现代语言学(1)

现代语言学名词解释现代语言学名词解释一绪论1 Linguistics 语言学:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language2 Phonetics语音学 : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants3 Phonology语音体系: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone.4 Morphology形态学:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher.5 Syntax句法 : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentence s is called syntax. For example, ”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics词义学: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found, The king became worried.”Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics语用学: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics社会语言学: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example, regional dialects, social variation in language.9 Psycholinguistics语言心理学: The study of language withreference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics语音通信学: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology语音体系: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone发声: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t.4 Phoneme音素: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.《现代语言学名词解释》。

现代语言学的特点现代语言学是研究语言的学科，它具有多方面的特点和发展趋势。

在这篇文章中，我们将深入探讨现代语言学的特点，并在标题中心扩展下进行描述。

现代语言学是一门跨学科的学科，它融合了语言学、心理学、认知科学、计算机科学等多个学科的研究成果。

现代语言学倡导跨学科的合作研究方法，以促进对语言现象的深入理解。

通过跨学科的研究，现代语言学可以更全面地分析语言的结构、功能和发展规律。

现代语言学具有实证主义的特点。

实证主义是一种科学研究方法，强调通过观察、实验和数据分析来验证学说和理论。

现代语言学倡导通过大量语言数据的收集和分析，来验证语言理论和模型的有效性。

实证主义方法使现代语言学更加客观和科学。

现代语言学注重语言的多样性和变化。

语言是一个活跃的系统，不断发展变化。

现代语言学研究不同语言之间的异同，探讨语言的演变和变化规律。

现代语言学还关注语言在不同社会、文化背景下的使用情况，研究语言的社会功能和意义。

现代语言学倡导认知转向。

认知语言学是现代语言学的一个重要分支，它研究语言习得、语言理解和语言生产等认知过程。

现代语言学通过研究认知机制，揭示语言的认知基础和心理机制，深化对语言习得和语言加工的理解。

现代语言学注重语料库的应用。

语料库是存储语言数据的电子数据库，是现代语言学研究的重要工具。

通过语料库的建立和利用，现代语言学可以更准确地分析语言现象，验证语言理论，开展语言教学和语言技术的研究。

在总结中，现代语言学具有跨学科、实证、多样、认知和语料库等特点。

现代语言学通过这些特点，不断推动语言研究的深化和发展，为我们更好地理解和使用语言提供了重要的理论和方法支持。

希望本文对现代语言学的特点有所启发和帮助，让我们共同关注语言研究的进展，推动语言学科的发展和进步。

现代语言学(1)B1. The study of language as a whole is often called ________ linguistics.A. particularB. generalC. ordinaryD. generativeA2. _________can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.A. PhonesB. SoundsC. PhonemesD. Speech soundsD3. The two clauses in a _______sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence.A. simpleB. completeC. complexD. coordinateC4. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a _______ system of grammatical knowledge.A. phraseB. sentenceC. ruleD. symbolB5. “I like this shirt very much.” has _________ arguments.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. fourD6. If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes__________.A. a sentenceB. an actC. a unitD. an utteranceC7. ____________involves a reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments A. Apocope B. Epenthesis C. Metathesis D. AssimilationB8.The goal of ___________is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among “a variety of speech communities and in different Social situations·A. psycholinguisticsB. socio1inguisticsC.historica1 linguisticsD. general linguisticsD9. For _________, thinking was a system of movements that had been reduced from actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible.A. WatsonB. PlatoC. AristotleD. BloomfieldB10. The meaning of a word or phrase depends largely on the communicative___________.A. contentB. contextC. responseD. answer11. Language is a system consisting of two sets of structures, or two levels.12. English is an intonation language.13. The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called prefixes.14. Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories15. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.16. Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to affect successful communication.17. Most of the violations of the four maxims give rise to conversational implicatures.18. Many languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.l9. The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemisphers, one on the right and one on the left.20. When we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via W ernicke’s area.21. ( T ) In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation.22. ( F ) Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, but sometimes prescriptive.23. ( F ) Distinctive features are the same to any language.24. ( F) One of the clauses in a coordinate sentence is subordinate to the other.25. ( F ) In English and many other languages, the subject usually follows the verb and the direct object usually precedes the verb.26. ( T) Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s27. ( T ) The most vigorous and on going change in the historical development of a language is the change in its vocabulary.28. ( T) A creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.29. ( F) Aristotle suggested that thought was the soul's discourse with itself.30. ( T) SLA stands for second language acquisition.现代语言学(2)C1. A ___________ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest positionA. backB. centralC. frontD. middleC2. The open, back and long vowel is___________.A. [a]B. [A]C. [a:]D. [u:]B3. An embedded clause functions as a_________ unit in its matrix clause.A. structuralB. grammaticalC. lexicalD. linearA4. Phrase structure rules have __________ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. doubleD. manyB5. Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different__________ dialects.A. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professionalA6. ___________resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semanticsA. PragmaticsB. PragmatismC. PhonologyD. PracticalismC7. Language change is universal, continuous, to a considerable extent, _________.A.regular but not systematicB. irregular and systematicC.regular and systematicD. irregular but systematicA8. To date, about _________language families have been documented in historical linguistic literature.A. thirtyB. fortyC. FiftyD. sixtyB9. Language disorder resulting from a damage to________ area in the brain reveals word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax.A. Wernicke’sB. Broca’ sC. Gage' sD. Genie' sB10. The development of linguistic skills involves the acquisition of __________ rules rather than the mere memorization of words and sentences.A. morphologicalB. grammaticalC. linguisticD. syntactic11. IPA stands for International Phonetic Alphabet12. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.13. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.14. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the 1exicon, generate sentences at the level of D structure.15. In semantic analysis, prediction is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.16. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.17. Compounding is process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.18. Psycholinguistics studies language in relation to mind.19. Research has shown that different aspects of language processing appear to be more characteristic of the 1eft hemisphere than the other.20. The development of a first or native language is called first language acquisition.21. (T ) The writing system of any language is always a later invention, used to record the speech.22. (T ) Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.23. ( F ) The root of a word is the smallest meaningful unit of language.24. ( F) Some languages have ways of referring to some entity, some languages don’t.25. ( F ) Reference is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in26. ( T ) A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.27. ( T ) Historical linguistics studies language change.28. ( T ) SAE stands for Standard American English.29. ( F ) The language system provides all specifics of one's world view30. (F) A large proportion of grammatical errors in second language acquisition can be explained by mother tongue interference.现代语言学(3)C1. A scientific study of language is based on the_________ investigation of language data.A. symbolicB. systemicC. systematicD. systemC2. _________ are sometimes called “semivowels”.A. vowelsB. fricativeC. glidesD. nasalsB3. _________ is a typical tone languageA. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. American EnglishC4. A sentence is considered ___________ when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammaticalD5. The number of the lexical items in the minor lexical categories is__________ and no new members are allowed forA. largeB. smallC. limitlessD. fixedD6. In the classic semantic triangle, the symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements, i.e., ______________.A.things and referentB. thought and referenceC. views and ideasD. words and phrasesA7. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their _____________form.A. syntacticB. semanticC. grammaticalD. pragmaticB8. There is a gradation of __________ranging a continuum between two extremes of very formal and very informal.A. dialectB. registerC. variationD. slangB9. Human beings are the only species that learns and acquires language _________explicit instruction.A. withB. withoutC. withinD. throughD10. In their first language acquisition, children developed into the _________stage after the two word stage.A. thirdB. fourthC. fifthD. multiword11. Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.12. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive13. Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language.14. Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.15. In a tree diagram, the points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.16. According to the naming theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.17. Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words18. The deletion of a word-final vowel segment is called apocope19. A tragedy occurred to Phineas Gage about one hundred and fifty years ago.20. Ch i1dren’s language development starts from the prelinguistic cooing and babbling stage.21. ( T) Language is a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.22. (F ) A synchronic study of language is a historical study.23. ( F ) The structure of words is not governed by rules.24. ( F) It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate tenses at the level of S-structure.25. (T) Complete synonyms are rare in language.26. ( T ) There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle.27. (T ) Epenthesis is a change that involves the insertion of a consonant or a vowel sound to middle of a word.28. ( T) When people of a community speak two different regional or national dialects for different purposes, diglossia and bilingualism emerge.29. ( T) Wernicke’s work strengthened Broca’s claim that left hemispheric structures are essential for speech.30. ( T ) Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans.现代语言学(4)C1. According to F. de Saussure, ________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC.1angueD. languageC2. Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the ________ properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues.A. oralB. mentalC. physicalD. recordedC3. Natural languages are viewed to vary according to ________ set on UG principles to particular values.A. principlesB. rolesC. parametersD. theoriesC4. In the following four choices, ________ is a pair of homophone.A. sight and siteB. 1ead (n.) and lead (v.)C. wind (n.) and wind (v.)D. blue and blownC5. Sense and reference are two related ________ different aspects of meaning. A. but B. and C. or D. as well asD6. The superordinate term of the group of words “love, anger, happiness, sadness, fear, emotion’’ is _______.A. fearB. angerC. loveD. emotionB7. “I beg you not t0 say anything like that to Mary.” is a _______.A. representativeB. directiveC. commissiveD. declarationB8. Semantic ________ is a process in which a word loses its former meaning and requires a new, sometimes related, meaning.A. broadeningB. shiftC. narrowingD. changeA9. A ______ is a variety of 1anguage that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A.1ingua francaB. pidginC. creoleD. national languageD10. Linguistic _______ is the brain’s neurological specializatio n for language.A. determinismB. relativismC. competenceD.1ateralization11. An English speaker and Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This is a case of cultural transmission.12. Complementary distribution means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in different phonetic environments.13.Affixes like “im-” ,“il-”,“un一”,“-tion” ,“-or’,“-hood” ,are called derivational affixes.14. The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.15. Componential analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components called semantic features.16. The various meanings of a polysemic word are related to some degree.17. Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England in 1066.18. Code-switching may take place in a conversation when one speaker uses one language and the other speaker answers in a different language.1 9.For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction on the part of adults.20. The preschool years are a crucial period for first language acquisition.21. (T) Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.22. ( F ) Phonology is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；it is concerned with all the sounds th at occur in the world’s languages.23. (T ) Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress24. ( T) WH movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.25. (T) The superordinate term is more general in meaning than its hyponyms.26. ( F ) Semantic shift is the same as semantic change.27. ( T) From a sociolinguistic perspective, a speech Variety is no more than a dialectal variety a language.28. ( T ) Psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics.29. ( T) According to the Behaviorist learning theory, a child’s verbal behavior was conditioned through association between a stimulus and the following respons e. 30. ( F ) Language acquisition and language learning are believed to refer to the same process.现代语言学(5)B1.________ is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. A. Phonology B. Phonetics C. Morphology D. PhonemicsD2. ________ transcription is really the transcription required and used by the phonetician’s in their study of speech sounds.A. BroadB. DetailedC. WideD. NarrowB3.A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic_______ that speakers implicitly consider well—formed, or grammatical sequences·A. speechesB. utterancesC. eventsD. sentencesB4. Semantics can be defined as the study of________.A. namingB. meaningC. communicationD. contextB5. _______ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. A. Speaking B. Speech C. Sound D. SpokenB6. The word “motel’’ is formed via word formation rule of_______.A. clippingB. blendingC. acronymD. coinageC7. _______ involves a reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments.A. ApocopeB. EpenthesisC. MetathesisD. AssimilationB8. There is a gradation of _______ ranging along a continuum between two extremes of very formal and very informal.A. dialectB. registerC. variationD. slangD9. In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in th e _______ half of the child’s second year.A. earlyB.1ateC. firstD. secondD10. At the ______ stage negation is 6imply expressed by single words with negative meaning.A. prelinguisticB. multiwordC. two wordD. one word11. Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken form of language.12. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called are suprasemental features.13. A root can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning.14. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.15. Componential analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.16. The meaning of an utterance is concrete and context dependent.17. The Indo-European Language family is the first and most widely investigated language family of the world.18. A euphemism is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct, or offensive wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.19. Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness20. There are occasions when one can think without language, just as one may speak without thinking.21. (F ) Morphology and syntax study the same aspect of language.22. ( T ) Stress is a relative notion; only words with two or more syllables can be said to have word stress, and monosyllabic words can not be said to have word stress.23. ( F ) Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.24. ( F ) In English and many other languages, the subject usually follows the verb and the direct object usually precedes the verb.25. ( T ) The contextual view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in pragmatic sense.26. ( F ) Language change is different, from the change in the grammar.27. ( F ) An acronym is a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.28. ( T ) British English and American English are the two geographical varieties of theEnglish language.29. ( F ) Research findings have shown that language processing centers are situated in a single area of the left hemisphere.30. (F ) Some languages are more challenging to acquire as a native language.。

一、语言和语言学1.语言学的核心: 语音学Phonetics, 音位学Phonology, 形态学Morphology, 句法学Syntax, 语义学Semantics, 语用学Pragmatics.2.瑞士语言学家索绪尔Saussure提出的langue语言vs parole言语.他是现在语言学之父3.语言的功能: the instrumental function,the regulatoryfunction,the heuristic function,the interactional function,the personal function,the imaginative function,the imformative function4.美国生成语法的创始人乔姆斯chomsky提出的competence语言能力vs performance语言运用5.语言的普遍特征: arbitrariness任意性,productivity多产性,duality双层结构,displacement移位性,cultural transmission文化传播性6.语用学研究的是上下文context中语言运用的情况7.Crash 拟声词onomatopoeic word8.现代语言学和传统语言学的不同点是: 描写性/规定性descriptive vs prescriptive, 口语/书面, 非拉丁语框架/拉丁语框架non-Latin-based framework vs Latin-based framework9.把语言学原理principle和理论theories应用到语言教学和学习的语言学是应用语言学applied linguistics10.语言文体学linguistic stylistics是介于语言学和文学之间的研究领域11.数学语言学mathematical linguistics, 人类语言学anthropological linguistics, 神经语言学neurolinguisitics12.孩子先学会说话再学会写字, 表明语言是发声的基础13.心理语言学研究儿童如何习得母语, 运用语言是大脑如何工作, 交流时如何处理接收到的信息14.语言的随意性说明语言在意义和声音方面没有逻辑关系15.语言的双层结构包含两种: 声音结构和语法结构16.形态学和句法学主要研究语法层面上的意义studythe units at the grammatical level17.Johnson 的大辞典为英语的用法和拼写制定了统一的标准二、语音学和音位学语音学三大分支: articulatory phonetics发音语音学,auditory phonetics听觉语音学,acoustic phonetics声学语音学辅音consonants的分类:根据发音方式: 爆破音stops, 摩擦音fricatives, 破擦音affricates, 鼻音nasals, 滑音glides根据发音部位：bilabials双唇音, labiodentals唇齿音, dentals齿间音, alveolars齿龈音, palatals上颚音, velars 软腭音, glottal声门音超音段音位suprasegmental phonology: stress重音,tone 音调,intonation语调三、形态学形态学主要研究单词的内部构造以及构成规则封闭性词汇closed class words: 连词conjunction, 介词preposition, 冠词article, 代词pronoun开放性词汇open class words: 名词noun, 动词verb, 形容词adjective, 副词adverb词素morpheme是语言中音义结合的最小单位, 也是语法分析的最小单位自由词素free morphemes, 粘着词素bound morphemes, 词干stem, 词根root, 外来词a borrowed one构词法包括：合成compound和派生derivation, 指的是自由词素屈折变化inflection指的是粘着词素,主要用于语法方面四、句法学句法学研究句子结构, 揭示构成某一语言句子的内在规则深层结构deep structure: 指抽象的句法结构表层结构surface structure: 是深层结构通过一系列转换规则之后得到的最后的结果, 就是人实际说出的句子英国语言学家韩礼德M.A.K.Halliday发展的系统功能语法, 主要关注语言和社会之间的关系简单句a simple sentence, 并列句a coordinate sentence, 复杂句a complex sentence一个词组主要包含: head中心语,specifier标志语,compliement补足语决定词类范畴category的有意义meaning, 屈折变化inflection, 分布distribution句法成分syntax component给句子提供了结构五、语义学语义学指语言产生意义的方法的系统研究, 主要研究对象是词义和句义同义词synonymy, 反义词antonymy, 多义词polysemy, （同音异义(一语双关)homophones, 同形异义homographs, 同音同形异义complete homonyms）都是homonymy, 上下义hynonymy,同义词包括: 方言性同义词dialectal synonyms, 风格性同义词stylistic synonyms指的是适用场合不同, 感情色彩不同的同义词emotive synonyms, 搭配不同的同义词collocational synonymsX entailing Y包含关系, X presupposing Y前提关系语义变化的四种模式: extension,narrowing,elevation,degradation成分分析componential analysis用于语义学的研究领域六、语用学英国哲学家John.Austin发明了言语行为理论speech act theory区分语义学和语用学的最本质因素是是否考虑了语言使用过程中的语境言语行为的三种次行为: 言内行为locutionary, 言外行为illocutionary, 言后行为perlocutionary act美国哲学语言学家john searle约翰舍尔把言外行为分为五大类: representative描述性功能, directive指示性功能（包括invitng,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening ,ordering）, commissive承担性功能, expressive表达性功能, declarative宣告性功能美国哲学家格莱斯Grice认为言语交际要包含以下四条准则：数量准则quantity maxim, 质量准则quality maxim, 关联准则relation maxim, 方式准则manner maxim情境因素contextual features包括时间, 地点和参与人, 不包括目的。

Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。

Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。

The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。

A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。

1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

现代语言学名词解释现代语言学名词解释现代语言学名词解释现代语言学一绪论1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For examp le, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in compkenebtary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studiesthe internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form tocreat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed asD-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammaticalwell-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process bywhich new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.absee管理员UID 5精华0积分3990 帖子1111 阅读权限200注册2007-6-4状态离线#8使用道具发表于2007-7-26 21:20 资料个人空间短消息加为好友八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation andspelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages asa medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-existin a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically ofarbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 tabo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, in direct or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.absee管理员UID 5精华0积分3990 帖子1111 阅读权限200注册2007-6-4状态离线#9使用道具发表于2007-7-26 21:20 资料个人空间短消息加为好友九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we mayre gard thought as “subvocal speech”.of linguistic relativism.absee管理员UID 5精华0积分3990 帖子1111 阅读权限200注册2007-6-4状态离线#10使用道具发表于2007-7-26 21:20 资料个人空间短消息加为好友十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refersto the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they wouldmake.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。

Chapter1Introduction绪论1什么是语言学what is linguistics?1.1定义definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2语言学的研究范畴the scope of linguisticsa.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

b.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of lingu istics called phonetics.语音学phoneticsHow speech sounds are produced and classified.c.how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning.phonology音位学/音系学phonology交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d.The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the bran ch of study calledmorphology.形态学morphologyhow morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。

现代语言学当代语言学现代语言学是研究语言本质、结构和功能的学科，是语言与社会、人类认知、文化、心理等多个领域的交叉学科。

它关注语言的发展、变化、运用等方面，通过系统性的分析和研究，揭示语言背后的规律和机制。

在现代语言学中，有几个重要的理论学派和概念需要我们了解。

其中，结构主义学派是广义语言学研究的奠基者，它强调语言的内部结构，并以语言形式的规则和体系为研究对象。

生成语法学派则认为语言可以通过生成规则来构建，强调语言的创造性和生成过程。

功能语言学派则关注语言的功能和意义，认为语言是为了交际和意义传递而存在的。

在现代语言学的研究方法上，主要有描述性语言学和比较语言学两种。

描述性语言学致力于对具体语言现象的描写和分析，以搜集语料、构建语言模型为主要手段。

比较语言学则是对多个语言进行对比研究，通过比较语言的共性和差异，揭示语言的普遍规律。

现代语言学的研究领域非常广泛，包括语音学、音系学、语法学、语义学、语用学、社会语言学、认知语言学、心理语言学等。

语音学研究语音的产生、传播和接收等方面，音系学研究语音系统和语音单位等。

语法学关注的是语言的句法结构，语义学研究语言的意义和表达方式，语用学研究语言在具体交际语境中的运用。

社会语言学则研究语言与社会的关系，认知语言学和心理语言学关注语言与人类认知和心理过程的相互关系。

现代语言学的研究对于我们理解语言、交际和文化具有重要的指导意义。

通过对语言规律和机制的研究，我们可以更好地理解语言的内在结构和运作方式，更好地掌握语言表达和沟通的技巧。

此外，现代语言学的研究也可以帮助我们深入了解语言与社会、人类认知、文化等方面的关系，推动人类语言研究和应用的发展。

总之，现代语言学是一门生动、全面、富有指导意义的学科，通过系统分析和研究语言，可以深入了解语言的本质特征和规律，为我们更好地理解和运用语言提供了重要的理论基础。

现代语言学自考一、语言学基础语言学基础是现代语言学自考的重要组成部分，主要包括语言学的定义、语言学的研究对象、语言学的分支学科等内容。

学生需要掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基本方法，为后续深入学习打下坚实的基础。

二、语音学与音系学语音学与音系学是研究语言的发音、音素、音节、音韵等规律的学科。

学生需要掌握语音的发音机制、音素的分类与区别、音节的结构与变化、音韵的规则与变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的语音现象。

三、形态学形态学是研究语言中词汇的构成与变化的学科。

学生需要掌握词素、词根、词缀等基本概念，了解词汇的构成方式与变化规律，能够正确地分析和描述语言的词汇现象。

四、句法学句法学是研究语言的句子结构与变化的学科。

学生需要掌握句子的基本结构、句法规则、句型变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的句子结构现象。

五、语义学语义学是研究语言中词汇和句子的意义与变化的学科。

学生需要掌握语义的基本概念、语义关系、语义变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的语义现象。

六、语用学语用学是研究语言在实际运用中的意义与功能的学科。

学生需要掌握语境、话语、交际等基本概念，了解语言在实际运用中的功能与意义，能够正确地分析和描述语言的语用现象。

七、社会语言学社会语言学是研究语言与社会因素的相互关系的学科。

学生需要掌握社会因素对语言的影响、语言的社会功能与变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的社会现象。

八、第二语言习得研究第二语言习得研究是研究人们如何学习第二语言的学科。

学生需要掌握第二语言学习的过程、影响因素、学习方法等内容，能够正确地分析和描述第二语言学习的现象。

九、语言习得理论语言习得理论是研究人们如何习得语言的学科。

学生需要掌握语言习得的基本理论、习得机制、习得过程等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言习得的现象。

十、认知语言学认知语言学是研究语言与认知关系的学科。

学生需要掌握认知的基本概念、认知语言学的理论与方法等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言与认知的关系。

第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?∙什么是语言学？∙Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics∙语言学的研究范畴∙The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)∙The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. [fəˈnetɪks]（语音学）∙ The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. [fəu ˈnɔlədʒi] （音系学）∙ The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. [mɔ:ˈfɔlədʒi]（形态学）∙ The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. [ˈs ɪnˈtæks]（句法学）∙ The study of meaning in language is called semantics. [sɪˈmæntɪks]（语义学）∙ The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. [præɡˈmætiks]（语用学）∙ The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）∙ The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）∙The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）∙But in a narrow([ˈnærəu] adj. 狭隘的；狭窄的；) sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.∙Other related branches include anthropological([ˈænθrəpəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] adj. 人类学的) linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological [ˈnjʊərəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational [ˈkɔmpju(:)ˈteiʃ(ə)n(ə)l] linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics∙语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive [priˈskriptiv] and descriptive [dɪˈskrɪptɪv]∙描写与规定∙If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.∙Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.∙Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.∙The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic [siŋˈkrɔnik] and diachronic [ˈdaiəˈkrɔnik]∙共时和历时∙The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing∙口头语与书面语∙Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.∙Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. ∙Reasons:∙1. Speech precedes([ˈpriˈsi:d] vt.& vi.在……之前发生或出现，先于；在……之上，优于；给……作序；处于……前面的位置) writing;∙2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;∙3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load ([ləud] n. 负荷；负担；装载；工作量)of communication than the written.Langue [lɑ:ŋɡ] and parole [pə'rəul]∙语言和言语∙The Swiss linguist( [ˈlɪŋgwɪst] n.通晓数国语言的人；语言学家)F. de Saussure made thedistinction between langue and parole early 20th century.∙Langue refers to the abstract ([ˈæbstrækt] adj. 抽象的，理论上的)linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community( [kəˈmju:niti] n. 社区；社会团体；共同体；[生态] 群落), and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.∙Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.语言能力和语言运用∙Competence( [ˈkɔmpitəns] n.能力；技能；相当的资产)and performance∙Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.∙He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify( [ˈspesifai] v.指定；详述；提出…的条件；使具有特性)the language rules.4/ What is language?∙语言的定义∙Language is a system of arbitrary([ˈɑ:bitrəri] adj.随意的，任性的，随心所欲的;主观的，武断的；霸道的，专制的，专横的，独断独行的)vocal( [ˈvəukəl] adj. 声音的，嗓音的；由嗓音发出或产生的；有声音的，能发出声音或语言的；畅所欲言的n.元音；[音乐]声乐作品)symbols used for human communication.∙Sapir,Edward uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition.∙Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.(purely [ˈpjʊəlɪ] adv.完全地，十足地；纯粹地；纯洁地，贞淑地) (institution[ˈɪnstiˈtju:ʃən] n.（大学、银行等规模大的）机构；惯例，制度，规定，建立；社会事业机构；<口>名人，名物)∙Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features∙语言的甄别性特征∙Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from anyanimal system of communication.∙American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.1) Arbitrariness [ˈɑ:bitrərinis]n.∙任意性（和约定俗成性）∙ It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.∙For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example.( instance [ˈinstəns] n. 例子，实例；情况；要求，建议；[法]诉讼手续vt.举…为例)∙Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely ([enˈtaɪəli:] adv.完全地，彻底地)arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation( [ˈɪmiˈteiʃən] n. 模仿，仿效；仿制品；赝品；[生]拟态)of sounds by sounds are motivated [ˈməʊtɪveɪtɪd] adj. 有动机的，有目的的；有积极性的v. 作为…的动机，激发，诱发（motivate的过去式和过去分词）in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source [sɔ:s] n. 根源，本源；源头，水源；of expressions.2) Productivity( [ˈprɔdʌkˈtiviti] n.生产率，生产力；[经济学] 生产率；[生态学]生产率)∙能产性∙Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation( [ˈɪntə:priˈteiʃən] n.解释，说明；翻译；表演，演绎；理解)of an infinitely [ˈɪnf ɪnɪtlɪ]adv.无限地,无穷地；极其large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.3) Duality ([dju(:)ˈæliti] n.二元性)∙结构二重性∙It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation([ɑ:ˈtikjuˈleiʃən] n. 清晰度，咬合，关节；发音；接合) of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4) Displacement∙语言的移位性（突破时空性）∙It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary([iˈmædʒinəri] adj. 想像中的，假想的，虚构的；[数]虚数的；幻；虚幻) world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate([iˈmi:diət] adj. 立即的；直接的，最接近的；目前的，当前的；直觉的) situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission∙文化传播性∙While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically ([dʒe'netikəli] adv. 创始；遗传学；生殖；基因)transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew([əˈnu:, əˈnju:] adv. 再，重新).Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic([ˈfəunik] adj. 声音的，有声的，声学的) medium of language∙语言的声音媒介∙Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles([ˈvi:ɪklz] n. 运载工具；传播媒介；车辆；传播媒介；手段) for communication.∙Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior([ˈpraiə] adj. 优先的；占先的；在……之前) to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech whe n the need arises(arise [əˈraiz] vi.& vt. 产生；出现；起身，起立；起源于，产生于).∙For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.∙The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .∙The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics([fəˈnetɪks] n. 语音（学）；发音学；语音学)?∙什么是语音学？∙Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all thesounds that occur([əˈkə:] vi. 发生；出现；闪现) in the world’s languages.∙语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

现代语言学的特点
一、现代语言学的特点
1、现代语言学是一门多学科体系：
首先，现代语言学是一门多学科体系，其形成的多学科体系可以从狭义的语言学（包括语音学、语法学、语义学、句法学、修辞学等）、广义的语言学（包括社会语言学、翻译学、教育语言学、语音疗法学等）以及与语言保持联系的其他学科（比如史学、社会学、文化学、神学、心理学等）等方面来看。

2、现代语言学是一门与众多学科有关的学科：
现代语言学的研究离不开与其他学科的交流，这种交流使其与其他学科发生了深刻的联系。

它的研究内容也出现了多样化的发展，其形成了与发展历史、文化、社会、心理学等文科学科之间的紧密关系。

3、现代语言学是一门把“理论”和“实践”有机地结合起来的学科：
现代语言学不仅强调理论的深入，同时也关注实际的运用，强调理论和实践应该紧密结合，应该实事求是地加以实践。

4、现代语言学有自己的独特的观点：
现代语言学不仅研究语言，而且也关注社会文化及其发展历史，以及任何语言活动所涉及的一切重要的社会现象，他们具有自己独特的观点，其核心思想是以社会性的语用观点来探讨语言，强调语言的实际运用而非纯粹的理论探讨。

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一下为资料内容：==================================== ==================================== ==========现代语言学学习笔记第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theori es, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic studyPhonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in li nguistic communicationPhonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphem es are arranged to form wordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesSemantics, which is the study of meaning in language. Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of useSociolinguistics, which is the study of language with re ference to societyPsycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the applic ation of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narr ow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching a nd learning, especially the teaching of foreign and secon d languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and co mputational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "hi gh "(religious, literary) written language . It sets model s for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, an d mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be sci entific and objective and the task of linguists is suppose d to describe the language people actually use, whetherit is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchroni c study of language describes a language as it is at so me particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical d evelopment of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。

A Course of Modern LinguisticsChapter 1 Language and Linguistics1. langue and parole 语言和言语When we are looking at language, we may come across two very important terms—langue and parole which were introduced into linguistics by Saussure, a Swiss linguist. Langue is defined as the language system that speakers of the language conform to in their verbal communication. Parole refers to the concrete speech that individual speakers produce in their verbal communication.2. What is language?Language in ge neral is “a system of symbols designed for the purpose of communicating thoughts or feelings, through the use of voice sounds or written symbols in organized combinations and patterns.”3. Design features of language 语言的识别性特征In this course, we’re going to discuss seven design features: arbitrariness, non-arbitrariness, genetic-cultural transmission, duality, discreteness, productivity and systematicity.(1) Arbitrariness vs. non-arbitrariness 语言的任意性和非任意性Arbitrariness, the immense freedom offered by broad arbitrariness of language, is subject to the constraints imposed by non-arbitrariness, the necessary compliance with grammar, idiomatic usage and social norms.(2) Transmission of language 语言的传递性Genetic transmission (遗传传递性) was put forward by Chomsky. According to him, language ability was genetically determined.Cultural transmission (文化传递性) was put forward by Hockett. According to him, it is the cultural environment that plays a crucial role in language acquisition.(3) Duality of language 语言的二重性Language has two levels. The higher level is concerned with how meaningful units are combined into a larger construction to convey meaning. At the lower level, language consists of a sequence of segments without any meaning in themselves. Duality of language contributes to the flexibility and versatility of language by facilitating language transmission.(4) Discreteness of language 语言的离散性Discreteness of language refers to the property of language that the symbols at the lower level all have definable boundaries, allowing variations in form but no gradation or continuity in identity.(5) Productivity of language 语言的创造性Productivity of language refers to the property of language which allows or enables the speaker to construct or interpret a string of linguistic forms that has never been produced or encountered, provided that it complies with the rules of the language.(6) Systematicity of language 语言的系统性3. Linguistics 语言学Linguistics is the science of language.Chapter 2 PhoneticsPhonetics (语音学) is the science that studies sounds, especially speech sounds, providingmethods for the description, classification and transcription of the sounds used in speech.1.Three branches of phonetics 语音学的三个分支(1) articulatory phonetics 发音语音学(2) acoustic phonetics 声学语音学(3) auditory phonetics 听觉语音学2. V ocal organs (lungs, larynx, pharynx, mouth and nose) 发音器官the three elements necessary for speech sounds production: the vibration of a physical body or the turbulent airflow, the acoustic noise is resonated and magnified by the bodies of air in the vocal tract; the variations in the shapes of the air-containers in the vocal tract determine the differing qualities of the speech soundsfour functions of the larynx (vocal cords) in speech: generating vocal vibrations; producing a glottal stop; producing a glottal fricative; keeping vocal folds apart to let the air pass3. Consonants 辅音Consonants are sounds made by a closure or narrowing somewhere (i.e. place of articulation 发音部位) in the vocal tract so that airflow is either completely blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced (i.e. manner of articulation发音方式) and the sounds may or may not involve the vibration of the vocal folds (i.e. voicing声带是否振动).A distinctive feature区别性特征4. V owels 元音V owels are sounds articulated without a complete closure in the mouth or a degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction and the air escapes evenly over the centre of the tongue.distinctive features: the position of the lips, the two-dimensional tongue position.Chapter 3 PhonologyPhonology 音系学: the science that studies how speech sounds are used in language to convey meanings1. Phoneme, allophone, and phone 音位，音位变体和音素Phoneme is a group of sounds that are phonetically similar and show certain characteristic patterns of distribution in the language under consideration.Allophone refers to a phonological variation of a phoneme.A phone is a sound that is actually produced in communication; it is of physical identity and is concrete in nature.The relation between phoneme, allophone and phone is a matter of realization. A phoneme is realized by its allophones; an allophone is realized in turn by a phone.2. Supra-segmental phonology 超切分音系学Supra-segmental phonology is concerned with the phonological features that extend more one segment.(1) pitch & tone 音高和声调(2) loudness & stress 响度和重音(3) tempo & rhythm 速度和节奏(4) pause & juncture 停顿和音渡Chapter 4 MorphologyMorphology 形态学: the study of the structure and the formation of words in language1. Inflectional & derivational morphology屈折形态学和派生形态学inflection: the formal changes of a word or part of a word in relation to its differing grammatical meaningsderivation: the formation of a new word by adding an element such as an affix2. Morpheme, morph & allomorph 语素、语素形态和语素变体Morpheme is a minimal unit which is formally composed of meaningless linguistic symbols at the lower level of the language and which is used in a variety of contexts with a constant meaning.Morph is a phonological form representing the relevant morpheme in speech or in writing. Morpheme is abstract in nature and is realized through its morph.Allomorph is a morphological variant of morpheme (i.e. one member of the group of morphs that realize the morpheme in speaking or writing).3. Free morpheme & bound morpheme自由语素和粘着语素Free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand alone as a word. Bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word.4. Inflectional morpheme & derivational morpheme 屈折语素和派生语素5. Lexical morpheme & grammatical morpheme 词汇语素和语法语素Chapter 5 SyntaxSyntax 句法学studies the ways words are combined to form sentences in a language.1. Traditional bottom-up approach 自下而上的传统方法是从词到句进行研究2. Constituency top-down approach 自上而下的成分分析法是从句到词，通常以tree diagram(树形图)的方式研究句子3. Constituent Structure Rules vs Lexical Insertion Rules 成分结构规则和语汇插入规则three constituent structures:Rule (1) S NP + VP；Rule (2) NP { PN, Art + N}；Rule (3) VP { V + Adv, V}lexical insertion rule: one that governs selecting from the lexicon a lexical item and inserting it into a terminal node of a constituent structure as its daughter node4. Selection restrictions 选择限制Syntactical selection restriction 句法选择限制；Semantic selection restriction 语义选择限制5. Transformational generative grammarproposed by Noam Chomsky consists of three components: the syntactic component, the phonological component and the semantic component.The syntactic component in Chomsky’s model comprises of a set phrase structure rules and a set of transformational rules. Our discussion is focused on three types of transformations: passive transformation被动转换[NP1–Aux–V–NP2 NP2–Aux+Pass–V–by+NP1: (1) The boy ate the cake. (2)The cake was eaten by the boy.]interrogative transformation 疑问转换[NP–Aux1–X Aux1–NP–X: (1)The boy has eaten the cake. (2) Has the boy eaten thecake?]negative transformation 否定转换[X–Aux1–Y X–Aux1+Neg–Y: (1) The boy will eat the cake. (2) The boy will not eat the cake. / NP –Tense – MV – X Tense + Do – NP – MV –X: (3) The boy eats the cake. (4) The boy does not eat the cake.]Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics语义学is the science of meaning.1. A very old view about meaning has been known as naming theory命名论.the conceptual view: the meaning of a word is the concept that is permanently associated with the word in our mindsA prototype is an original type, form or instance that serves as model on which later stages are based or judged.2. Sense & Reference 意义和所指sense: the meaning that relates linguistic forms with what is in the non-linguistic world;reference: the meaning that lies in the relation or contrasts among linguistic forms themselves Relation between sense and reference(1) Forms different in sense may have the same reference. (e.g. my new car; the car that I have just bought; This is the car.)(2) Forms identical in sense may have different references. (e.g. This is my car. This is my car.)(3) Forms that have a sense but have no reference. (e.g. The present King of France is bald.)3. Lexical meaning 词汇意义Lexical meaning refers to the sense in which a word is used.(1) Synonymy 同义关系Synonymy refers to the sameness in meaning between two or more words.–用在不同地域方言中的同义词(fall–autumn)–语体不同的同义词(ain't–’m not)–应用范围不同的同义词(employer–boss)–用于不同搭配的同义词(strong coffee–powerful machine)(2) Polysemy 多义关系Polysemy refers to the linguistic phenomenon that a word may be used in a number of different senses or is said to have a range of different meanings. (e.g. base)(3) Homonymy 同音/同形异义关系Homonymy refers to the sense relation that two or more words have the same form, both orthographic and phonologic, but differ in meaning (e.g. bear). (4) Antonymy反义关系Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning.- gradable可分等级的反义词(more/ less)- complementary互补性反义词(man/ woman)- relationally opposite关系反义词(husband/wife)(5) Hyponymy 上下义关系Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general word and a more specific word. (e.g. flower-rose)Chapter 7 Pragmatics, discourse analysis and text linguisticsPragmatics 语用学is the study of the meaning which is not included in semantics andwhose interpretation is dependent on its social contexts.Discourse analysis话语分析is the study of speech, focusing specially on the relation between discourse and its contexts.Text linguistics篇章语言学is part of discourse analysis, concerning mostly the grammatical or textual features of written language.1. Cohesion in texts of discourse衔接Cohesion refers to the linguistic property of units larger than the morpheme to bind together in construction, or the relations of meaning that exist within the text and that define it as a text. (1) Grammatical cohesionReference指代means indicating or referring something for interpretation. It may be analyzed into two categories: exophoric and endophoric.Substitution替代refers to the replacement of one item by another in the text and is concerned with the way substitutions realize the grammatical cohesion in the text.Ellipsis refers to the omission of an item in an utterance or in a text.Conjunction refers to the linguistic expressions that combine two elements in construction. (2) Lexical cohesion 语义衔接reiteration and collocation2. Cohesion vs. coherence 衔接和连贯Coherence refers to the natural, reasonable or logical connection in meaning among the componential parts of a text.The presence of the formal markers of cohesive relation does not necessarily mean the presence of coherence, nor does the absence of the formal marker entail the absence of coherence in the text.3. Implicatures 蕴涵Implicature refers to what a speaker implies, suggests, or means, as distinct from what is literally said. Implicatures may be divided into two types: conventional (what the speaker implies is conventionally associated with the expressions used by the speaker) and conversational (what the speaker implies has to be inferred from the particular context of the conversation).Conversational implicatures presume that the participants of the conversation follow a cooperative principle defined by Grice. The cooperative principle is embodied in four maxims. An implicature occurs when the speaker purposely flouts some of the maxims in conversation.the maxim of quality质量准则[the speaker is required to speak sincerely (e.g. A: What will you do if you fail the exam? B: I’ll eat my hat.)]the maxim of quantity数量准则[the speaker is required to provide as much information, not too much and not too little (e.g. A: I suffered a lot in the war. I heard that you suffered a heavy loss in the war, too. Tell me what you lost. B: War is war, you know.)]the maxim of relevance相关准则[the speaker is required to speak to the point (e.g. A: Will John come to our party? B: He is busy painting his house, you know.)]the maxim of manner方式准则[the speaker is required to speak clearly, briefly and to present events in a correct order (e.g. A: You’re eating the apple! Did you wash it? B: I eat it and then wash it, you know.)]4. Speech acts theory 语言行为论the locutionary act: the act of saying something meaningful in a particular language (e.g. Will you open the door for me)the illocutionary act: a conventionally associated act that the speaker simultaneous undertakes when performing the locutionary act (i.e. saying something meaningful) the perlocutionary act: an act performed as the consequence of the related locutionary and illocutionary actsChapter 8 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is the study of the various aspects of the relation between language on the one hand and speakers and society on the other.1. Dialect 方言regional dialects (or geographical dialects) & social dialects 地域方言和社会方言Regional dialect refers to a variety of language that is commonly found in a certain geographic region, and that may inform on the speaker’s geographic background. Social dialect refers to a variety of language that is commonly found among a certain group of people who have in common some social, cultural or economic features, and that may inform on the speaker’s social positions accordingly.2. Diglossia双语体Diglossia refers to a situation where two very different varieties of a language co-occur throughout a speech community, each with a distinct range of social function.3. Language planning(1) Lingua franca 族际通用语Lingua franca is now used to refer to a variety of language that is nobody’s native language and that is used to enable routine communication to take place between groups of people who speak different native languages.(2) Pidgins and Creoles 洋泾滨和克里奥尔语Pidgin refers to a kind of lingua franca which is also known as “marginal language”. It has a reduced grammatical structure, lexicon and stylistic range and has no native speakers. The formation of a pidgin usually involves two or more speech communities and requires considerable motivation on the part of the speaker.Creole refers to the pidgin which has developed from a mixture of languages and expanded in its vocabulary, grammar and stylistic range, which has acquired its own native speakers and assumed an equal or similar status of any human natural language.4. Language and society and cultureApart from establishing or maintaining social relationships between the speaker and the hearer or conveying information about the speaker, language may also reflect or reveal the social and cultural environment in which it is spoken.5. Language changeChapter 9 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is the study of the relation between language and mind, especially language acquisition and learning, and language comprehension and production.1. Language acquisition and language learningLanguage acquisition refers to the process that children use in acquiring their first language or languages before the critical age around 13.Language learning refers to the process that language learners undergo in their language learning through formal language education.(1) Different theories about language acquisition:– Imitation theory– Theory of reinforcement– Theory of innate capacity(2) Stages of language acquisition 习得语言的几个阶段-- The naming and holophrastic stage 单语词阶段-- The telegraphic stage 电报式语言阶段（双语词阶段）-- The morphemic-transformational stage 词素与转换阶段(更长更复杂的句子)(3) Language acquisition and errorsOver-generalization (over-extension)过度推广化refers to assigning new objects to a word class which they do not belong to (e.g. dog cat; tree bush).Over-regularization (over-simplification)过度规则化refers to applying a regulation or a rule to a form which is an exception (e.g. goed went; breaked broke).(4) Transfer errors 转移错误Transfer errors found in L2 learning refer to the errors resulting from improper applications of L1 rules to L2).2. Language and thoughtLanguage as the instrument of thinking3. Language comprehensionfour different levels: perceptual level 感知层次, lexical level 词汇层次, sentential level 句子层次, discourse level话语层次4. Language productionConstruction 构建; Transformation or articulation 转换或发音; Execution执行About the Final Examination (Part I)Decide whether each statement is true (T) or false (F). (15 points)e.g. Linguistics studies one specific language. (F)综合练习一ＴLinguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.F Phonetics deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning.ＦModern linguistics is mostly descriptive, but sometimes prescriptive.ＴThe classification of English consonants involves both manner of articulation and place of articulation.ＦSometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.ＦLanguage is only linearly-structured.ＴMeaning is central to the study of communication.ＴPragmatics is related to and also different from semantics.ＴSociolinguistics studies language in social contexts.ＦThere is a three-word sentence stage in first language acquisition.综合练习二Ｆ A scientific study of language is based on whatthe linguist thinks.ＦMorphology and syntax study the same aspect of language.Ｆ A synchronic study of language is a historical study.ＴIntonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.Ｔ A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.Ｔ A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.ＴComplete synonyms are rare in language.Ｔ A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.ＦLinguistic performance is essentially a social phenomenon but not a context-dependent behavior.ＦThe age at which children pass through the one-word stage is the same from child to child.综合练习三ＴGeneral linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.ＴThe study of meaning in language is known as semantics.ＦLanguage is entirely arbitrary.ＦEnglish is a typical tone language.ＦCompounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.ＴGrammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.ＴThe naming theory of meaning was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.ＦThe notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language.Ｔ A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.ＦSome languages are superior to other languages.综合练习四ＦSociolinguistics has nothing to do with language or society.ＴModern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.ＦOnly a few of the languages in the world today are both spoken and written.ＦDistinctive features are the same to any language.ＴMorphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules why words are formed.ＦIn English and many other languages, the subject usually follows the verb and the direct object usually precedes the verb.ＴHomophones are words which are identical in sound.ＦAll utterances take the form of sentences.ＴFrom a sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a dialectal variety of a language.ＴPsycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics.About the Final Examination (Part II)Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement. (15 points)e.g. F.de Saussure is a(n) ___ linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. Russian综合练习一1. ______ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisiticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology2. The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of ______. A. tongue B. hard palate C. soft palate D. vocal cords3. The vowel [u:] in [fu:d] (food) is ______ vowel.A. backB. frontC. unroundedD. central4. Two words that are “opposite” in meaning are called ______.A. synonymsB. homonymsC. antonymsD. homophones5. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) _______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme6. Modern English has a much weaker case marking system. Its sentences have to follow a basic order of ______. A. SVO B. VOS C. SOV D. OSV7. ______ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics8. Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case” and so forth are called ______ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. boundC. freeD. derivational9. Application of the transformational rules yields ______ structure.A. phrase D. deep C. prelexical D. surface10. ______ are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations. A. SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varieties综合练习二1. ______ is formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some point so that the air in escaping makes a kind of hissing sound.A. A plosiveB. A fricativeC. An affricateD. Laetrile2. The vowel [i:] in [fi:d] is a ______ vowel.A. close front unroundedB. close back unroundedC. open front roundedD. close back rounded3. ______ covers the study of language use in relation to context, and in particular the study of linguistic communication.A. SematicsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Stylistics4. The fact that ability to speak a language is transmitted from generation to generation by a process of learning, and not genetically is usually referred to as ______.A. performanceB. language acquisitionC. cultural transmissionD. competence5. Of all the speech organs, the _____ is / are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords6. ______ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country7. ______ made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChormskyB. SaussureC. SapirD. Hall8. Morphemes such as “-er”, “-en”, “dis-” and so forth are called ______ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. derivationalC. freeD. bound9. Transformational rules do not change the basic ______ of sentences.A. formB. structureC. sound patternD. meaning10. ______ are written identically but sound differently.A. HomographsB. HomohphonesC. HomonymsD. Synonyms综合练习三1. ______ variation of language is the most discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal2. The sound [s] and [z] are the results of air escaping under frication between tongue and ______ before passing through the teeth.A. hard palateB. uvulaC. alveolar ridgeD. soft palate3. ______ studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication.A. PhonologyB. MorphologyC. LexicologyD. Phonetics4. Modern linguistics, i.e., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly ______, that is, it describes and analyses language.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic5. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its ______.A. syntaxB. vocabularyC. grammarD. accent6. The study of linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called ______.A. phonologyB. morphologyC. syntaxD. semantics7. ______ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language8. ______ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. Applied linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Comparative linguistics9. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in ______ and vocabulary.A. structureB. grammarC. usageD. pronunciation10. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called _____.A. minimal pairsB. allophonesC. phonesD. allomorphs综合练习四1. V owels that are produced between the positions for a front and back vowel are called ______ vowels. A. open B. close C. front D. central2. A sound pronounced with the vocal cord vibrating is said to be a ______ sound. A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicingD. consonant3. ______ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.A. CompetenceB. PerformanceC. LearningD. Acquisition4. The goal of ______ is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and different social situations. A. psycholinguistics B. sociolinguisticsC. historical linguisticsD. general linguistics5. Pitch variation is known as ______ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice6. The study of language as a whole is often called ______ linguistics.A. particularB. generalC. ordinaryD. generative7. A scientific study of language is based on the ______ investigation of language data. A. symbolic B. systemic C. systematic D. system8. There are rules that govern which affix can be adde3de to what type of ______ to form a new word. A. stem B. affix C. root D. word9. The syntactic rules of any language are ______ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite10. Words that are opposite in meaning are ______.A. synonymsB. hyponymsC. homophonesD. antonymsAbout the Final Examination (Part III)Dissect the following words into morphemes. (10 points)some words from the on-line exercisesEg. Refreshment (re-fresh-ment)About the Final Examination (Part IV)Define each of the following terms. (30 points)the terms in the on-line exercises综合练习一1. tone-unit: the basic unit of intonation in a language.2. consonant: the sound in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract. Consonants are characterized in pronunciation by constriction of the air-stream in the vocal tract.3. free morpheme: independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.4. acoustic phonetics: Acoustics phonetics studies the vibrations of the air molecules. It studies the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.5. reference: Reference means that a linguistic from refers to in a real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.6. synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning.7. discourse: a continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, a unit of linguistic organization , and a recognizable communicative event.8. illocutionary act: the act of expressing t he speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.9. utterance: Utterance is the bit of spoken or written language that is produced and sent to the receiver in a specific context.10. language acquisition: a general term used to refer t o the development of a person’s first, second, or foreign language.综合练习二1. phonology: The study of sound system –the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.。

现代语言学复习资料教材购买：第一章绪论?. , .. (普通语言学), , . （语音学）. （音系学）. （形态学）. （句法学）. （语义学）. （语用学）. （社会语言学）. （心理语言学）( ) . （应用语言学）, , ., （人类语言学） , （神经语言学） , （数字语言学） . （计算机语言学）, , , ..., “” .; . , ., .:. ;. ;. , , .[ə'ə]. ., .. , .语言能力和语言运用. ’.’ , . .?.“”“”“” ., , ., .甄别性特征..)., . ., . , . .), .), , , . , , . . ), , . . , .), , .**********************************音系学., . . “” ., .(语言的声音媒介) .（语音）.． ?；’ .（发音语音学）, ’ . .（听觉语音学），’ . .（声学语音学）， . ..咽腔口腔鼻腔语音解剖图发音器官图–. (字母符号) , (宽式音标). (变音符号), (窄式音标). 音的比较[][]音的比较在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[][][][]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[])发音方式分塞音或爆破音: [] [] [] [] [] []擦音：[] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] []塞擦音：[][][] [][] [] [][] [])[] [] [] [][] [][] [][] [] [] [] [] [] [][][][][][] [] [][])前元音：[:] [] [] [] []中元音：[[:] [[] []后元音：[:] [] [:] [] [:])闭元音：[:] [] [:] []半闭元音：[] [[:]开元音：[] []半开元音：[[] [:] [] [] [:])不圆唇元音：[:] [] [] [] [] [[:] [[] [] [:] 圆唇元音：[:] [] [:] [])长元音[:] [[:][:] [:] [:]短元音[] [] [] [] [[] [] [] []音系学., ;, . ., ,. . .定能区分意义。

自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。

二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论）is linguisticsDefinition （语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, ., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴）—4The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics tothe research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学）The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理语言学)；2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学)；3) Anthropological linguistics (人类语言学)；4) Computational linguistics (计算语言学)Some important distinctions in linguistics —71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （规定性和描述性）Modern linguistics, ., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口头语和书面语）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （语言和言语）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。

现代语言学的特点一、综合性现代语言学是一门综合性的学科，它综合了语言学的各个分支领域，如音韵学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等，以及语言学与其他学科的交叉研究，如心理学、认知科学、社会学、人类学等。

现代语言学不再局限于研究单一的语言现象，而是以全球语言为研究对象，探索语言的普遍规律和多样性。

二、科学性现代语言学强调科学方法的运用，以数据为基础，采用实证研究的方式进行观察、实验和分析。

研究者通过收集和分析大量的语言数据，运用统计学和计算机技术等工具，来揭示语言的结构、功能和变化规律。

现代语言学倡导理论与实践相结合，追求科学性和实用性的统一。

三、描述性现代语言学强调对语言现象的客观描述，而非主观评价。

研究者通过描述语言的音韵、词汇、语法和语义等方面的特点，以及语言使用者的语言行为和语言交际情境，来揭示语言的内在规律和外部功能。

现代语言学关注语言的实际使用，强调对语言使用情境的分析和解释。

四、系统性现代语言学强调对语言的整体性和系统性的研究。

研究者关注语言的层次结构和相互关系，研究语言的规则和规律。

现代语言学通过研究语音、词汇、句法、语义等多个层面的语言要素，揭示它们之间的相互作用和内在联系。

现代语言学还关注语言变化和语言演化的过程，探讨语言系统的变动和发展。

五、认知性现代语言学强调语言与认知的密切关系。

研究者通过认知心理学和认知神经科学的方法，探索语言的认知机制和神经基础。

现代语言学关注语言的语言思维和语言表达，研究语言对思维的影响和反映。

现代语言学还研究语言的习得过程和语言障碍的机制，揭示语言与认知发展之间的关系。

六、应用性现代语言学强调语言研究的应用价值。

研究者将语言学的理论和方法应用于语言教学、语言治疗、机器翻译、语音识别等领域，为实际问题提供解决方案。

现代语言学还关注语言政策、语言规划和语言政治等社会实践问题，为促进语言多样性和语言平等做出贡献。

现代语言学以综合性、科学性、描述性、系统性、认知性和应用性为特点，旨在揭示语言的内在规律和外部功能，推动语言学的发展和应用。

当代语言学
现代语言学是一门关注语言表现形式及影响人类思维和交流方式的学科，它关注人们如何
使用话语来表达自己的想法、如何进行话语表达以及语言之间的关系等诸多领域。

现代
语言学采用客观科学方法，研究语言现象，从传统口语到书面语言，从特定的方言到通俗
的语言，所有这些都是现代语言学的研究范畴。

现代语言学的研究多有希腊哲学家亚里士多德的影子，他是第一个根据规则和模式系统地
对语言进行研究的学者，他是当时语言学的创始人。

进入十九世纪后的语言学研究，开始
将社会科学的思想引入到语言学的研究之中，这就有利于语言学开展客观科学研究，作出
更加科学的研究成果。

现代语言学主要分为四大部分，分别是语言类型学、语言结构学、语言变化学、语义学，
这四大部分组成了现代语言学体系。

其中，语言类型学着重于比较分析不同语言，语言结
构学则研究各种语言的结构；语言变化学研究语言的历史变化；语义学研究语言的语义以
及它的使用方式。

现代语言学的研究一方面可以有助于我们更加深入了解语言的结构、功能以及其中蕴藏的
蕴藏的宝藏，让我们掌握语言运用规则；另一方面，它也有助于我们更加熟悉语言之间的
关系，掌握如何沟通，让沟通更加高效。

总之，现代语言学是一门非常有趣且深远的学科，它不仅可以帮助我们深化了解语言现象，更可以帮助我们正确运用语言，在人际沟通层面发挥更大的作用。