附录A
Spin control for cars
Stability control systems are the latest in a string of technologies focusing on improved diriving safety. Such systems detect the initial phases of a skid and restore directional control in 40 milliseconds, seven times faster than the reaction time of the average human. They correct vehicle paths by adjusting engine torque or applying the left- or-right-side brakes, or both, as needed. The technology has already been applied to the Mercedes-Benz S600 coupe.
Automatic stability systems can detect the onset of a skid and bring a fishtailing vehicle back on course even before its driver can react.
Safety glass, seat belts, crumple zones, air bags, antilock brakes, traction control, and now stability control. The continuing progression of safety systems for cars has yielded yet another device designed to keep occupants from injury. Stability control systems help drivers recover from uncontrolled skids in curves, thus avoiding spinouts and accidents.
Using computers and an array of sensors, a stability control system detects the onset of a skid and restores directional control more quickly than a human driver can. Every microsecond, the system takes a "snapshot," calculating whether a car is going exactly in the direction it is being steered. If there is the slightest difference between where the driver is steering and where the vehicle is going, the system corrects its path in a split-second by adjusting engine torque and/or applying the cat's left- or right-side brakes as needed. Typical reaction time is 40 milliseconds - seven times faster than that of the average human.
A stability control system senses the driver's desired motion from the steering angle, the accelerator pedal position, and the brake pressure while determining the vehicle's actual motion from the yaw rate (vehicle rotation about its vertical axis) and lateral acceleration, explained Anton van Zanten, project leader of the Robert Bosch engineering team. Van Zanten's group and a team of engineers from Mercedes-Benz,
led by project manager Armin Muller, developed the first fully effective stability control system, which regulates engine torque and wheel brake pressures using traction control components to minimize the difference between the desired and actual motion.
Automotive safety experts believe that stability control systems will reduce the number of accidents, or at least the severity of damage. Safety statistics say that most of the deadly accidents in which a single car spins out (accounting for four percent of all deadly collisions) could be avoided using the new technology. The additional cost of the new systems are on the order of the increasingly popular antilock brake/traction control units now available for cars.
The debut of stability control technology took place in Europe on the Mercedes-Benz S600 coupe this spring. Developed jointly during the past few years by Robert Bosch GmbH and Mercedes-Benz AG, both of Stuttgart, Germany, Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC). in Bosch terminology, or the Electronic Stability Program (ESP), as Mercedes calls it, maintains vehicle stability in most driving situations. Bosch developed the system, and Mercedes-Benz integrated it into the vehicle. Mercedes engineers used the state-of-the-art Daimler-Benz virtual-reality driving simulator in Berlin to evaluate the system under extreme conditions, such as strong crosswinds. They then put the system through its paces on the slick ice of Lake Hornavan near Arjeplog, Sweden. Work is currently under way to adapt the technology to buses and large trucks, to avoid jack-knifing, for example.
Bosch is not alone in developing such a safety system. ITT Automotive of Auburn Hills, Mich., introduced its Automotive Stability Management System (ASMS) in January at the 1995 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. "ASMS is a quantum leap in the evolution of antilock brake systems, combining the best attributes of ABS and traction control into a total vehicle dynamics management system," said Timothy D. Leuliette, ITT Automotive's president and chief executive officer.
"ASMS monitors what the vehicle controls indicate should be happening, compares that to what is actually happening, then works to compensate for the difference," said Johannes Graber, ASMS program manager at ITT Automotive
Europe. ITT's system should begin appearing on vehicles worldwide near the end of
the decade, according to Tom Mathues, director of engineering of Brake & Chassis Systems at ITT Automotive North America. Company engineers are now adapting the system to specific car models from six original equipment manufacturers.
A less-sophisticated and less-effective Bosch stability control system already appears on the 1995 750iL and 850Ci V-12 models from Munich-based BMW AG. The BMW Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) system uses the same wheel-speed sensors as traction control and standard anti-lock brake (ABS) systems to recognize conditions that can destabilize a vehicle in curves and corners. To detect such potentially dangerous cornering situations, DSC measures differences in rotational speed between the two front wheels. The DSC system also adds a sensor for steering angle, Utilizes an existing one for vehicle velocity, and introduces its own software control elements in the over allantilock-brake/traction-control/stability-control system.
The new Bosch and ITT Automotive stability control systems benefit from advanced technology developed for the aerospace industry. Just as in a supersonic fighter, the automotive stability control units use a sensor-based computer system to mediate between the human controller and the environment - in this case, the interface between tire and road. In addition, the system is built around a gyroscopelike sensor
design used for missile guidance.
BEYOND ABS AND TRACTION CONTROL
Stability control is the logical extension of ABS and traction control, according to a Society of Automotive Engineers paper written by van Zanten and Bosch colleagues Rainer Erhardt and Georg Pfaff. Whereas ABS intervenes when wheel lock is imminent during braking, and traction control prevents wheel slippage when accelerating, stability control operates independently of the driver's actions even when the car is free-rolling. Depending on the particular driving situation, the system may activate an individual wheel brake or any combination of the four and adjust engine torque, stabilizing the car and severely reducing the danger of an uncontrolled skid. The new systems control the motion not only during full braking but also during partial braking, coasting, acceleration, and engine drag on the driven wheels, circumstances well beyond what ABS and traction control can handle.
The idea behind the three active safety systems is the same: One wheel locking
or slipping significantly decreases directional stability or makes steering a vehicle more difficult. If a car must brake on a low-friction surface, locking its wheels should
be avoided to maintain stability and steerability.
SPIN HANDLERS
The new systems measure any tendency toward understeer (when a car responds slowly to steering changes), or over-steer (when the rear wheels try to swing around). If a car understeers and swerves off course when driven in a curve, the stability control system will correct the error by braking the inner (with respect to the curve) rear wheel. This enables the driver, as in the case of ABS, to approach the locking limit of the road-tire interface without losing control of the vehicle. The stability control system may reduce the vehicle's drive momentum by throttling back the engine and/or by braking on individual wheels. Conversely, if the hteral stabilizing force on the rear axle is insufficient, the danger of oversteering may result in rear-end breakaway or spin-out. Here, the system acts as a stabilizer by applying the outer-front wheel brake.
The influence of side slip angle on maneuverability, the Bosch researchers explained, shows that the sensitivity of the yaw moment on the vehicle, with respect to changes in the steering angle, decreases rapidly as the slip angle of the vehicle increases. Once the slip angle grows beyond a certain limit, the driver has a much harder time recovering by steering. On dry surfaces, maneuverability is lost at slip-angle values larger than approximately 10 degrees, and on packed snow at approximately 4 degrees.
Most drivers have little experience recovering from skids. They aren't aware of the coefficient of friction between the tires and the road and have no idea of their vehicle's lateral stability margin. When the limit of adhesion is reached, the driver is usually caught by surprise and very often reacts in the wrong way, steering too much. Oversteering, ITT's Graber explained, causes the car to fishtail, throwing the vehicle even further out of control. ASMS sensors, he said, can quickly detect the beginning of a skid and momentarily activate the brakes at individual wheels to help return the vehicle to a stable line.
It is important that stability control systems be user-friendly at the limit of adhesion - that is, to act predictably in a way similar to normal driving.
The biggest advantage of stability control is its speed - it can respond immediately not only to skids but also to shifting vehicle conditions (such as changes in weight or tire wear) and road quality. Thus, the systems achieve optimum driving stability by changing the lateral stabilizing forces.
For a stability control system to recognize the difference between what the driver wants (desired course) and the actual movement of the vehicle (actual course), current cars require an efficient set of sensors and a greater computer capacity for processing information.
The Bosch VDC/ESP electronic control unit contains a conventional circuit board with two partly redundant microcontrollers using 48 kilobytes of ROM each. The 48-kB memory capacity is representative of the large amount of "intelligence" required to perform the design task, van Zanten said. ABS alone, he wrote in the SAE paper, would require one-quarter of this capacity, while ABS and traction control together require only one half of this software capacity.
In addition to ABS and traction control systems and related sensors, VDC/ESP uses sensors for yaw rate, lateral acceleration, steering angle, and braking pressure as well as information on whether the car is accelerating, freely rolling, or braking. It obtains the necessary information on the current load condition of the engine from the engine controller. The steering-wheel angle sensor is based on a set of LED and photodiodes mounted in the steering wheel. A silicon-micromachine pressure sensor indicates the master cylinder's braking pressure by measuring the brake fluid pressure in the brake circuit of the front wheels (and, therefore, the brake pressure induced by the driver).
Determining the actual course of the vehicle is a more complicated task. Wheel speed signals, which are provided for antilock brakes/traction control by inductive wheel speed sensors, are required to derive longitudinal slip. For an exact analysis of possible movement, however, variables describing lateral motion are needed, so the system must be expanded with two additional sensors - yaw rate sensors and lateral acceleration sensors.
A lateral accelerometer monitors the forces occurring in curves. This analog
sensor operates according to a damped spring-mass mechanism, by which a linear Hall generator transforms the spring displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor
must be very sensitive, with an operating range of plus or minus 1.4 g.
YAW RATE GYRO
At the heart of the latest stability control system type is the yaw rate sensor, which is similar in function to a gyroscope. The sensor measures the speed at which the car rotates about its vertical axis. This measuring principle originated in the aviation industry and was further developed by Bosch for large-scale vehicle production. The existing gyro market offers two widely different categories of devices: $6000 units for aerospace and navigation systems (supplied by firms such as GEC Marconi Avionics Ltd., of Rochester, Kent, U.K.) and $160 units for videocameras. Bosch chose a vibrating cylinder design that provides the highest performance at the lowest cost, according to the SAE paper. A large investment was necessary to develop this sensor so that it could withstand the extreme environmental conditions of automotive use. At the same time, the cost for the yaw rate sensor had to be reduced so that it would be sufficiently affordable for vehicle use.
The yaw rate sensor has a complex internal structure centered around a small hollow steel cylinder that serves as the measuring element. The thin wall of the cylinder is excited with piezoelectric elements that vibrate at a frequency of 15 kilohertz. Four pairs of these piezo elements are arranged on the circumference of the cylinder, with paired elements positioned opposite each other. One of these pairs brings the open cylinder into resonance vibration by applying a sinusoidal voltage at its natural frequency to the transducers; another pair, which is displaced by 90 degrees, stabilizes the vibration. At both element pairs in between, so-called vibration nodes shift slightly depending on the rotation of the car about its vertical axis. If there is no yaw input, the vibration forms a standing wave. With a rate input, the positions of the nodes and antinodes move around the cylinder wall in the opposite direction to the direction of rotation (Coriolis acceleration). This slight shift serves as a measure for the yaw rate (angular velocity) of the car.
Several drivers who have had hands-on experience with the new systems in slippery cornering conditions speak of their cars being suddenly nudged back onto the right track just before it seems that their back ends might break away.
Some observers warn that stability controls might lure some drivers into overconfidence in low-friction driving situations, though they are in the minority. It may, however, be necessary to instruct drivers as to how to use the new capability properly. Recall that drivers had to learn not to "pump" antilock brake systems.
Although little detail has been reported regarding next-generation active safety systems for future cars (beyond various types of costly radar proximity scanners and other similar systems), it is clear that accident-avoidance is the theme for automotive safety engineers. "The most survivable accident is the one that never happens," said ITT's Graber. "Stability control technology dovetails nicely with the tremendous strides that have been made to the physical structure and overall capabilities of the automobile." The next such safety system is expected to do the same.
附录B
汽车的转向控制
控制系统稳定性是针对提高驾驶安全性提出的一系列措施中最新的一个。这个系统能够在40毫秒内实现从制动开始到制动恢复的过程，这个时间是人的反应时间得七倍。他们通过调整汽车扭矩或者通过应用汽车左侧或右侧制动，如果需要甚至两者兼用，来实现准确的行车路线。这个系统已被应用于奔驰S600汽车了。
稳定的机械自动系统能够在制动时发现肇端，并且在驾驶人员发现能够反应以前实现车辆的减速。
安全玻璃，安全带，撞击缓冲区，安全气囊，ABS系统，牵引力控制系统还有现在的稳定调节系统。汽车安全系统的连续升级，已经产生了一种为保护汽车所有者安全的设计模式。稳定调节系统帮助驾驶员从不可控制的曲线制动中解脱出来，从而避免了汽车的摆动滑行和交通事故。
利用计算机和一系列传感器，稳定调节系统能够检测到制动轮的打滑并且比人更快的恢复对汽车的方向控制。系统每百万分之一秒作出一次快速捕捉，以及断断汽车是否在按照驾驶员的路线行驶。如果检测到汽车行驶路线和驾驶员驾驶路线存在一个微小的偏差，系统会在瞬间纠正发动机扭矩或者应用汽车左右制动。过程的标准反应时间是40毫秒----人的平均反应时间的七分之一。
罗伯特博世工程系统负责人安东·范·桑特解释说：“一个稳定的控制系统能够‘感觉到”驾驶员想要运动的方向，通过控制转向角度，油门踏板的位置，制动板的状态来确定汽车实际运动路线的偏航比率（汽车偏离方向轴的角度）和横向加速度”。项目负责人阿明·马勒领导着范桑特的工作小组和奔驰汽车公司的工程师发明了第一个完全有效的稳定调节系统，该系统由发动机扭矩控制系统，制动系统，牵引控制系统组成以实现理想与现实运动之间的最小差距。
汽车安全专家相信稳定调节系统能够减少交通事故的发生，至少是在伤亡严重的事故方面。安全统计表明，多数的单车撞击事故伤亡（占伤亡事故发生的4%），事故能够通过应用这项新技术避免。这项新系统的额外费用主要用于一系列目前汽车日益普遍应用的制动/牵引控制锁组件。
稳定调节系统技术首次应用于欧洲的奔驰S600汽车，是由德国斯图加特市的罗伯特博世公司和奔驰公司在过去几年共同研制的。该系统在博世公司被称为汽车动力控制（VDC），而默西迪称它为稳定电控系统（ESP），作用就是在任何状况下维持车辆的稳定性。博世公司开发了这项系统，奔驰公司把它应用于车辆。工程师默西迪丝在柏林应用戴姆勒奔驰汽车虚拟驾驶模拟器在极限情况下对系
统进行评估，例如极强的侧风。然后他们在瑞典的安杰普劳附近的后娜瓦安湖的冰面上进行性能测试。工作通常是在公路上进行以适用于公共汽车和大卡车，例如避免的折合问题。
稳定调节系统将在1995年中应用于欧洲S系列产品上，随后会在1996年进入美国市场（1995年11月产品）。用户可以选择750美元的系统，就像应用于梅赛德斯的试验用的V8发动机上的，也可以选择价格为2400美元的应用于六缸发动机汽车的系统。后者的系统中差不多有1650美元是用于牵引控制系统，该系统是稳定性系统的先决条件。
并不是只有博世公司一家在开发这样的安全系统，美国密歇根州的ITT（美国国际电信公司）汽车公司的奥伯恩·希尔，在1995年1月底特律北美国际汽车展览会上展示了管理系统（ASMS），“车辆控制器应该像空对地导弹的控制器那样，比较而言，事实上那已经实现了，不同的是两者的费用不同”，美国国际电信公司驻欧洲空对地导弹控制工程负责人约翰尼斯·格雷得说。北美ITT公司“汽车制动和底盘工程”主管汤姆·麦兹指出，在未来十年美国国际电信公司的系统要首先出现在车辆上。很多工程师正在六辆特殊制造的精密车辆模型上调试这种系统。
一个比较简单和较低效率的博世的稳定调节系统也在1995年出现在慕尼黑宝马公司的AG系列750iL和850Ci V-12两款车上。宝马公司的稳定调节系统（DSC）运用的车轮速度传感器同牵引控制系统和标准ABS防抱死系统一样能够识别外
部情况，使车辆更容易实现曲线行驶和转弯。为了检测出车辆转弯时潜在的危险，DSC系统检测的是两前轮在转弯时的速度差，DSC系统添加了一个更高级的角度传感器利用现有的一个车辆速度，并且引入了它自身带有的关于完全抱死系统，牵引控制系统，稳定调节系统软件控制原理。
新的博世和ITT自动稳定调节系统得益于航空工业高级技术的发展，就像超音速发动机，汽车的稳定调节单元运用一个基于计算机系统的传感器来调和人与
系统之间的，还有轮胎与地面之间差异。另外，系统采用了用于导弹制导系统的
回旋传感器。
优于ABS防抱死系统和牵引控制系统之处
根据范·桑特和博世公司的瑞娜·伊哈德，杰瑞·帕夫在《汽车工程师》杂志所提到的，稳定调节系统是ABS防抱死系统和牵引控制系统的合理扩展。但是ABS系统的作用发生在制动时车轮转向将被锁死时，牵引控制是预防加速时的车轮滑动，稳定系统是当汽车自由转向时能独立于驾驶员作出操作。依靠不同的驾驶状况系统可以使每个车轮制动或者迅速使四个轮转速适合于发动机的扭矩，从而使车辆稳定和减少由于制动失控带来的危险。新系统不仅仅控制完全制动还可以作用与部分制动，行车路线，加速度，车轮与发动机动作的滞后等，这些是ABS防抱死系统和牵引控制系统所远远不能达到的。
三种主动的安全系统的作用时刻是一致的，那就是一个车轮被锁死或者车轮渐渐失去方向稳定性或者车轮使得行驶更加困难。如果一辆车必须在较低摩擦系数的路面制动，必须避免车轮抱死以保持行驶稳定性和可驾驶性。
ABS防抱死系统和牵引控制系统能够预防侧滑，而稳定性系统采取减少侧面受力的稳定措施。如果行驶车辆的侧力不再适当的分配在一个或者更多轮上，车辆就会失稳，尤其是车辆沿曲线行驶时。驾驶员感觉到的“摇摆”起初是转弯或者与车的轴线形成一个纺锤形时。一个独立的传感器必须能够识别这个“纺锤”，
而 ABS防抱死系统和牵引控制系统通过车轮的转速不能检测车辆的横向运动。
转向操作
新系统通过对微小的汽车不足转向（当车辆对于方向盘操作反应迟缓）和方向盘的“过敏”反应（后轮发生来回摆动）。当车辆在转向时如果发生不足转向和过度转向运动时，稳定调节系统能够通过后轮进行内部制动（针对曲线）纠正错误。这种情况是驾驶员不能感觉类似于ABS防抱死系统接近于抱死极限，而使车辆不失去控制。稳定调节系统能够通过发动机降速或者单轮制动来减小推动力。
博世公司的研究员解释说：“侧面偏离角度表明此时车辆的偏航灵敏性，并反映为转向角度，转向角度随着车辆偏离角度的增大而减小。一旦偏离角度超过某一限度，驾驶员就很难重新进行操作。在干燥的路面偏离角度不能够超过10度，而在积雪路面上极限偏离角度为4度。
多数司机没有从制动中恢复的经验。他们不知道轮胎和地面之间的摩擦系数，更不知道他们的车的侧缘稳定边界。当极限被冲破时，驾驶员通常会很紧张以至于做出错误的反应。ITT的格雷柏解释说：“过度转向引起车辆摆尾，使汽车更
快的失控。ASMS传感器能够快速的检测到制动开始时各个车轮的活动，从而使
车辆恢复到稳定行驶轨道。
对于稳定调节系统界面的可操作性是很重要的，这样可以预示带有稳定系统的驾驶和普通驾驶给人的感觉没有什么区别。
稳定系统最大的优点在于速度，它不仅可以对制动作出快速反应，还可以对车辆状况（例如车重变化，轮胎磨损），路面质量作出快速反应统就能够通过改变侧面受力平横处理，达到最好的驾驶稳定性。
稳定系统识别驾驶员想达到的（理想路线）和车辆实际行驶路线（实际路线）的不同，目前的汽车需要一套高效的传感器和一台高效处理信息的处理器。
博世公司的VDC/ESP电子控制单元是一个由两个48兆的ROM组成的传统实验电路板。范桑特说：“48KB的内存容量是大量用以完成设计任务的‘智能’的代表”。他在SAE中指出。ABS防抱死系统是独立的，只提供四分之一的这样的容量，而ABS和牵引控制系统组合在一起的容量只有这个软件容量的一半。
除了ABS防抱死系统和牵引控制系统所具有的关系传感器外，VDC/ESP运用了偏航比率传感器，横向加速度传感器，转向角传感器，制动压力传感器来获取汽车的加速，摇摆或者刹车的信息。系统通过管理员获得所需的通常的路面信息。方向盘上的传感器由一组安装在方向盘上的发光二极管和光敏二极管上组成。一只硅压力传感器通过控制前轮刹车内压力油的压力控制制动压力（因为制车压力来源于驾驶员）。
确定车辆实际的行驶路线是一项非常复杂的工作。通过必须的纵向滑动车轮速度传感器提供给反向制动或者牵引控制系统的车轮转速信号，以对可能发生的动作作出精确的分析，无论如何侧向难预料的运动分析是必须的，所以系统必须再拓展两个额外的传感器---偏航比率传感器和侧向加速度传感器。
横向加速度表检测沿曲线行驶时所带来的受力状况。这种类似的传感器通过一台直线霍尔发电机把弹簧的直线运动转变成电信号来实现对弹簧机构的控制。
这种传感器必须很灵敏，它的控制角为±1.4g。
偏航比率回转仪
最新的稳定调节系统的核心在于类似于陀螺仪的偏航比率回转仪。传感器测量车辆对竖直轴的旋转。这个测量原理来源于航空工业，并且被博施公司大规模的应用于汽车工业。现有的回转仪市场提供两种选择，一种是应用与航空航天业的价值6000美元（由位于英国罗彻斯特的美国通用电器公司航空股份有限公司提供），另一种是用于照相机的价值160美元。由SAE报得知博施公司采取一种
圆柱形设计方案以实现低成本下的高性能。这种传感器需要一项更大的投资以应对汽车所处的极端环境状态。同时偏航比率回转仪的价格必须降低，这样才能充分应用与汽车。
偏航比率回转仪有一个复杂的内部结构，其内部是有一个很小的圆柱形钢管伺服测量元件。圆柱的薄壁上有压电元件能够在15千赫兹的频率下震动。四对这样的感应器安放在圆柱体的周围，一对元件的位置与另一对的位置相对。其中的一对通过应用正弦电压引起柱体在其固有频率下产生共振，并将振动传送给变频器。在每一对传感器之间，振颤节点绕着汽车的垂直轴作细微的运动。这时如果没有偏航输入，震动曲线就是一条稳定的曲线。如果有信号输入，节点的位置和曲线的波谷就会在相对的防线绕着圆筒壁做旋转运动（科里奥利加速度）。这个轻微的位移就会成为汽车偏航比率的度量标准。
许多司机都相互宣传他们的车辆在光滑转弯处，车尾部将要被甩出去的时候，新系统会把车辆“推”回到正确的轨迹上方面的经验。
许多观察员指出，稳定调节系统可能会使司机在较低摩擦力的路面上过分自信，尽管他们占少数。或许需要指导司机怎样来恰当的使用车辆稳定调节系统。就像当初让司机学习不能向防抱死制动系统里泵油一样。
虽然只介绍了很少的关于为未来汽车研制的新一代主动安全系统（远远超过了雷达扫描仪类似的系统），但避免交通事故仍然是汽车安全工程的主题。美国国际电信公司负责人指出“当稳定调节技术伴随着汽车结构全面性能稳步提高的时候，多数可避免的事故将不再发生了”。新一代的安全系统也会起到同样的效果。
附录A 英文文献 Drive axle/differential All vehicles have some type of drive axle/differential assembly incorporated into the driveline. Whether it is front, rear or four wheel drive, differentials are necessary for the smooth application of engine power to the road. Powerflow The drive axle must transmit power through a 90°angle. The flow of power in conventional front engine/rear wheel drive vehicles moves from the engine to the drive axle in approximately a straight line. However, at the drive axle, the power must be turned at right angles (from the line of the driveshaft) and directed to the drive wheels. This is accomplished by a pinion drive gear, which turns a circular ring gear. The ring gear is attached to a differential housing, containing a set of smaller gears that are splined to the inner end of each axle shaft. As the housing is rotated, the internal differential gears turn the axle shafts, which are also attached to the drive wheels. Fig 1 Drive axle
On the vehicle sideslip angle estimation through neural networks: Numerical and experimental results. S. Melzi,E. Sabbioni Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 25 (2011)：14~28 电脑估计车辆侧滑角的数值和实验结果 S.梅尔兹,E.赛博毕宁 机械系统和信号处理2011年第25期：14~28
摘要 将稳定控制系统应用于差动制动内/外轮胎是现在对客车车辆的标准（电子稳定系统ESP、直接偏航力矩控制DYC）。这些系统假设将两个偏航率(通常是衡量板)和侧滑角作为控制变量。不幸的是后者的具体数值只有通过非常昂贵却不适合用于普通车辆的设备才可以实现直接被测量,因此只能估计其数值。几个州的观察家最终将适应参数的参考车辆模型作为开发的目的。然而侧滑角的估计还是一个悬而未决的问题。为了避免有关参考模型参数识别/适应的问题,本文提出了分层神经网络方法估算侧滑角。横向加速度、偏航角速率、速度和引导角,都可以作为普通传感器的输入值。人脑中的神经网络的设计和定义的策略构成训练集通过数值模拟与七分布式光纤传感器的车辆模型都已经获得了。在各种路面上神经网络性能和稳定已经通过处理实验数据获得和相应的车辆和提到几个处理演习(一步引导、电源、双车道变化等)得以证实。结果通常显示估计和测量的侧滑角之间有良好的一致性。 1 介绍 稳定控制系统可以防止车辆的旋转和漂移。实际上，在轮胎和道路之间的物理极限的附着力下驾驶汽车是一个极其困难的任务。通常大部分司机不能处理这种情况和失去控制的车辆。最近,为了提高车辆安全，稳定控制系统(ESP[1,2]; DYC[3,4])介绍了通过将差动制动/驱动扭矩应用到内/外轮胎来试图控制偏航力矩的方法。 横摆力矩控制系统（DYC）是基于偏航角速率反馈进行控制的。在这种情况下,控制系统使车辆处于由司机转向输入和车辆速度控制的期望的偏航率[3,4]。然而为了确保稳定，防止特别是在低摩擦路面上的车辆侧滑角变得太大是必要的[1,2]。事实上由于非线性回旋力和轮胎滑移角之间的关系，转向角的变化几乎不改变偏航力矩。因此两个偏航率和侧滑角的实现需要一个有效的稳定控制系统[1,2]。不幸的是,能直接测量的侧滑角只能用特殊设备(光学传感器或GPS惯性传感器的组合)，现在这种设备非常昂贵,不适合在普通汽车上实现。因此, 必须在实时测量的基础上进行侧滑角估计，具体是测量横向/纵向加速度、角速度、引导角度和车轮角速度来估计车辆速度。 在主要是基于状态观测器/卡尔曼滤波器(5、6)的文学资料里, 提出了几个侧滑角估计策略。因为国家观察员都基于一个参考车辆模型,他们只有准确已知模型参数的情况下，才可以提供一个令人满意的估计。根据这种观点,轮胎特性尤其关键取决于附着条件、温度、磨损等特点。 轮胎转弯刚度的提出就是为了克服这些困难,适应观察员能够提供一个同步估计的侧滑角和附着条件[7,8]。这种方法的弊端是一个更复杂的布局的估计量导致需要很高的计算工作量。 另一种方法可由代表神经网络由于其承受能力模型非线性系统，这样不需要一个参
The development of automobile As the world energy crisis and the war and the energy consumption of oil -- and are full of energy in one day someday it will disappear without a trace. Oil is not inresources. So in oil consumption must be clean before finding a replacement. With the development of science and technology the progress of the society people invented the electric car. Electric cars will become the most ideal of transportation. In the development of world each aspect is fruitful especially with the automobile electronic technology and computer and rapid development of the information age. The electronic control technology in the car on a wide range of applications the application of the electronic device cars and electronic technology not only to improve and enhance the quality and the traditional automobile electrical performance but also improve the automobile fuel economy performance reliability and emission spurification. Widely used in automobile electronic products not only reduces the cost and reduce the complexity of the maintenance. From the fuel injection engine ignition devices air control and emission control and fault diagnosis to the body auxiliary devices are generally used in electronic control technology auto development mainly electromechanical integration. Widely used in automotive electronic control ignition system mainly electronic control fuel injection system electronic control ignition system electronic control automatic transmission electronic control ABS/ASR control system electronic control suspension system electronic control power steering system vehicle dynamic control system the airbag systems active belt system electronic control system and the automatic air-conditioning and GPS navigation system etc. With the system response the use function of quick car high reliability guarantees of engine power and reduce fuel consumption and emission regulations meet standards. The car is essential to modern traffic tools. And electric cars bring us infinite joy will give us the physical and mental relaxation. Take for example automatic transmission in road can not on the clutch can achieve automatic shift and engine flameout not so effective improve the driving convenience lighten the fatigue strength. Automatic transmission consists mainly of hydraulic torque converter gear transmission pump hydraulic control system electronic control system and oil cooling system etc. The electronic control of suspension is mainly used to cushion the impact of the body and the road to reduce vibration that car getting smooth-going and stability. When the vehicle in the car when the road uneven road can according to automatically adjust the height. When the car ratio of height low set to gas or oil cylinder filling or oil. If is opposite gas or diarrhea. To ensure and improve the level of driving cars driving stability. Variable force power steering system can significantly change the driver for the work efficiency and the state so widely used in electric cars. VDC to vehicle performance has important function it can according to the need of active braking to change the wheels of the car car motions of state and optimum control performance and increased automobile adhesion controlling and stability. Besides these appear beyond 4WS 4WD electric cars can greatly improve the performance of the value and ascending simultaneously. ABS braking distance is reduced and can keep turning skills effectively improve the stability of the directions simultaneously reduce tyre wear. The airbag appear in large programs protected the driver and passengers safety and greatly reduce automobile in collision of drivers and passengers in the buffer to protect the safety of life. Intelligent electronic technology in the bus to promote safe driving and that the other functions. The realization of automatic driving through various sensors. Except some smart cars equipped with multiple outside sensors can fully perception of information and traffic facilities
浅谈差速器 普通行星齿轮差速器由行星架（差速器壳），半轴齿轮等零件组成。它将发动机的动力，直接驱动差速器壳体内的轴，再由行星齿轮驱动左、右两半轴，并分别驱动左、右车轮。差速器的设计应满足：左半轴转速与右半轴转速之和等于两倍的行星架转速。当两侧车轮以纯滚动的形式做等距行驶时，会减少轮胎和路面的摩擦.差速器的这种调整是自动的，这里涉及到“最小能耗原理”，即地球上所有物体都倾向于耗能最小的状态。例如把一粒豆子放入一个碗内，豆子会自动停留在碗底，而不会留在碗壁，因为碗底是能量消耗最低的位置（位能），它会自动选择静止（动能最小）而不会不断地运动。同样的道理，汽车转弯时所有的驱动轮，左、右车轮与行星架的速度是相等的，而在汽车转弯时的三个平衡状态被破坏，导致内侧轮转速减小，横向轮RPM增加。 汽车差速器是驱动桥的主要部件。其功能是传递两侧半轴的动力，同时允许两半轴以不同的速度旋转，同时能够满足按照国家标准的自动的最低能量消耗的趋势，在转弯时自动接受转向半径来调整右轮转速，由于横向摩擦轮拖动现象，内侧车轮有滑动现象，现在两个驱动轮可以产生两个相反方向的附加力，因此符合最小的能源消耗原理, 这不可避免地导致了两侧车轮的速度差，从而摧毁了三个平衡关系，并通过半轴齿轮体现出来。迫使行星齿轮产生自转，使外侧半轴转速更快，内侧半轴减速，从而实现两侧车轮转速的差异。 如果任意一侧驱动轴上的驱动轮都使用一个整体的刚性连接，那么这两个轮子只能以相同的角度旋转。所以，当车辆的转向轮驱动时，由于外侧车轮比内侧车轮横过的距离大，将使外侧车轮在滚动的同时产生延迟，内侧车轮在滚动的同时产生滑动。即使车轮在凹凸不平的道路上跑直线，因为虽然道路是直，但轮胎滚动半径范围（轮胎制造误差，磨损不同，通过不均或气压不等所造成的车轮滑动）轮毂时，不仅会加剧轮胎的磨损滑动，增加动力性和燃油消耗，还能使车辆的转向困难，制动性能变得差.为了使车轮尽可能不会发生滑动的结构，必须保证车轮可以以不同的角度旋转。 轴间差速器：通常驾驶的轿车轮毂轴承支撑在主轴上，能够以任何角度旋转，驱动车轮分别与两根半轴刚性连接，在两根半轴之间有一个差速器，这种差速器称为轴间差速器。 如果使后轮轴成为一个整体，他将无法使两侧的车轮转速有差异，即不能做自动调整。为了解决这个问题，早在一百年前，法国雷诺汽车公司创始人路易斯·雷诺设计了一个差速器。 现代汽车上的差速器通常是根据其工作特性分为齿轮式差速器和限滑差速器两大类。 1.开模差速器 诺基开模差速器的结构是典型的行星齿轮组的结构，只有太阳轮和小齿轮环外
汽车悬架原理外文文献及翻译 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) The rinciple Of Car Suspensions By William Harris University of Michigan When people think of automobile performance, they normally think of horsepower, torque and zero-to-60 acceleration. But all of the power generated by a piston engine is useless if the driver can't control the car. That's why automobile engineers turned their attention to the suspension system almost as soon as they had mastered the four-stroke internal combustion engine. The job of a car suspension is to maximize the friction between the tires and the road surface, to provide steering stability with good handling and to ensure the comfort of the passengers. In this article, we'll explore how car suspensions work, how they've evolved over the years and where the design of suspensions is headed in the future.
附录 Modern car’s design always stresses people-oriented, so safety, comfort, Environmental protection and energy saving have been the design theme And target in car design. Ergonomics layout design is not only relate to the effective use of internal space and improve car’s comfort and safety Performance, but it will also impact internal and external modeling results, and further affects the vehicle's overall performance and marketability.Soergonomics’application and research during car design and development process occupy an important position.After more than 50 years of construction and development, China’s Automobile industry has become the leading power of automobile production and consumption in the world. In particular, with the rise and rapid de velopment of independent brand’s vehicles, we pay more attention To the development processes and the technical requirements of hard Points’ layout. Through the three typical processes such as modern vehicle developing Process, body development process and using ergonomic to progress Inner auto-body layout, describe ergonomic layoationship between design, Aunt design in which stage of the process of vehicle development, the red The importance of working steps. The automobile body total arrangement is the automobile design most initial is also the most essential step, is other design stage premise and the foundation, to a great extent is deciding the body design success or failure. Picks generally in the actual design process With by forward and reverse two design method (1) to design (from inside to outside law) to design method namely "humanist", is coming based on the human body arrangement tool to define the pilot and the crew member gradually rides the space and the vehicle comes to pay tribute each article the arrangement, take satisfies the human body to ride with the driving comfortableness as the premise, said simply is determined first satisfies the human body to ride under the comfortable premise, carries on the indoor arrangement first, then carries on the complete bikes external styling design again. The concrete method and the step are as follows: ①Determine 5% and 95% manikin H position and the chair by the SAE recommendation's enjoyable line or the region law adjustment traveling schedule, seat
驱动桥设计 随着汽车对安全、节能、环保的不断重视，汽车后桥作为整车的一个关键部件，其产品的质量对整车的安全使用及整车性能的影响是非常大的，因而对汽车后桥进行有效的优化设计计算是非常必要的。 驱动桥处于动力传动系的末端，其基本功能是增大由传动轴或变速器传来的转矩,并将动力合理地分配给左、右驱动轮，另外还承受作用于路面和车架或车身之间的垂直力力和横向力。驱动桥一般由主减速器、差速器、车轮传动装置和驱动桥壳等组成。 驱动桥作为汽车四大总成之一，它的性能的好坏直接影响整车性能，而对于载重汽车显得尤为重要。驱动桥设计应当满足如下基本要求： 1、符合现代汽车设计的一般理论。 2、外形尺寸要小，保证有必要的离地间隙。 3、合适的主减速比，以保证汽车的动力性和燃料经济性。 4、在各种转速和载荷下具有高的传动效率。 5、在保证足够的强度、刚度条件下，力求质量小，结构简单，加工工艺性 好，制造容易，拆装，调整方便。 6、与悬架导向机构运动协调，对于转向驱动桥，还应与转向机构运动协调。智能电子技术在汽车上得以推广使得汽车在安全行驶和其它功能更上一层楼。通过各种传感器实现自动驾驶。除些之外智能汽车装备有多种传感器能充分感知交通设施及环境的信息并能随时判断车辆及驾驶员是否处于危险之中，具备自主寻路、导航、避撞、不停车收费等功能。有效提高运输过程中的安全，减少驾驶员的操纵疲劳度，提高乘客的舒适度。当然蓄电池是电动汽车的关键，电动汽车用的蓄电池主要有：铅酸蓄电池、镍镉蓄电池、钠硫蓄电池、钠硫蓄电池、锂电池、锌—空气电池、飞轮电池、燃料电池和太阳能电池等。在诸多种电池中，燃料电池是迄今为止最有希望解决汽车能源短缺问题的动力源。燃料电池具有高效无污染的特性，不同于其他蓄电池，其不需要充电，只要外部不断地供给燃料，就能连续稳定地发电。燃料电池汽车(FCEV)具有可与内燃机汽车媲美的动力性能，在排放、燃油经济性方面明显优于内燃机车辆。
汽车保险中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
汽车保险 汽车保险是在事故后保证自己的财产安全合同。尽管联邦法律没有强制要求，但是在大多数州（新罕布什和威斯康星州除外）都要求必须购买汽车保险；在各个州都有最低的保险要求。在鼻腔只购买汽车保险的两个州，如果没有足够的证据表明车主财力满足财务责任法的要求，那么他就必须买一份汽车保险。就算没有法律规定，买一份合适的汽车保险对司机避免惹上官和承担过多维修费用来说都是非常实用的。 依据美国保险咨询中心的资料显示，一份基本的保险单应由6个险种组成。这其中有些是有州法律规定，有些是可以选择的，具体如下： 1.身体伤害责任险 2.财产损失责任险 3.医疗险或个人伤害保护险 4.车辆碰撞险 5.综合损失险 6.无保险驾驶人或保额不足驾驶人险 责任保险 责任险的投保险额一般用三个数字表示。不如，你的保险经纪人说你的保险单责任限额是20/40/10，这就代表每个人的人身伤害责任险赔偿限额是2万美元，每起事故的热身上海责任险赔偿限额是4万美元，每起事故的财产损失责任险的赔偿限额是1万美元。 人身伤害和财产损失责任险是大多数汽车保险单的基础。要求汽车保险的每个州都强令必须投保财产损失责任险，佛罗里达是唯一要求汽车保险但不要求投保人身伤害责任险的州。如果由于你的过错造成了事故，你的责任险会承担人身伤害、财产损失和法律规定的其他费用。人身伤害责任险将赔偿医疗费和误工工资；财产损失责任险将支付车辆的维修及零件更换费用。财产损失责任险通常承担对其他车辆的维修费用，但是也可以对你的车撞坏的灯杆、护栏、建筑物等其他物品的损坏进行赔偿。另一方当事人也可以决定起诉你赔偿精神损失。
As the world energy crisis, and the war and the energy consumption of oil -- and are full of energy, in one day, someday it will disappear without a trace. Oil is not in resources. So in oil consumption must be clean before finding a replacement. With the development of science and technology the progress of the society, people invented the electric car. Electric cars will become the most ideal of transportation. In the development of world each aspect is fruitful, especially with the automobile electronic technology and computer and rapid development of the information age. The electronic control technology in the car on a wide range of applications, the application of the electronic device, cars, and electronic technology not only to improve and enhance the quality and the traditional automobile electrical performance, but also improve the automobile fuel economy, performance, reliability and emissions purification. Widely used in automobile electronic products not only reduces the cost and reduce the complexity of the maintenance. From the fuel injection engine ignition devices, air control and emission control and fault diagnosis to the body auxiliary devices are generally used in electronic control technology, auto development mainly electromechanical integration. Widely used in automotive electronic control ignition system mainly electronic control fuel injection system, electronic control ignition system, electronic control automatic transmission, electronic control (ABS/ASR) control system, electronic control suspension system, electronic control power steering system, vehicle dynamic control system, the airbag systems, active belt system, electronic control system and the automatic air-conditioning and GPS navigation system etc. With the system response, the use function of quick car, high reliability, guarantees of engine power and reduce fuel consumption and emission regulations meet standards. The car is essential to modern traffic tools. And electric cars bring us infinite joy will give us the physical and mental relaxation. Take for example, automatic transmission in road, can not on the clutch, can achieve automatic shift and engine flameout, not so effective improve the driving convenience lighten the fatigue strength. Automatic transmission consists mainly of hydraulic torque converter, gear transmission, pump, hydraulic control system, electronic control system and oil cooling system, etc. The electronic control of suspension is mainly used to cushion the impact of the body and the road to reduce vibration that car getting smooth-going and
汽车变速器设计 ----------外文翻译 我们知道，汽车发动机在一定的转速下能够达到最好的状态，此时发出的功率比较大，燃油经济性也比较好。因此，我们希望发动机总是在最好的状态下工作。但是，汽车在使用的时候需要有不同的速度，这样就产生了矛盾。这个矛盾要通过变速器来解决。 汽车变速器的作用用一句话概括，就叫做变速变扭，即增速减扭或减速增扭。为什么减速可以增扭，而增速又要减扭呢？设发动机输出的功率不变，功率可以表示为 N = w T，其中w是转动的角速度，T是扭距。当N固定的时候，w与T是成反比的。所以增速必减扭，减速必增扭。汽车变速器齿轮传动就根据变速变扭的原理，分成各个档位对应不同的传动比，以适应不同的运行状况。 一般的手动变速器内设置输入轴、中间轴和输出轴，又称三轴式，另外还有倒档轴。三轴式是变速器的主体结构，输入轴的转速也就是发动机的转速，输出轴转速则是中间轴与输出轴之间不同齿轮啮合所产生的转速。不同的齿轮啮合就有不同的传动比，也就有了不同的转速。例如郑州日产ZN6481W2G型SUV车手动变速器，它的传动比分别是：1档3.704:１；2档2.202:1；3档1.414:1；4档1:1；5档（超速档）0.802:1。 当汽车启动司机选择1档时，拨叉将1/2档同步器向后接合1档齿轮并将它锁定输出轴上，动力经输入轴、中间轴和输出轴上的1档齿轮，1档齿轮带动输出轴，输出轴将动力传递到传动轴上（红色箭头）。典型1档变速齿轮传动比是3:1,也就是说输入轴转3圈，输出轴转1圈。 当汽车增速司机选择2档时，拨叉将1/2档同步器与1档分离后接合2档齿轮并锁定输出轴上，动力传递路线相似，所不同的是输出轴上的1档齿轮换成2档齿轮带动输出轴。典型2档变速齿轮传动比是2.2:1，输入轴转2.2圈，输出轴转1圈，比1档转速增加，扭矩降低。
附录Ⅰ：外文资料 Automotive Suspension System Overview The impact of the Vehicle in many aspects, Suspension plays a very important role . The components of the suspension system perform six basic functions: 1.Maintain correct vehicle ride height. 2.Reduce the effect of shock forces. 3.Maintain correct wheel alignment. 4.Support vehicle weight. 5.Keep the tires in contact with the road. 6.Control the vehicle’s direction of travel. Most suspension systems have the same basic parts and operate basically in the same way. They differ, however, in the way the parts are arranged. The vehicle wheel is attached to a steering knuckle. The steering knuckle is attached to the vehicle frame by two control arms, which are mounted so they can pivot up and down. A coil spring is mounted between the lower control arm and the frame. When the wheel rolls over a bump, the control arms move up and compress the spring. When the wheel rolls into a dip, the control arms move down and the springs expand. The spring force brings the control arms and the wheel back into the normal position as soon as the wheel is on flat pavement. The idea is to allow the wheel to move up and down while the frame, body, and passengers stay smooth and level. The unequal length control arm or short, long arm (SLA) suspension system has been common on American vehicles for many years. Because each wheel is independently connected to the frame by a steering knuckle, ball joint assemblies, and upper and lower control arms, the system is often described as an independent suspension. The short, long arm suspension system gets its name from the use of two control arms from the frame to the steering knuckle and wheel assembly. The two control arms are of unequal length with a long control arm on the bottom and a short control arm on the top. The control arms are sometimes called A arms because in the top view they are shaped like the letter A. In the short, long arm suspension system, the upper control arm is attached to a cross shaft through two combination rubber and metal bushings. The cross shaft, in turn, is bolted to the frame. A ball joint, called the upper ball joint, is attached to the outer end of the upper arm and connects to the steering knuckle through a tapered stud held in position with a nut. The inner ends of the lower control arm have pressed-in
Automobile Brake System汽车制动系统 The braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes. Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake. The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set. The brake system is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the c ar. The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure). Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.