制系统的缺点,并且在一些工业应用总有很大的不同。

自动控制系统是状态模型用公式语言或等价的语言描述的。

公式描述对被控制的系统的行为提供一个精确的描述。

可以通过分析估计看状态模型是否达到想要的目标。

第二,为状态模型的描述提供结构描述,这个结构描述可以说明逻辑要求和如细节安全规则的限制。

第三,好的控制系统设计是对自动控制代码生成有益的??一种能够产生可执行的控制软件的能力,不同的逻辑控制器可以减少程序扫描时间和执行那个时间。

特别的,这个主题与随后的部分的是有关的。

Design Without Designers网站截图：/baidu?word=%B9%A4%D2%B5%C9%E8%BC%C6%D3%A2%CE%C4%CE%C4%CF%D7&tn=sogouie_1_dg原文：Design Without DesignersI will always remember my first introduction to the power of good product design.I was newly arrived at Apple, still learning the ways of business, when I was visited by a member of Apple's Industrial Design team. He showed me a foam mockup of a proposed product. "Wow," I said, "I want one! What is it?"That experience brought home the power of design: I was excited and enthusiastic even before I knew what it was. This type of visceral "wow" response requires creative designers. It is subjective, personal. Uh oh, this is not what engineers like to hear. If you can't put a number to it, it's not important. As a result, there is a trend to eliminate designers. Who needs them when we can simply test our way to success? The excitement of powerful, captivating design is defined as irrelevant. Worse, the nature of design is in danger.Don't believe me? Consider Google. In a well-publicized move, a senior designer at Google recently quit, stating that Google had no interest in or understanding of design. Google, it seems, relies primarily upon test results, not human skill or judgment. Want to know whether a design is effective? Try it out. Google can quickly submit samples to millions of people in well-controlled trials, pitting one design against another, selecting the winner based upon number of clicks, or sales, or whatever objective measure they wish. Which color of blue is best? Test. Item placement? Test. Web page layout? Test.This procedure is hardly unique to Google. has long followed this practice. Years ago I was proudly informed that they no longer have debates about which design is best: they simply test them and use the data to decide. And this, of course, is the approach used by the human-centered iterative design approach: prototype, test, revise.Is this the future of design? Certainly there are many who believe so. This is a hot topic on the talk and seminar circuit. After all, the proponents ask reasonably, who could object to making decisions based upon data?Two Types of Innovation: Incremental Improvements and New ConceptsIn design—and almost all innovation, for that matter—there are at least two distinct forms. One is incremental improvement. In the manufacturing of products, companies assume that unit costs will continually decrease through continual, incremental improvements. A steady chain of incremental innovation enhances operations, the sourcing of parts and supply-chain management. The product design is continually tinkered with, adjusting the interface, adding new features, changing small things here and there. New products are announced yearly that are simply small modifications to the existing platform by a different constellation of features. Sometimes features are removed to enable a new, low-cost line. Sometimes features are enhanced or added. In incremental improvement, the basic platform is unchanged. Incremental design and innovation is less glamorous than the development of new concepts and ideas, but it is both far more frequent and far more important. Most of these innovations are small, but most are quite successful. This is what companies call "their cash cow": a product line that requires very little new development cost while being profitable year after year.The second form of design is what is generally taught in design, engineering and MBA courses on "breakthrough product innovation." Here is where new concepts get invented, new products defined, and new businesses formed. This is the fun part of innovation. As a result, it is the arena that most designers and inventors wish to inhabit. But the risks are great: most new innovations fail. Successful innovations can take decades to become accepted. As a result, the people who create the innovation are not necessarily the people who profit from it.In my Apple example, the designers were devising a new conception. In the case of Google and Amazon, the companies are practicing incremental enhancement. They are two different activities. Note that the Apple product, like most new innovations, failed. Why? I return to this example later.Both forms of innovation are necessary. The fight over data-driven design is misleading in that it uses the power of one method to deny the importance of the second. Data-driven design through testing is indeed effective at improving existing products. But where did the idea for the product come from in the first place? From someone's creative mind. Testing is effective at enhancing an idea, but creative designers and inventors are required to come up with the idea.Why Testing Is Both Essential and IncompleteData-driven design is "hill-climbing," a well-known algorithm for optimization. Imagine standing in the dark in an unknown, hilly terrain. How do you get to the top of the hill when you can't see? Test the immediate surroundings to determine which direction goes up the most steeply and take a step that way. Repeat until every direction leads to a lower level.But what if the terrain has many hills? How would you know whether you are on the highest? Answer: you can't know. This is called the "local maximum" problem: you can't tell if you are on highest hill (a global maximum) or just at the top of a small one.When a computer does hill climbing on a mathematical space, it tries to avoid the problem of local maxima by initiating climbs from numerous, different parts of the space being explored, selecting the highest of the separate attempts. This doesn't guarantee the very highest peak, but it can avoid being stuck on a low-ranking one. This strategy is seldom available to a designer: it is difficult enough to come up with a single starting point, let alone multiple, different ones. So, refinement through testing in the world of design is usually only capable of reaching the local maximum. Is there a far better solution (that is, is there a different hill which yields far superior results)? Testing will never tell us.Here is where creative people come in. Breakthroughs occur when a person restructures the problem, thereby recognizing that one is exploring the wrong space. This is the creative side of design and invention. Incremental enhancements will not get us there.Barriers to Great InnovationDramatic new innovation has some fundamental characteristics that make it inappropriate for judgment through testing. People resist novelty. Behavior tends to be conservative. New technologies and new methods of doing things usually take decades to be accepted - sometimes multiple decades. But the testing methods all assume that one can make a change, try it out, and immediately determine if it is better than what is currently available.There is no known way to tell if a radical new idea will eventually be successful. Here is where great leadership and courage is required. History tells us of many people who persevered for long periods in the face of repeated rejection before their idea was accepted, often to the point that after success, people could not imagine how they got along without it before. History also tells us of many people who persevered yet never were able to succeed. It is proper to be skeptical of radical new ideas.In the early years of an idea, it might not be accepted because the technology isn't ready, or because there is a lot more optimization still to be done, or because the audience isn't ready. Or because it is a bad idea. It is difficult to determine which of those reasons dominates. The task only becomes easy in hindsight, long after it becomes established.These long periods between formation and initial implementation of a novel idea and its eventual determination of success or failure in the marketplace is what defeats those who wish to use evidence as a decision criterion for following a new direction.Even if a superior way of doing something has been found, the automated test process will probably reject it, not because the idea is inferior, but because it cannot wait decades for the answer. Those who look only at test results will miss the large payoff.Of course there are sound business reasons why ignoring potentially superior approaches might be a wise decision. After all, if the audience is not ready for the new approach, it would initially fail in the marketplace. That is true, in the short run. But to prosper in the future, the best approach would be to develop and commercialize the new idea to get marketplace experience, to begin the optimization process, and to develop the customer base. At the same time one is preparing the company for the day when the method takes off. Sure, keep doing the old, but get ready for the new. If the company fails to recognize the newly emerging method, its competitors will take over. Quite often these competitors will be a startup that existing companies ignored because what they were doing was not well accepted, and in any event did not appear to challenge the existing business: see "The innovator's dilemma."Gestural, multi-touch interfaces for screen-driven devices and computer games are good examples. Are these a brilliant new innovation? Brilliant? Yes. New? Absolutely not. Multi-touch devices were in research labs for almost three decades before the first successful mass-produced products. I saw gestures demonstrated over two decades ago. New ideas take considerable time to reach success in the marketplace. If an idea is commercialized too soon, the result is usually failure (and a large loss of money).This is precisely what the Apple designer of my opening paragraph had done. What I was shown was a portable computer designed for schoolchildren with a form factor unlike anything I had ever seen before. It was wonderful, and even to my normally critical eye, it looked like a perfect fit for the purpose and audience. Alas, the product got caught in a political fight between warring Apple divisions. Although it was eventually released into the marketplace, the fight crippled its integrity and it was badly executed, badly supported, and badly marketed.The resistance of a company to new innovations is well founded. It is expensive to develop a new product line with unknown profitability. Moreover, existing product divisions will be concerned that the new product will disrupt existing sales (this is called "cannibalization"). These fears are often correct. This is a classic case of what is good for the company being bad for an existing division, which means bad for the promotion and reward opportunities for the existing division. Is it a wonder companies resist? The data clearly show that although a few new innovations are dramatically successful, most fail, often at great expense. It is no wonder that companies are hesitant - resistant - to innovation no matter what their press releases and annual reports claim. To be conservative is to be sensible.The FutureAutomated data-driven processes will slowly make more and more inroads into the space now occupied by human designers. New approaches to computer-generated creativity such as genetic algorithms, knowledge-intensive systems, and others will start taking over the creative aspect of design. This is happening in many other fields, whether it be medical diagnosis or engineering design.We will get more design without designers, but primarily of the enhancement, refinement, and optimization of existing concepts. Even where new creative artificial systems are developed, whether by neural networks, genetic algorithms, or some yet undiscovered method, any new concept will still face the hurdle of overcoming the slow adoption rate of people and of overcoming the complex psychological, social, and political needs of people. To do this, we need creative designers, creative business people, and risk takers willing to push the boundaries. New ideas will be resisted. Great innovations will come at the cost of multiple great failures.Design without designers? Those who dislike the ambiguity and uncertainty of human judgments, with its uncertain track record and contradictory statements will try to abolish the human element in favor of the certainty that numbers and data appear to offer. But those who want the big gains that creative judgment can produce will follow their own judgment. The first case will bring about the small, continual improvements that have contributed greatly to the increased productivity and lowering of costs of our technologies. The second case will be rewarded with great failures and occasional great success. But those great successes will transform the world.译文不需要设计师的设计唐·诺曼我永远也不会忘记我第一次向人们介绍优秀产品设计的魅力的经历，那时候我刚刚到苹果公司，还在逐渐的学习工作上的事务。

外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：K Tanizumi. Truck Crane Hydraulic System: Technical Status and Development Trend [J]. Advanced Materials Research, 2015, 310-319中文译文汽车式起重机液压系统: 技术现状与发展趋势K Tanizumi1行业背景1.1工程汽车起重机的发展趋势近20年世界工程起重机行业发生了很大变化。

RT(越野轮胎起重机) 和AT(全地面起重机) 产品的迅速发展,打破了原有产品与市场格局,在经济发展及市场激烈竞争冲击下, 导致世界市场进一步趋向一体化。

为与RT 和AT 产品抗衡, 汽车起重机新技术、新产品也在不断发展。

近年来汽车起重机在英、美等国市场的复兴,使人们对汽车起重机产生新的认识。

几年前某些工业界人士曾预测, RT 和AT 产品的兴起将导致汽车起重机的衰退。

日本汽车起重机在世界各地日益流行,以及最近格鲁夫、特雷克斯、林克.贝尔特、德马泰克等公司汽车起重机的产品进展, 已向上述观念提出挑战。

随着工程起重机各机种间技术的相互渗透与竞争,汽车起重机会在世界市场中继续占有一席之地。

国外工程起重机从整体情况分析, 领先国内10~20年(不同类型产品有所不同) 。

随着国外经济发展速度趋于平稳,工程起重机向智能、高性能、灵活、适应性强、多功能方向发展。

25t 以下基本上不生产,产品向高附加值、大吨位发展, 住友建机、多田野和加藤公司曾于1989年相继推出360t 汽车起重机。

住友建机在90年代开发出80t ~250t 共4种AT 产品。

多田野也在90年代相继推出100t ~550t 共6种特大型AT 产品。

加藤公司则研制成NK5000型500t 汽车起重机。

行业配套也与国内有所不同:(1)下车主要是300kW 以上柴油大功率发动机,与之配套的液力变矩器和自动换档变速箱、12吨级驱动转向桥及越野轮胎。

交互设计中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文：交互设计是什么?像电动机械、无线电广播、机构连接、机械部件等，都是相对于电子元件以直接的方式展现。

当我们转动拨号盘，我们的指尖和肌肉都会有所感受。

自从有了电脑，无论距离有多远，都可以联系在一起。

它可以体现在两个方面：一方面，通过键盘就可以在电脑屏幕里输入所想的信息，另一方面，也可以从电脑屏幕中得知外面所发生的一切。

所以有了电脑，我们可以更直接的了解讯息。

但是我们的物质世界和电脑的虚拟世界相比相差很大。

在这个时期，我们需要一种清晰的思维模式为我们所用，举一个实例,早期使用脚本系统的苹果电脑，有一个很完整的系统模式，就像是堆积起来的卡片：对需要完成的工作都有一个精确地模拟，以及如何计划这个项目的运作。

同时，对用户来说就像是在翻阅卡片，可以得到更直观的使用。

所以完整的思维模式所起到的作用是显而易见的。

但是，由于种种原因这种方式没有使用到更多的应用程序中。

良好的设计系统体现在可以得到有效的反馈，以便知道我们所做的一切都确实做到了。

举一个例子,当我们在键盘上输入时，我们做到的不仅仅是字符出现在屏幕上，同时我们也能感觉到键盘的敲打，以及听见键盘所发出的滴答声。

早期的时候我经常使用命令处理器去做一些重复的事情，或者做一个键入命令的序列“tetick，tick，tick-tick；tetick，tick，tick-tick.”如果它变成了“tick，tetick，tock”我就知道我做错了。

对于我来说，听觉反馈的速度要比视觉反馈的速度快。

仔细查看电脑的每一部分是必不可少的，特别是在屏幕上的一些图标。

你需要知道你在哪个界面，在那里你能做些什么，怎样到下一层面，以及怎样返回。

麦金塔电脑在这方面具有很好的影响力：菜单在屏幕顶端勾画出所有的可能性，清楚的告诉你怎样进入和提示你将要做什么。

同样重要的就是一致性。

在系统中的一个命令应该和系统的其他部分具有同样的效果。

凸轮轴套注塑模具的设计与分析与潜水艇门摘要：本文重点介绍用于生产计算机辅助制造套的自动注塑模具的设计和分析。

凸轮衬套用作高压变压器的ON / OFF负载分接开关装置中的分度装置连接器位于分度头和动力切换齿轮之间。

注射模具是用于的工具在短时间内大量生产塑料部件。

使用Unigraphics（NX 7.5）进行建模和Auto Desk模具流量Plastic Insight 用于计算机辅助制造套填充率，冷却系统的模具流分析位置和位置的潜艇门。

模具由顶板，空腔板，芯板，间隔件组成块，顶出板和底板。

在这个六芯销和六个推出销提供在注塑模具上，因为所需的凸轮衬套具有六个分度孔。

材料用途是油硬化不收缩钢（OHNS）的核心和腔，EN353为拉杆，导套，芯销，顶针，定位环和浇口衬套和低碳钢选择其他板。

注塑工具的元素已经设计和分析。

潜艇门和挡板圆孔冷却系统设置在模具中以提高生产率和良好的表面光洁度。

的所需的尼龙66凸轮衬套部件将使用该模具产生具有各种参数的注射成型机。

1、介绍：现在一天的塑料在日常生活中占据着至关重要的地位。

如果我们说，这根本不夸张没有在从销的制造到a的制造时塑料没有进入的区域航天器。

在19世纪中叶，塑料在材料和我们的生活中开始了主导作用阻力是塑料甚至成为金属的上限并达到的一些方面每个制造部门的偏好率都有所提高。

从塑料的紧急情况他们是在塑料制品设计，制造加工，试验等各个方面都经历了激烈的竞争领域和现在，因为许多人的富有成效的努力终于通过体力劳动来工作，但是在人工智能的帮助下，使用像CAD / CAM这样的软件包。

因为强度高重量比，提高耐化学性和耐温性，耐热性的固有性能耐腐蚀性，透明度使它们成为材料选择。

塑料在消耗能量较少并可以有利地回收利用。

今天，塑料正在取代黄铜，铜，铸铁，钢等。

塑料可以按照制造方法分类到主要组中软化当加热并在冷却时固化。

这些被称为“热塑性”和那些硬化时由于化学变化而加热。

这些被称为热固性或Duro塑性材料“选择产品的特定材料是另一个重要因素。