argumentation

1,"argumentation",n 争论，论证，论点，讨论【参】argumentative（adj 爱争论的）；argumentativeness（n 好争论）2,"aria",n （有器乐伴奏的）独唱曲，咏叹调【记】ar读：啊，ia表⽰病－整天啊的病－独唱曲【类】soliloquy[monologue]:play＝aria:opera独⽩是在戏剧中独⾃说＝独唱曲是在歌剧中独⾃唱3,"arid",adj ⼲旱的＝dry；枯燥的（缺乏兴趣或感情；⽆⽣⽓和乏味）＝sere【例】Desert lands are arid 沙漠地区是草⽊不⽣的。

【记】a⼀个，ri拼：⽇，d读：的。

⼀个⽇的。

什么都没有，只有⼀个太阳的地⽅－沙漠－⼲旱的，枯燥的【类】marsh:sodden＝desert:arid沼泽的特点是潮湿的＝沙漠的特点是⼲旱的【反】damp（adj 潮湿的）4,"aristocrat",n 贵族（贵族阶层中的⼀个成员）＝nobleman【例】a struggle between the aristocrats and the plebeians贵族与平民之间的⽃争【根】aristo，crat统治－贵族【记】a⼀个，ris＝rise升起，to拼：头，crat统治－⼀个抬着头的统治者－贵族【参】autocrat（n 独栽者）；democrat（n 民主党⼈）5,"arithmetic",n 算术，算法【根】arithm数字6,"armada",n 舰队【例】an air armada ⼤机群【根】arm武装【参】fleet（n 舰队）；armor（n 装甲，盔甲）；armory（n 军械库）【类】armada:vehicles＝fusillade:projectiles舰队由船只组成⼀队＝连续射击由射弹组成⼀串7,"armistice",n 休战，停战（经双⽅同意暂时停⽌战⽃）【根】armi武器，stice停⽌－武器停⽌使⽤－停战【记】arm打仗，is是，tice读：替死。

Argumentation1. What’s your opinion? My view 型-——agree or disagree型/ some …others型介绍双方观点--—提出你支持的观点___________________（主题)is a common occurrence in our lives。

The attitudes toward this issue vary /differ from person to person. Some people tend to ____________ (观点A)。

However, others argue that ______________（观点B). As far as I am concerned， I will choose to ___________(你的观点）/ Weighing the pros and cons of these arguments, I am inclined to agree with the latter.介绍对方观点及其1-2个理由介绍背景句。

Some people are of the opinion/ have the idea/ point out/ take the view that_______. They assert/ contend/ argue/hold/ insist/maintain/ claim thatSpeaking for myself，________________________。

(你的观点）。

I would like to present 2—3 explanations to confirm that I am right。

/ My arguments for this point are listed as follows.First, …Second …Third…From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that ____________.简述上述理由或提出希望、方法等Topic OneNowadays young people tend to phone more often than write to each other。

四种论证方法论证（argumentation）是指从一定的观点出发，使用逻辑思维和推理方法，有条理地说明事实并论证观点。

它是基于某种认识的客观事实，分析之后得出的某种结论，让旁观者也能认同的一种技巧。

在日常生活、工作和学习中，我们经常遇到论证这一技巧，而有四种主要的论证方法，它们分别是：对比比较、推理推断、经验论据以及自然规律论据。

首先是对比比较，它是一种最普遍也是最常用的论证方法，其特点就在于找出可比较的事物，并通过对比比较推断出一定的结果。

比如，某个商品的质量好还是坏，通过与其他相似的产品进行对比比较，可以得出结论，解决日常生活中的种种疑难问题。

其次是推理推断，也就是通过对事物特征和性质及其相互关系之间的推断，从而得出一定的结论。

推理推断是论证中最基本的方法，通过深入分析事物的特质和性质，以及它们之间的关系，进而得出一定的结论。

若是用推理推断对某个事件进行分析，则可以准确地判断出结果。

第三种是经验论据，从本质上讲，它是将一些具体的现象作为凭据，通过它来论证观点的真实性。

经验论据注重实践应用，而不是理论抽象，其实就是在现实生活中发现一些有用的经验，再对其进行总结，辨证分析，以支持自己的观点。

比如，我们在做某项事情时，可以去参考他人具体的经验，从而使自己更好地处理问题。

最后是自然规律论据，它是从一定的客观规律出发，综合考虑多方面的因素，得出某种结论的论证方法。

自然规律论据是借助天然规律，来说明某种状况的存在，而不是臆测，从而论证观点的真实性。

比如，说明一种物质的温度最低时的状态，可以通过观察它的冷却速率和热力学冷却原理，从而得出结论。

从上面可以看出，论证是一项日常生活、工作和学习中很常见的技巧，它也是解决各种实际问题的有效方法之一。

而有四种主要的论证方法，它们分别是：对比比较、推理推断、经验论据、自然规律论据。

它们在论证中的应用不同，但是它们都具有一定的通用性，可以有效解决实际问题。

论证方法的运用，涉及到丰富的逻辑技巧，从而使我们能够更好地把握实际问题，更加清楚地解读问题，更准确地作出判断。

Sound Argumentation1.归纳论点，说明论点有问题，存在逻辑漏洞，准备展开攻击。

2.攻击逻辑错误。

3.concession。

Case 1:The argument is well-presented, but not thoroughly well-reasoned.By making a comparison of the city of, the city Wuhan with the higher speed limit and therefore automobile accidents, with the city of Beijing, an area of a lower speed limit and subsequently fewer accidents, the argument for reducing Wuhan’s speed limits in order to decrease accidents seems logical.However, the citizens of Wuhan are failing to consider other possible alternatives to the increasing car accidents after the raise in speed limit. Such alternatives may include the fact that there are fewer reliable car traveling the roads in Beijing, or that the age bracket of those in Wuhan may be more conductive to driving safely. It is possible that there are more younger, inexperienced, or more elderly, unsafe drivers in Beijing than there are in Wuhan. In addition,the citizens have failed to consider the geographical and physical terrain of the two different areas. Perhaps Wuhan’s highway is in an area of more dangerous curves, sharp turns, or has many intersections or merging points where accidents are more likely to occur. It appears reasonable, therefore, for the citizens to focus on these trouble spots than to reduce the speed in the entire area. Beijing may be in an area of easier driving conditions where accidents are less likely to occur regardless of the speed limit.Overall, the reasoning behind decreasing Wuhan’s speed limit back to its original seems logical as presented above since the citizens are acting in their own best interests and want to protect their safety. However, before any final decisions are made about the reduction in speed limit, the citizens and officials of Wuhan should evaluate all possible alternatives and causes for the increased number of accidents over the six-month period as compared to Beijing.Sample 2This loan applicant claims that a jazz club in X city would be a protfitable venture. To support this claim the applicant points out that X city has no other jazz clubs. He also cites various other evidence that jazz is popular among X residents. Careful examination of this supporting evidence, however, reveals that it lends little credible support to the applicant’s claim.First of all, if the demand for a live jazz club in X city were as great as the applicant claims, it seems that X would already have one or more such clubs. The fact that the closest jazz club is 65 miles away suggests a lack of interest among X residents in a local jazz club. Since the applicant has not adequately responded to this concern, his claim that the proposed club would be profitable is untenable.The popularity of X’s annual jazz festival and its nightly jazz radio show might appear to lend support to the applicant’s claim. However, it is entirely possible that the vast majority of festival attendees are out –of-town visitors. Moreover, the author provides no evidence that radio listeners would be interested in going out to hear live jazz. For that matter, the radio program might actually pose competition for the YY club, especially considering that the program airs during the evening.Nor does the mere fact that several well-know jazz musicians live in X city lend significant support to the applicant’s claim. It is entirely possible that these musicians perform elsewhere, perhaps at the club located 65 miles away. This would go a long way toward explaining why X does not currently have a jazz club, and it would weaken the applicants assertion that the YY club would be profitable.Finally, the nationwide study showing that the average jazz fan spends $ 1, 000 each year on jazz entertainment would lend support to the applicant’s claim only if X residents typify jazz fans nationwide. However, the applicant provides no credible evidence that this is the case.In conclusion, the loan applicant’s argument is not persuasive.To bloster it he must provide clearer evidence that X residents would patronize the YY club on a regular basis. Such evidence might include the following: statistics showing that a significant number of X residents attend the jazz festival each year: a survey showing that fans of X’s jaxx radio program would go out to hear live jazz if they had the chance: and assurances from well-known local jazz musicians that they would play at the YY if given the opportunity.。

China should Carry Out Real-name System on the InternetWith the increasing internet users, instant messaging gradually connected the users into a virtual society.So,it should be protected,and its environment should be safe.Nowadays,people hold a fierce discussion about whether China should carry out real-name system on the internet.Undoubtedly,I hold the opinion that we should do it.There is no doubt that there are more and more netizens in China now.Without real-name system,more and more problems like cyber crime,morals lacking of network,piracy and so forth are emerging.Without real-name system,every netizen can make any comments,being not worried about any consequences.Because every netizen wears mask and no one knows who he is.Badly,someone may stigmatize anyone he doesn’t like without punishment.But it is cyber crime.So,without real-name system,cyber crime can happen without any punishments.Without real-name system,morals lacking of network is becoming more and more serious.It is common that we can see people quarreling with each other in some forums.Meantime,we can see many pornographic contents on the internet.In today’s society,the network has become an important part of teenager’s life.But the uncivilized behavior has posed a great threat to the development of teenager’s responsibility,obligation and moral sense.Without real-name system,tort problems are becoming worse and worse.Anonymous users can release pirated software and they can also use it.Meantime,they can download music without copyright owner’s permission.So it is necessary to carry out real-name system on internet.Maybe,the challengers will say they dare not make comments under other’s supervision.But we can use technologies to solve the problem.Then,you can freely make a speech without breaking the low.Meantime,because of the real-name system,we couldn’t easily say some words and do something with violating moralities.。

ArgumentationAims：1．Knowing to define the term,2．Comparing this style of writing with exposition, description, and narration3．Knowing requirements of a GOOD argumentative essay4．Knowing how to outline an augmentative essay: three parts.Procedure: （theory-practice）The purpose of exposition is to inform; the purpose of argumentation, on the other hand, is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes. Speeches on policies, editorials of newspapers, articles on political or theoretical questions, and various proposals are often argumentative.Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and exposition are very closely related --- argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.Although they can take different shapes, argumentative essays have certain basic features in common. If you wish to write a good argumentative essay, you should do your best to meet the following requirements:(1) A debatable pointIt is imperative that the paper should have a debatable point, that is, something which can be viewed from more than one angle and is therefore open to dispute. Generally speaking, the following are not good themes.1) Mere statements of facts“Chinese doctors use acupuncture anesthesia to perform certain operations”is a fact that cannot be debated. But if it is changed into “acupuncture anesthesia should replace conventional anesthesia in all operations”, it becomes debatable.2) Statements of personal preference“Ba Jin is my favorite author” expresses personal preference which does not lead to dispute. But a statement like “Ba Jin is the greatest Chinese writer of the 20th century” is disputable and sufficient evidence should be provided.3) Viewpoints that are generally accepted or can be easily verifiedIt is universally known that “noise pollution is harmful to people’s health”, but it is not generally accepted that “noise pollution is the most harmful of all environmental pollution”. The former viewpoint can be proved, but the later is arguable.(2)Sufficient evidenceSince the point of your paper is not a fact, a statement of personal taste, or a viewpoint universally accepted, you will have to provide sufficient evidence to convince the reader. Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge; specific examples; hard, not soft, evidence, or facts, not opinions, unless the opinions are expert and authoritative; statistics; and quotations from authorities. Valid evidence is that which is clearly and directly connected with the point to be proved.(3)Good logicIt is obvious that good logic is even more important to argumentation than to any other typesof writing. All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence should be logically connected with the conclusion and with each other. Any fallacy in logic or wrong step in reasoning would leave the reader in doubt about the whole argument.There are generally two ways of reasoning:1)Inductive reasoning (from specific facts to a general conclusion)Inductive reasoning is the more common way. When you use induction, you start with facts and proceed from facts to a general conclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement.2)Deductive reasoning (from a general statement to a specific conclusion)The process is just the opposite of inductive reasoning --- it moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion. It works on the model of syllogism --- a three-part argument in which there are two statements, known as the major premise and the minor premise, and a conclusion.Here is an example of a syllogism:A.All human beings make mistakes. (a general statement)B.X is a human being.C.Therefore, X makes mistakes. (a specific conclusion)From the above example we can see that the major premise must be an accepted generalization, and the minor, a factual example of that generalization. If A and B are true, C, the conclusion, is bound to be true.You must be very careful about your premises, especially your major premise, such statements as “all students love to study” and “women are more imaginative than men” are not generally accepted, and therefore cannot be used as major premises.(4)Clear logicA typical argumentative essay consists of three parts:an introduction which identifies the issue to be discussed and explains the importance of such a discussion; a body which presents the evidence; and a conclusion in which the proposition, if it is stated at the beginning, is reaffirmed.In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views. Then in each paragraph that follows, you add something new and important to your argument. The evidence you provide should be arrangedA.from the least important to the most important,B.from the most familiar to the least familiar, andC.from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult.(5)Good use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration, andespecially the various methods of exposition(6)An honest and friendly attitudeTo argue is not to quarrel or fight. The force of an argument does not come from abuse, sarcasm, exaggeration, or fierce attack, but from solid evidence, logical reasoning, and careful analysis. A domineering or hostile tone could only raise doubts about your good faith and impair the credibility of your argument, whereas an honest and friendly attitude will help win the trust of your readers.Take care that you neither overstate or understate, and avoid overuse of such words and phrases as “perhaps”, “maybe”, “sometimes”, “more often”, “nearly always”, “I think”, or “in myopinion”, which invariably weaken the force of your argument.ModelsThe Harmful Effects of the Multiple-Choice TestThe multiple-choice test is a common examination form that is widely used as a standard international testing method in various academic fields, especially in language testing. Some educators and teachers embrace it as a most scientific test form for its objectivity, accuracy and high efficiency of grading test papers. However, after many years of application, investigation and research, other teachers and educators have admitted that to judge students’ real and practical abilities, such testing method has many limitations and drawbacks. In my opinion, for all its efficiency, objectivity and validity, the multiple-choice test should not be widely used for the examinations of academic courses on campus.Those who argue for the advantages of the multiple-choice test believe that such tests can greatly improve the accuracy and speed of test paper grading. The standardized answer sheets of such test make it possible for computers to replace men to grade the papers. Undoubtedly, the computerization of test paper grading not only improve the speed of grading test papers, but also eliminates the subjective factors of bias or preference that can not be totally avoided by those who grade them. Here, computers or electronic devices are considered as the norm for scientific testing method. It may be safe to check manufactured products by electronic devices for their qualities. Yet, to check the real abilities and potentials of complex human beings, such devices and such testing method are far from enough. In fact, many problems from such testing do exist.First of all, it is convenient for students to cheat in the multiple-choice test. The standardization of answer sheets makes it easier for students to plagiarize others’ answers. The choices of A. B. C. D. are most clearly printed on the answer sheets or test papers. With only a quick glance, any student who attempts to cheat in the exam can surely steal the correct choice from whoever is nearby and whoever is considered as a good student. What’s more, some students may have some secret deal among themselves in the exam, delivering generous service to the needed. In this case, even when they are separated from each other with considerable distance by the proctor/invigilator, they can still succeed. The proctor may feel quite helpless because even though they sometimes see or feel students cheating, they cannot pinpoint or prove how the students are cheating in the exam. This in a way encourages the students’ misconduct and leads to their ethical degradation.Secondly, the multiple-choice test is often like a gambling. Doing well in such an exam is in some way becoming a matter of chance. According to the law of probability, if a question has four choices, then the probability of the right answer will be as high as 25%. Even is a person, absolutely ignorant of knowledge of that subject, take part in the multiple-choice test, he will have 25% chances of getting the right answer, just by guess. Because of this characteristic, some students’ attitude and attention to study may be quite misled and their capability and flexibility may be weakened. For example, we used to answer the multiple-choice tests at middle schools. When we come to college and face a problem of answering various questions in more details by writing or by speaking, we are at a loss, not to mention our difficulty in writing Englishcompositions.Thirdly, the multiple-choice test fails to evaluate the students’ abilities thoroughly, especially their potential abilities. Owing to the nature of such a test form, the four letters on the answer sheet cannot reveal the thought process of the students who take the exams. We all know that thought process is the reflection of one’s abilities and potentials in many different ways, and that process is often much more important than the test results themselves in telling the real abilities of the students. Therefore, the answers chosen on the answer sheet do not truly correspond to the students’ practical abilities.Fourthly, such a method of testing can seriously affect the students’ way of studying. Since the multiple-choice test demands no writing, students tend to develop a very passive way of receiving knowledge and responding to the questions related to the knowledge, and therefore neglect the abilities of actively and creatively using what they have learned. This is especially harmful for language study that requires constant actual practice. It may lower the students’interest and intelligence in their studies and lead to the failure of our educational purposes. After all, how can we meet the complex challenge of modern society with simple “A. B. C. D.” ?From the above cases of evidence and analysis, it is clear that the multiple-choice test should not dominate the examinations of our academic courses. It may be used partially for some specific purposes for some courses, but extensive use of the multiple-choice test at various levels of our educational institutions will surely impoverish the quality of our education and of our students.Is English Writing Necessary for English Majors?English writing is generally the most difficult one in the language competence required for the students majoring in English, considering the great pains student writers take and the slight progress they make in their practice. Most of the beginners think there is no need to practice writing English compositions since their writing skills in Chinese are quite sufficient, and English writing is after all not quite practical for their future work. However, English writing, as a very important part of students’ general language competence and as a means of expressing oneself andof spreading knowledge and information, is necessaryand essential for English majors.1)T he difficulty ofEnglish writing baffles(=confuses) some students so much that they turn to their Chinese skills for help. That is natural. In fact, their Chinese writingskills do help their English writing, especially in generating and organizing ideas and details. Meanwhile, Chinese writing is different from English writing in sentence structure and paragraph organizations and their differences in expressions are certainly even bigger. Simply translating Chinese word for word into English cannot make good English writing. Other students hold a wrong view of English learning. They think to learn English is just to memorize a large vocabulary, to master the grammar and to speak fluent English. Once they are proficient in those areas of English, they can naturally handle English writing well. To correct such a one-sided view, one thing must be kept in mind, that is, spoken English is not equal to written English. Oral speech is often rather loose and flexible withoutprecise and proper arrangement. Oral English uses simple everydaylanguage while written English comprises complicated words andsentence structures. Therefore, written English is more demanding,and it requires intentional and intensive practice. English writingcourse can serve this purpose.The students’laziness in observing and thinking partly accounts for their reluctance to practice writing. Writing sharpens and improves thinking. English writing canhelp students develop the habit and ability of thinking in English and become generally more competent in English. Composition topics can be varied yet close to life. If students have a good habit of observing life and thinking constantly, they won’t bump into (=accidentally meet) topics with empty heads. Keen observation and deep thoughts are necessary for good English writing, and they are also signs for well-educated people.Writing can also strengthen students’abilities in comprehension and oral English. Writing is creative work. After brainstorming, various ideasand pictures may pop into their minds and some beautiful sentences may be written down on a piece of paper, which will last long in their memory. Their written English skills may help to polish and beautify their spoken English and make their oral expression precise and elegant. Writing involves lots of reading. When reading others’ writing, they will be sensitive to various styles and that will quicken their reading speed and comprehension.Furthermore, English writing is in fact a most practical tool in students’future career. It willbe used in writing telexes, business letters, research papers and public speeches. Every kind of writing has its special style, which needs a careful study and strenuous practice. yet all those are based on essential skills in English writing that will be covered in an English writing course.Finally, the required competence forEnglish majors differs from other English learners. English majors are not limited to the command of anyparticular sphere of the English language, but they must have all-round competence in terms of listening and reading comprehension, spoken abilities and writing skills in English, so that they can adopt themselves to various situations in their future work.No one is born capable of everything. Hard work is the premise of success. To be able to use English freely, we do not only have to read a lot, speaka lot, but also write a lot. English writing practice consolidates(=strengthen)students’overall English competence and enables them to express their ideas and feelings in a more precise, graceful and permanent form.。