外文文献翻译附录A（英文原文）Adaptive Clutch Engaging Process Control Automatic Mechanical Transmission LIU Hai’ou(刘海鸥),CHEN HUI’yan(陈慧岩),DING Hua’rong(丁华荣),HE Zhong’bo(何忠波) Abstract: Based on detail analysis of cluch engaging process control targets and adaptive demands,a control strategy which is based on speed signal,different from that of based on main clutch displacement signal,is put forward.It considers both jerk and slipping work which are the most commonly used quality evaluating indexes of vehicle starting phase.The adaptive control system and its reference model are discussed profoundly.Taking the adaptability to different starting gears and different road conditions as examples,some proving field test records are shown to illusrate the main clutch adaptive control strategy at starting phase.Proving field test gives acceptable results. Key words: automatic mechanical transmission(AMT); transmission technology; adaptive control; main clutch engagement The engaging process control strategy of friction main clutch,whether wet or dry,is the focus in vehicle technology field.Some of the control strategies are based on main clutch displacement signal.An adaptive control strategy has been developed, which is based on main clutch out put shaft speed signal grounded on our research work.It is proved to have extensive adaptability. 1 Control Targets and Adaptive Demands The most commonly used quality evaluating indexes of vehicle starting phase are jerk and slipping work. Jerk—As an index evaluating the smoothness in vehicle starting phase, the jerk is the rate of vehicle longitudinal acceleration.According to this definition,the expression of jerk is given as j=da/dt=d2v/dt2 (1) where j is the jerk;v and a are the vehicle running speed and acceleration respectively. According to vehicle dynamics,the vehicle-run-ning speed is determined by the balance between engine traction force and running resistance and can be expressed as t v D e g gd Gd v A C f G T r i i 2 0 15 . 21 )
sin ( (2) Where e T is the engine out put torque;G is the vehicle total weight; r is the driving wheel radius; f and are the road resistance coefficient and ram p way angle respectively; D C is the air resistance coefficient. The function of a mechanism is to transform motion from one rigid body to another as part of the action of a machine,There are three types of common mechanical device that can be used as basic elements of a mechanism. 1.—Gear system,in which toothed members in contact transmit motion between rotating shafts. 2.Cam system,where a uniform motion of an input member I converted into a nonunifirm motion of the output member. 3.Plane and spatial linkages are also useful in creating mechanical motions for a point or rigid body. Mechanisms form thee basic geometrical element of many mechanical devices including automatic machinery,typewriters,mechanical toys,textile machinery,and others.A mechanism typically is designed to create a desired motion of a rigid body relative to a reference member.Kinematic design,or kinematic syntheses,of mechanisms often is the first step in the design of a complete machine.When forces are considered,the additional problems of dynamics,bearing loads,stresses,lubrication,and the like are introduced,aad the larger problem become one of machine design. Gear are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging teeth,Gears transmit motion from one ratating shaft to another, or to a rack that translates. Numerous applications exist in which a constant angular velocity ratio(or constant torque ratio)must be transmitted between shafts, Based on the variety of gear types available, there is no restriction that the input and the output shafts need be either in-line or parallel.Nonlinear angular velocity tratios are also available by using noncircccuar gear,In order to maintain a constant angular velocity,the individual tooth prifle must obey the fundamental law of gearing:for a pair of gears to transmit a constant angular velocity ratio,the shape of their
contacting profiles must be such that the common normal passes through a fixed point on the line of the centers. There are several standard gear types.For applications with parallel shafts,straight spur gear,parallel helical,or herringbone gears are usually used,In the case of intersecting shafts,straight bevel or spiral bevel gears are employed.For nonintersecting and nonparallel shafts,crossed helical,worm,face,skew bevel or hypoid gears would be acceptable choices.For spur gears,the pirch circles of mating gears are tangent to wach other.They roll on one another without sliding.The addendum is the height by which a tooth projects beyond the pitch circle(also the tadial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle).The clearance is the amount by which the dedendum (tooth height below the pitch circle)in a given gear exceeds the addendum of its mating gear,The tooth thickness is the distance across the tooth along the are of the pitch circle while the tooth space is the distance between adjacent teeth along the are of the pitch circle.TRhe backlash is the amount by which the width of the tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging tooth at the pitchi circle. Helical gears are used to transmit motion between parallel shafts.The helix angle I the same on each gear,but one gear must have a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand helix.The shape of the tooth is the angular edge of the paper becomes a helix.If wo unwind this paper,eachpoint on the angulaaar edge genetares an involute curve,The surface obtained when every point on the edge generates an involute is called an involute helicoids.in helical gears,the line is diagonal across the face of the tooth,It is this gradual engagement of the teeth and the smooth transfer of load from one tooth to another,which give helical gears the ability to transmit heavy loads at high soeeds,Helical gears subject the shaft bearings to both radial and thrust loads.When the thrust loads become high or are objectionable for other reasons,it may be desirable to use double helical gears.A double
helical gear(herringbone)is equivalent to two helical gears of opposite hand,mounted side by side on he same shaft.They develop opposite thrust reactions and thus cancel at the thrust load.when two or more single helcal gears are mounted on the same shaft,the hand of the gears should be selected so as to produce the minimum thrust load. Straight bevel gears are easy to design and simple to manufacture and give very good results in service if they are mounted accurately and positively.As in the case of spur gears,however,they become noisy at higher values of the pitch-line velocity.In shese cases it is often good design practice to go to the spiral bevel gear,which is the bevel counterpart of the helical gear.As in the case of helicaal gears,spiral bevel bears give a much smoother tooth action than strain bevel gears,and hence are useful where high speed are encountered.It is frequently desirable,as in the case of automotive differential applications,to have gearing similar to bevel gears but with the shaft offset.Such gears are called hyoid gears because their pitch surfaces are hyperboloids of revolution,The tooth action between such gears is a combination of rolling and slidin along a straight line and has much in common with that of worm gears. A shaft is a rotating or stationary https://www.doczj.com/doc/7f10208857.html,ually of circular cross section,having mounted power-transmission lements.Shafmay subjected to bending,tension,compression,or torsional loads,acting singly or in combination with one another,When they are combined,one may expect to find both static and fatigue strength to be important design considerations,since a single shaft may be subjected too static stresses,completely reversed,and repeated stresses,aii acting at the same time. The word “shaft” cover numerous variationgs,such as axles and spindles.An axle is a shaft,either stationary or rotating,not subjected to torsion load.A short rotating shaft is often called a spindle. When either the lateral or the torsional deflection of a shaft must be held to close limits,the shaft must be
sized on the basis of deflection,before analyzing the stresses,The reason for this is that,if the shaft is made stiff enough so that the deflection is not too large,it is probable that the resulting stresses will be safe,But by no means should the designer assume that they are safe;it is almost always necessary to calculate them so that he knows they are within acceptable limits.Whenever possible,the power-transmission elements,such as gears or pulleys ,should be located close to the supporting bearings.This reduces the bending moment,and hence the deflection and bending stress. According to the discussion of vehicle dynamics, the control of jerk and slipping work is related to the change rate of main clutch transmitting torque. However, the torque transducer cannot be installed in the control system,so the transient torque signal cannot be obtained directly.A method that some investigators use is to control the output torque through controlling main clutch engaging displacement.But the displacement can only reflect torque change indirectly. Their corresponding relationship is affected by many factors. And once the installed position changes or the signal drifts,it will be difficult to control the transmitting torque value accurately. The main clutch adaptive control strategy based on the speed signal adjusts the transmitting torque based on the jerk and the slipping work known from the change of rotating speed signal. 2 Conclusions ①The key technique of adaptive control strategy based on speed signal is the reference model. Different from the strategy based on main clutch displacement signal, it can reflect vehicle dynamics during engaging process and so can satisfy the engaging demands well. ②The reference model based on speed signal can be illustrated by the speed change course curve. Set the parameters for each sector correctly according to smooth and fast engaging demands, and the adaptive control target can be realized through adopting PWM/PFM control method. ③A large amount of tests that were conducted for along time show that the
control strategy based on speed signal has good adaptability and can adapt to different gears, road conditions, load, main clutch parameters(temperature, attrition wear and friction material) and driving styles. References: [1] Horn J,Bamberger J,Michan P,et al.Flatness-based clutch control for automated manual transmission[J]. Control Engineering Practice,2003(11):1353-1359.
[2] Toshimichi Minowa,Tatsuya Ochi,Hiroshi Kuroiwa, et al. Smooth gear shift control technology for clutch-to-clutch shifting[R].SAE199120121054,1991. [3] Xi Jun qiang.Research on brushless electric motor driven automatic main clutch and its control strategy[D].Beijing:School of Vehicular and Transportation, Beijing Institute of Technology, 2001.(inChinese) [4] Lei Yu long, Ge An lin, Li Yong jun. Main clutch control strategy at vehicle starting phase[J]. Automotive Engineering,2000(4):266-269. (inChinese) [5] Andrew Szadkowski. Shiftability and Shift Quality Issues in Clutch Transmission Systems[R]. SAE 912697,1991. 附录B（译文）适应性离合器在机械自动传动中的加工控制刘海鸥，陈慧岩，丁华荣，何忠波（机械和车辆工程学校，北京技术学院，北京100081，中国）摘要：依靠对离合器运行过程的详细分析控制目标和适应的要求，一个主要依靠速度信号而不是那些依靠离合器的移动信号的控制策略被迅速发展。这既要考虑到紧缩的工作又要考虑到松弛的工作，而这些工作大多使用车辆在初始状态下的质量评估索引。适应性控制系统和它所涉及到的模式都已经被深入的分析。我们所讨论的是对不同起始齿轮和不同公路条件的适应性。例如，大多数已经被证明了的结果被用于证明起始阶段大多数的适应性控制策略，验证实验测试数据得到一个令人比较满意的结果。关键词：自动机械传输（AMT）；传输技术；适应性控制；主要齿轮捏合无论潮湿或干燥，主要离合器的捏合加工控制策略的摩擦力是车辆技术领域的焦点，一些控制策略是依靠主离合器的移动信号，在我们的调查研究中，那些依靠主要离合器外在轴速度信号的适应性控制策略已经得到发展，这已经被证明有广泛的适应性。1.控制对象和适应的要求那些普遍用于车辆起
始阶段的质量评估指标是紧缩和松弛工作。紧缩—就如车辆起始阶段的平滑指标评估，紧缩是车辆纵向加速度的比率。根据定义，紧缩的公式为：j=da/dt=d2v/dt2 (1) 式中j 为紧缩，v 和a 分别是车辆行驶速度和加速度根据车辆动力学，车辆行驶速度是由平衡时发动机索引力和运动阻力决定，它可以表达为：t v D e g gd Gd v A C f G T r i i 2 0 15 .
21 ) sin ( (2) 式中e T 是发动机空载时的转矩，G 是车辆总质量，r 是车轮半径，f 和 分别是道路阻力系数和坡道阻力，D C 为空气阻力系数。机构的功用是作为机械作用的一个部分从一个刚体到另一个刚体传送即传递运动，一般能用作机构基本零件的机械装置有三种类型：1：齿轮装置。那是在回转轴之间进行接触传动的啮合构件。2：凸轮装置。把输入构件的均匀运动转换成输出构件的非均匀运动的装置。3：平面机构和空间机构。是能使一个点或一个刚体产生机械运动的有用装置。机构是形成许多机械装置的基本几何结构单元，这些机械装置包括自动包装机，打印机，机械玩具，纺织机械和其他机械等。典型的机构要设计成使刚体构件相对基准构件产生所希望的运动，机构的运动设计即运动的综合，把第一步常常是先设计整部机器。当考虑受力时，要提出动力学方面的问题，轴承的载荷，应力，润滑等类似的问题，而较大的问题是机器结构问题。齿轮是借助于轮齿成功啮合来传递运动的机器零件，齿轮从一根回转轴到另一回转轴传递运动或传递运动到一传动齿条。多数应用中都以恒定角速比（或常定扭矩比）而存在。恒定角速比应用中必定是轴向传动。在各种各样有用的齿轮类型基础上，输入轴和输出轴需要在一直线上或需要互相平行都不受什么限制。由于使用非圆齿轮，非线性角度比也是很有用的。为了保持恒定的角速度，各个齿轮齿廓必须服从齿轮啮合的基本规律：为了一对齿能传递恒定角速比，他们接触齿廓的形状必须是要这样：公法线通过两齿轮中心连线上的固定点。有几种标准齿轮可供选用。为了在平行轴条件下应用，通常使用直齿圆柱齿轮，平行轴斜齿轮或人字齿齿轮。在相交轴的情况下使用直齿锥齿轮或螺旋齿轮。对于非相交轴和非平行轴齿轮传动，交错轴螺旋齿轮，蜗杆蜗轮，端
面齿轮，斜齿圆锥齿轮或准双曲面齿轮将被选用。对于直齿圆柱齿轮，相啮合齿轮的节圆是彼此相切的。他们互相滚动而无滑动，齿顶高是轮齿伸出超过节圆的高度（也是节圆和齿顶圆之间在径向的距离）。顶隙是一个给定齿的齿根高（在节圆以下的齿高）大于与它相啮合的齿轮的齿顶高的量（差值）。齿厚是沿着节圆圆弧上跨齿的距离，而齿间距（齿槽S）是沿着节圆圆弧上相邻两齿间的空间距离。而齿侧间隙是在节圆上的齿槽宽度大于其相啮合齿轮在节圆上的齿厚的差值。斜齿轮用于传递平行轴之间的运动，倾斜角度每个齿轮都一样，但一个必须是右旋斜齿，而另一个必须是是左旋斜齿，齿的形状是一渐开线螺旋面。如果一张被剪成平行四边形（矩形）的纸张包围在齿轮圆柱体上，纸上印粗齿的角刃边就变成斜线，如果我展开这张纸，在斜角刃边上的每一个点微发生一渐开曲线。斜齿轮轮齿的初始接触是一点，当齿进入更多的啮合时，它就变成线。在斜齿轮中，该线是跨过齿面的对角线。它是轮齿逐渐进行啮合并平稳地从一个齿到另一个齿传递运动，那样就使斜齿轮具有高速重载下平稳传递运动的能力。斜齿轮使轴的轴承承受径向和轴向力，当轴向推力变得大了或由于别的原因而产生某些影响时，那就可以使用人字齿轮，双斜齿轮是与反向的并排地装在同一轴上的两个斜齿轮等效。他们产生相反的轴向推力作用，这样就消除了轴向推力。当两个或更多的单向齿斜齿轮被装在同一轴上时，齿轮的齿向应作选择，以便产生最小的轴向推力。直齿锥齿轮易于设计且制造简单，如果他们安装的精密而确定，在运转中会产生良好效果，然而在直齿圆柱齿轮情况下，在节线速度较高时，他们将发出噪音，在这些情况下，通常设计使用螺旋锥齿轮，实践证明是切实可行的，那是和配对斜齿轮很相似的配对锥齿轮，当在斜齿轮情况下，螺旋锥齿轮比直齿轮能产生平稳得多的啮合作用，因此碰到高速运转的场合那时很有用的，当在汽车的各种不同用途中，有一个带偏心轴的类似锥齿轮的机构，那是常常所希望的，这样的齿轮机构叫做准双曲面齿轮机构，因为他们的节面是双曲回转面，这种齿轮之间的轮齿作用是沿着一根直线上产生滚动与滑动相组合的运动并和蜗轮蜗杆的轮齿作
用有着更多的共同之处。轴是一转动或静止杆件。通常有圆形横截面，在轴上安装像齿轮，皮带轮，飞轮，曲柄，链轮和其他动力传递零件。轴能够承受弯曲，拉伸，压缩或扭转载荷，这些力相结合时，人们期望找到静强度和疲劳强度作为设计的重要依据。因为单根轴可以承受静应力，变应力和交变应力，所有的应力作用都是同时发生的。当轴的弯曲或扭转变形必须被限制于很小范围内时，其尺寸应根据变形来确定，然后进行应力分析。因此，如果轴做得有足够的刚度以致挠曲不太大，那么合应力符合安全要求那是完全可能的。但决不意味着设计者要保证：它们是安全的，轴几乎总是要进行计算的，知道它们是处在可以接受的允许的极限以内，因之，设计者无论何时，动力传递零件，如齿轮或皮带轮都应该设置在靠近支撑轴承附近，这就减低了弯矩，因而减小变形和弯曲应力。根据关于车动力学的讨论，反射和滑倒工作控制与主要传动器传送的扭矩有关的变动率。然而，扭矩变换装置在控制系统不可能安装，如此瞬变扭矩信号不可能直接地得到。有些调查员使用的方法将通过控制主要传动器参与的位移控制产品扭矩。但位移可能间接地只反射扭矩变动。他们对应的关系是受许多因素的影响的。并且，一旦安装的位置改变或信号漂泊，准确地控制传送的扭矩价值将是难的。根据速度信号的主要传动器自适应控制战略调整根据反射的传送的扭矩和从转动的速度信号的变动已知的滑倒的工作。2.结论①依靠速度信号的适应性控制策略的关键技术是参考模式，不同于依靠主要离合器的移动信号的策略，它可以反映车辆在运动过程中的动力学。②参考模式可以用速度改变过程曲线来证明。根据平滑和耐久的动力性要求，给每个部分以恰当的参数，通过PWM/PFM控制模式，适应性控制目标可以被认识。③一个持续很久的大型实验显示进行速度信号的控制战略具有好的伸缩性，并且能够适应不同的齿轮的很多测试、公路状况、装载、主要传动器参量(温度、损耗穿戴和摩擦材料)和驾驶样式。参考：[1] Horn J,Bamberger J,Michan P,et al.Flatness-based clutch control for automated manual transmission[J]. Control Engineering Practice,2003(11):1353-1359. [2] Toshimichi Minowa,Tatsuya
Ochi,Hiroshi Kuroiwa, et al. Smooth gear shift control technology for clutch-to-clutch shifting[R].SAE199120121054,1991. [3] Xi Jun qiang.Research on brushless electric motor driven automatic main clutch and its control strategy[D].Beijing:School of Vehicular and Transportation, Beijing Institute of Technology, 2001.(inChinese)
On the vehicle sideslip angle estimation through neural networks: Numerical and experimental results. S. Melzi,E. Sabbioni Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 25 (2011)：14~28 电脑估计车辆侧滑角的数值和实验结果 S.梅尔兹,E.赛博毕宁 机械系统和信号处理2011年第25期：14~28
摘要 将稳定控制系统应用于差动制动内/外轮胎是现在对客车车辆的标准（电子稳定系统ESP、直接偏航力矩控制DYC）。这些系统假设将两个偏航率(通常是衡量板)和侧滑角作为控制变量。不幸的是后者的具体数值只有通过非常昂贵却不适合用于普通车辆的设备才可以实现直接被测量,因此只能估计其数值。几个州的观察家最终将适应参数的参考车辆模型作为开发的目的。然而侧滑角的估计还是一个悬而未决的问题。为了避免有关参考模型参数识别/适应的问题,本文提出了分层神经网络方法估算侧滑角。横向加速度、偏航角速率、速度和引导角,都可以作为普通传感器的输入值。人脑中的神经网络的设计和定义的策略构成训练集通过数值模拟与七分布式光纤传感器的车辆模型都已经获得了。在各种路面上神经网络性能和稳定已经通过处理实验数据获得和相应的车辆和提到几个处理演习(一步引导、电源、双车道变化等)得以证实。结果通常显示估计和测量的侧滑角之间有良好的一致性。 1 介绍 稳定控制系统可以防止车辆的旋转和漂移。实际上，在轮胎和道路之间的物理极限的附着力下驾驶汽车是一个极其困难的任务。通常大部分司机不能处理这种情况和失去控制的车辆。最近,为了提高车辆安全，稳定控制系统(ESP[1,2]; DYC[3,4])介绍了通过将差动制动/驱动扭矩应用到内/外轮胎来试图控制偏航力矩的方法。 横摆力矩控制系统（DYC）是基于偏航角速率反馈进行控制的。在这种情况下,控制系统使车辆处于由司机转向输入和车辆速度控制的期望的偏航率[3,4]。然而为了确保稳定，防止特别是在低摩擦路面上的车辆侧滑角变得太大是必要的[1,2]。事实上由于非线性回旋力和轮胎滑移角之间的关系，转向角的变化几乎不改变偏航力矩。因此两个偏航率和侧滑角的实现需要一个有效的稳定控制系统[1,2]。不幸的是,能直接测量的侧滑角只能用特殊设备(光学传感器或GPS惯性传感器的组合)，现在这种设备非常昂贵,不适合在普通汽车上实现。因此, 必须在实时测量的基础上进行侧滑角估计，具体是测量横向/纵向加速度、角速度、引导角度和车轮角速度来估计车辆速度。 在主要是基于状态观测器/卡尔曼滤波器(5、6)的文学资料里, 提出了几个侧滑角估计策略。因为国家观察员都基于一个参考车辆模型,他们只有准确已知模型参数的情况下，才可以提供一个令人满意的估计。根据这种观点,轮胎特性尤其关键取决于附着条件、温度、磨损等特点。 轮胎转弯刚度的提出就是为了克服这些困难,适应观察员能够提供一个同步估计的侧滑角和附着条件[7,8]。这种方法的弊端是一个更复杂的布局的估计量导致需要很高的计算工作量。 另一种方法可由代表神经网络由于其承受能力模型非线性系统，这样不需要一个参
机械设计 摘要：机器是由机械装置和其它组件组成的。它是一种用来转换或传递能量的装置，例如：发动机、涡轮机、车辆、起重机、印刷机、洗衣机、照相机和摄影机等。许多原则和设计方法不但适用于机器的设计，也适用于非机器的设计。术语中的“机械装置设计”的含义要比“机械设计”的含义更为广泛一些，机械装置设计包括机械设计。在分析运动及设计结构时，要把产品外型以及以后的保养也要考虑在机械设计中。在机械工程领域中，以及其它工程领域中，所有这些都需要机械设备，比如：开关、凸轮、阀门、船舶以及搅拌机等。 关键词：设计流程设计规则机械设计 设计流程 设计开始之前就要想到机器的实际性，现存的机器需要在耐用性、效率、重量、速度，或者成本上得到改善。新的机器必需具有以前机器所能执行的功能。 在设计的初始阶段，应该允许设计人员充分发挥创造性，不要受到任何约束。即使产生了许多不切实际的想法，也会在设计的早期，即在绘制图纸之前被改正掉。只有这样，才不致于阻断创新的思路。通常,还要提出几套设计方案，然后加以比较。很有可能在这个计划最后决定中,使用了某些不在计划之内的一些设想。 一般的当外型特点和组件部分的尺寸特点分析得透彻时，就可以全面的设计和分析。接着还要客观的分析机器性能的优越性，以及它的安全、重量、耐用性，并且竞争力的成本也要考虑在分析结果之内。每一个至关重要的部分要优化它的比例和尺寸，同时也要保持与其它组成部分相协调。 也要选择原材料和处理原材料的方法。通过力学原理来分析和实现这些重要的特性，如那些静态反应的能量和摩擦力的最佳利用，像动力惯性、加速动力和能量；包括弹性材料的强度、应力和刚度等材料的物理特性，以及流体润滑和驱动器的流体力学。设计的过程是重复和合作的过程，无论是正式或非正式的进行，对设计者来说每个阶段都很重要。 最后，以图样为设计的标准，并建立将来的模型。如果它的测试是符合事先要
旅游服务贸易外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力：罗马尼亚的案例 引言 旅游业是唯一的可以为任何发展水平的国家提供贸易机会的服务活动。然而，它也是一个很大程度因为国家的能力和在全球经济中的表现而又有明确的利益分配不均行业，而这又需要提高自己的竞争力。 自20世纪90年代初，罗马尼亚旅游业经历了出口量，生长速率和结构的重大变化。这些不同的波动都影响了罗马尼亚在国际旅游市场上相对的竞争地位并引起了其旅游贸易平衡的变化。同时，新的和更多的错杂的欧式建筑，引起了罗马尼亚的区域旅游竞争力的显著变化。 在此背景下，本文试图提出一个框架，以竞争力和旅游贸易表现之间的关系为重点，来评估罗马尼亚的旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力。 一、国际竞争力视角：国际竞争力之与国际旅游业的相关性 国际竞争力的概念，尽管有争议，难以捉摸，但现在已经得到认可，并继续吸引世界各地的学者和决策者的关注。 到目前为止，为提高国际竞争力已采取措施，都被认为是在经济层面进行的(加瑞利，2003)通常是指一个国家生产的商品和服务，以满足国际市场的考验，并同时保持和增加公民的收入的能力(欧洲委员会，2007)。 由于竞争力最终取决于一国企业在国内和国际的市场成功，所以对竞争力的注意力都集中在企业层面的竞争力上(波特，1990)，对于此的普遍理解是指“……该公司保持，并更好的是，扩大其全球市场份额，增加和扩大利润的能力” (克拉克和盖，1998, 经济合作与发展组织，1993)。 因此，虽然广泛流传但是国际竞争力作为与国家经济和其国际贸易相关
的理论基础已经不太在学术文献进行分析。因此，一个国家国际竞争力的性质，效益和局限性仍然含糊不清(科尔德威尔，2000,克鲁格曼，1994, 1996)。 国际竞争力，是指一个国家在货物和服务贸易方面巩固和保持贸易优势相对于世界其他地区的贸易优势。 每当一个国家的经济福利通过贸易流量的增加，或通过从初始平衡状态的贸易条件的改变而增加，他的国际竞争力都会得到提高(科尔德威尔，2000)。 贸易理论表示，经济福利依赖于一个国家有比较优势的货物和服务的生产。这实际上意味着当生产符合一国的比较优势的情况时国际竞争力能得到保障。如果一国能在国际上表现良好并在出口市场竞争成功，这可能就是他们健全的国际竞争力的标志。 因此，在国际上，竞争力定义为一个经济体能够吸引其出口需求和投资供给需求的能力和在所有社会规范内提升公民生活水平的能力。这反过来又取决于宏观和微观经济政策，影响生产的经济生产率要素和经营成本的法规和制度。 一个可用的文献回顾和实证证据支持国际竞争力可以解释为在一定程度上，一个国家的出口能力这一观点(道乐和沃尔夫，1993, 格博格等. 2004)。还有就是，事实上，是出口表现和国际竞争力之间的循环关系。出口是国际竞争力的第一衡量指标。出口情况的改善会导致了一个国家的竞争力提升。这种效果是一个企业的技能，知识，创新和运用新技术并能够在一个成功的商业方式中利用技术机会等的结果。 另一方面，为了在竞争激烈的全球市场努力成功实现出口，一个国家被迫提高竞争力。更具竞争力的国家，它的经济更强大。因此，它更有能力在全球市场竞争，以吸引具有较高的知识，技能，水平人们去购买新技术等，
The development of automobile As the world energy crisis and the war and the energy consumption of oil -- and are full of energy in one day someday it will disappear without a trace. Oil is not inresources. So in oil consumption must be clean before finding a replacement. With the development of science and technology the progress of the society people invented the electric car. Electric cars will become the most ideal of transportation. In the development of world each aspect is fruitful especially with the automobile electronic technology and computer and rapid development of the information age. The electronic control technology in the car on a wide range of applications the application of the electronic device cars and electronic technology not only to improve and enhance the quality and the traditional automobile electrical performance but also improve the automobile fuel economy performance reliability and emission spurification. Widely used in automobile electronic products not only reduces the cost and reduce the complexity of the maintenance. From the fuel injection engine ignition devices air control and emission control and fault diagnosis to the body auxiliary devices are generally used in electronic control technology auto development mainly electromechanical integration. Widely used in automotive electronic control ignition system mainly electronic control fuel injection system electronic control ignition system electronic control automatic transmission electronic control ABS/ASR control system electronic control suspension system electronic control power steering system vehicle dynamic control system the airbag systems active belt system electronic control system and the automatic air-conditioning and GPS navigation system etc. With the system response the use function of quick car high reliability guarantees of engine power and reduce fuel consumption and emission regulations meet standards. The car is essential to modern traffic tools. And electric cars bring us infinite joy will give us the physical and mental relaxation. Take for example automatic transmission in road can not on the clutch can achieve automatic shift and engine flameout not so effective improve the driving convenience lighten the fatigue strength. Automatic transmission consists mainly of hydraulic torque converter gear transmission pump hydraulic control system electronic control system and oil cooling system etc. The electronic control of suspension is mainly used to cushion the impact of the body and the road to reduce vibration that car getting smooth-going and stability. When the vehicle in the car when the road uneven road can according to automatically adjust the height. When the car ratio of height low set to gas or oil cylinder filling or oil. If is opposite gas or diarrhea. To ensure and improve the level of driving cars driving stability. Variable force power steering system can significantly change the driver for the work efficiency and the state so widely used in electric cars. VDC to vehicle performance has important function it can according to the need of active braking to change the wheels of the car car motions of state and optimum control performance and increased automobile adhesion controlling and stability. Besides these appear beyond 4WS 4WD electric cars can greatly improve the performance of the value and ascending simultaneously. ABS braking distance is reduced and can keep turning skills effectively improve the stability of the directions simultaneously reduce tyre wear. The airbag appear in large programs protected the driver and passengers safety and greatly reduce automobile in collision of drivers and passengers in the buffer to protect the safety of life. Intelligent electronic technology in the bus to promote safe driving and that the other functions. The realization of automatic driving through various sensors. Except some smart cars equipped with multiple outside sensors can fully perception of information and traffic facilities
运作整合 供应链协作的首要问题是提高运作整合的程度。供应链协作课达到的好处，直接关系到捕捉效率之间的职能的企业，以及全国的企业，构成了国内或国际供应链。本章重点阐述的挑战，一体化管理，由研究为什么一体化创造价值，并通过详列的挑战，双方的企业集成和供应链整合。必不可少的供应链流程是确定的。注意的是，然后向信息技术提供，以方便集成化供应链规划。本章最后审查了定价。在最后的分析，定价的做法和政府是至关重要的供应链的连续性。 为什么整合创造价值 基本的优点与挑战的综合管理介绍了在第1章。进一步解释整合管理的重要性，有用的指出客户都至少有三个角度的价值。 传统的角度来看，价值是经济价值。第二个价值的角度来看，是市场价值。 实现双方经济和市场价值是很重要的客户。然而，越来越多的企业认识到商业上的成功也取决于第三个角度来看，价值，被称为关联性。 物流一体化目标 为实现物流一体化的供应链背景下，6个业务目标必须同时取得：（ 1 ）响应，（ 2 ）差额减少，（ 3 ）库存减少，（ 4 ）托运巩固，（ 5 ）质量，（ 6 ）生命周期支持。的相对重要性，每个直接关系到公司的物流战略。 响应 一公司的工作能力，以满足客户的要求，及时被称为反应。作为一再指出，信息技术是促进反应为基础的战略，允许业务的承诺被推迟到最后可能时间，其次是加速投放。实施对应策略服务，以减少库存承诺或部署在预期客户的需求。响应服务转向业务重点从预测未来的需求，以容纳顾客对快速订单到出货的基础上。理想的情况是，在一个负责任的系统中，库存是没有部署，直到客户承诺。支持这样的承诺，公司必须有物流的属性，库存的可用性和及时交付，一旦客户订单收到。 差异减少 所有经营领域的物流系统很容易受到差额。方差结果从未能履行任何预期的层面后勤业务不如预期。举例来说，毫不拖延地在客户订单处理，意想不到的干扰，以便选择，抵港货物损坏，在客户的位置，和/或未能提供在适当的位置上的时间，所有创造无计划的差异，在订单到交货周期。一个共同的解决办法，以保障对不利的差异是使用库存安全库存，以缓冲行动。这亦是共同使用的首选运输，以克服意想不到的差异延误交货计划。这种做法，鉴于其相关的成本高，可以尽量减少使用资讯科技，以维持积极的物流控制。向程度的差异是最小化，物流的生产力将提高。因此，差异减少，消除系统中断，是一个基本的目标，综合物流管理。 库存减少 要达到的目标，库存减少，一个综合物流系统必须控制资产的承诺，并把速度。资产的承诺，是财政的价值部署清单。把速度，反映了利率，这是充实库存随着时间的推移。高转率，再加上预期的库存供货，平均资产用于库存正在迅速而有效利用，这就是整体资产承诺支持一个综合运作减至最低。 库存能够而且确实方便可取的好处这是很重要的要请记住。库存是至关重要的实现规模经济，在制造业和采购。目的是要减少和管理存货，以尽可能最低的水平，同时实现整体供应链绩效的目标。
附录 Modern car’s design always stresses people-oriented, so safety, comfort, Environmental protection and energy saving have been the design theme And target in car design. Ergonomics layout design is not only relate to the effective use of internal space and improve car’s comfort and safety Performance, but it will also impact internal and external modeling results, and further affects the vehicle's overall performance and marketability.Soergonomics’application and research during car design and development process occupy an important position.After more than 50 years of construction and development, China’s Automobile industry has become the leading power of automobile production and consumption in the world. In particular, with the rise and rapid de velopment of independent brand’s vehicles, we pay more attention To the development processes and the technical requirements of hard Points’ layout. Through the three typical processes such as modern vehicle developing Process, body development process and using ergonomic to progress Inner auto-body layout, describe ergonomic layoationship between design, Aunt design in which stage of the process of vehicle development, the red The importance of working steps. The automobile body total arrangement is the automobile design most initial is also the most essential step, is other design stage premise and the foundation, to a great extent is deciding the body design success or failure. Picks generally in the actual design process With by forward and reverse two design method (1) to design (from inside to outside law) to design method namely "humanist", is coming based on the human body arrangement tool to define the pilot and the crew member gradually rides the space and the vehicle comes to pay tribute each article the arrangement, take satisfies the human body to ride with the driving comfortableness as the premise, said simply is determined first satisfies the human body to ride under the comfortable premise, carries on the indoor arrangement first, then carries on the complete bikes external styling design again. The concrete method and the step are as follows: ①Determine 5% and 95% manikin H position and the chair by the SAE recommendation's enjoyable line or the region law adjustment traveling schedule, seat
汽车保险中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
汽车保险 汽车保险是在事故后保证自己的财产安全合同。尽管联邦法律没有强制要求，但是在大多数州（新罕布什和威斯康星州除外）都要求必须购买汽车保险；在各个州都有最低的保险要求。在鼻腔只购买汽车保险的两个州，如果没有足够的证据表明车主财力满足财务责任法的要求，那么他就必须买一份汽车保险。就算没有法律规定，买一份合适的汽车保险对司机避免惹上官和承担过多维修费用来说都是非常实用的。 依据美国保险咨询中心的资料显示，一份基本的保险单应由6个险种组成。这其中有些是有州法律规定，有些是可以选择的，具体如下： 1.身体伤害责任险 2.财产损失责任险 3.医疗险或个人伤害保护险 4.车辆碰撞险 5.综合损失险 6.无保险驾驶人或保额不足驾驶人险 责任保险 责任险的投保险额一般用三个数字表示。不如，你的保险经纪人说你的保险单责任限额是20/40/10，这就代表每个人的人身伤害责任险赔偿限额是2万美元，每起事故的热身上海责任险赔偿限额是4万美元，每起事故的财产损失责任险的赔偿限额是1万美元。 人身伤害和财产损失责任险是大多数汽车保险单的基础。要求汽车保险的每个州都强令必须投保财产损失责任险，佛罗里达是唯一要求汽车保险但不要求投保人身伤害责任险的州。如果由于你的过错造成了事故，你的责任险会承担人身伤害、财产损失和法律规定的其他费用。人身伤害责任险将赔偿医疗费和误工工资；财产损失责任险将支付车辆的维修及零件更换费用。财产损失责任险通常承担对其他车辆的维修费用，但是也可以对你的车撞坏的灯杆、护栏、建筑物等其他物品的损坏进行赔偿。另一方当事人也可以决定起诉你赔偿精神损失。
文献出处：Barattieri A. The mechanism of service trade liberalization[J]. Journal of International Economics, 2014, 92(1): 1-13. （声明：本译文归百度文库所有，完整译文请到百度文库。） 原文 The mechanism of service trade liberalization Barattieri A Abstract In this paper, Service trade liberalization is the key areas of the United States to promote the TPP negotiations, the United States in the negotiations are pushing mechanism of a high standard of service trade liberalization. In this paper the progress of the TPP negotiations and services trade issues important position, on the basis of the acceptance, architecture design, focus on services, regulatory consistency four aspects in the TPP uncovers the "high standards" service trade liberalization mechanism establishment. American "high standards" service trade liberalization mechanism is tailored to the interests of the United States, actually services in the service of the United States. These mechanisms are through to strengthen and promote the TPP platform, forming reversed transmission to other countries. Key words: the TPP; The United States; Service trade liberalization; High standards; Mechanism design America is the first largest exporter global trade in services, and for many years, continues to service trade surplus. Competitive advantage based on service industry and service industry The importance of promoting American exports, jobs and economic growth, the United States in the multilateral, bilateral and regional multiple layers jointly promoting service trade liberalization. In the Uruguay round negotiations, the United States has overcome many obstacles, for the first time to include the Service Trade in multilateral negotiations, contributed to the general Agreement on Trade in services (the Genre - al Agreement on Trade and Service,
汽车变速器设计 ----------外文翻译 我们知道，汽车发动机在一定的转速下能够达到最好的状态，此时发出的功率比较大，燃油经济性也比较好。因此，我们希望发动机总是在最好的状态下工作。但是，汽车在使用的时候需要有不同的速度，这样就产生了矛盾。这个矛盾要通过变速器来解决。 汽车变速器的作用用一句话概括，就叫做变速变扭，即增速减扭或减速增扭。为什么减速可以增扭，而增速又要减扭呢？设发动机输出的功率不变，功率可以表示为 N = w T，其中w是转动的角速度，T是扭距。当N固定的时候，w与T是成反比的。所以增速必减扭，减速必增扭。汽车变速器齿轮传动就根据变速变扭的原理，分成各个档位对应不同的传动比，以适应不同的运行状况。 一般的手动变速器内设置输入轴、中间轴和输出轴，又称三轴式，另外还有倒档轴。三轴式是变速器的主体结构，输入轴的转速也就是发动机的转速，输出轴转速则是中间轴与输出轴之间不同齿轮啮合所产生的转速。不同的齿轮啮合就有不同的传动比，也就有了不同的转速。例如郑州日产ZN6481W2G型SUV车手动变速器，它的传动比分别是：1档3.704:１；2档2.202:1；3档1.414:1；4档1:1；5档（超速档）0.802:1。 当汽车启动司机选择1档时，拨叉将1/2档同步器向后接合1档齿轮并将它锁定输出轴上，动力经输入轴、中间轴和输出轴上的1档齿轮，1档齿轮带动输出轴，输出轴将动力传递到传动轴上（红色箭头）。典型1档变速齿轮传动比是3:1,也就是说输入轴转3圈，输出轴转1圈。 当汽车增速司机选择2档时，拨叉将1/2档同步器与1档分离后接合2档齿轮并锁定输出轴上，动力传递路线相似，所不同的是输出轴上的1档齿轮换成2档齿轮带动输出轴。典型2档变速齿轮传动比是2.2:1，输入轴转2.2圈，输出轴转1圈，比1档转速增加，扭矩降低。
毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计（论文）题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄
最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间，工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先，越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关，甚至变得更加活跃：他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作，同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而，这里是机构间差异较大。例如，环境报告的数量变化，每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间，结果是不那么容易诠释。第一，活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的：一些最高审计机关进入，而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二，但是，审计报告数量略有下降，1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变（1994-1996年，20％的规律性审计和44％绩效审计;1997-1999：16％规律性审计和绩效审计54％）。在一般情况下，绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来，再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年，有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年，这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然，这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯，可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来，少数环境审计是规律性审计（560篇报告中有87篇，占16％）。大多数审计绩效审计（560篇报告中有304篇，占54％），或组合的规律性和绩效审计（560篇报告中有169篇，占30％）。如前文所述，绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中，绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施（560篇报告中有264篇，占47％），符合国家环保法律，法规的，由政府部门，部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问（560篇报告中有212篇，占38％）。此外，审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统（560篇报告中有156篇，占28％）。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告：影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10％至20％。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自：S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721
关于杭州中心地区服务业竞争力及其发展 战略的评价（节选） 郑建壮，中国浙江省浙江大学城市学院 江海霞，中国浙江省浙江工业大学 摘要：服务行业的竞争力是直接反映在区服务业的发展水平和潜在能力之中的。本文研究了杭州服务行业的发展现状，从中心区的角度构建了一个服务行业的评价指标体系，并分析了杭州每个中心城区服务业的可持续发展的优势和劣势。最后，文章给杭州的服务行业竞争力的提高提出了战略建议。 关键词：中心地区，服务业，竞争力 1. 引言 20世纪80年代以来，全球经济已呈现从“工业经济”转向于“服务经济”的变化趋势。服务业已成为全球经济好转的一个关键的引擎（2005年李和王），它在改善国家经济、增加就业率、调整产业结构和提高生活水平等方面的重要作用是显而易见的。一般来说一个地区的服务行业发展主要集中于中部地区，而不是郊区，因为中心区一般被视为一个城市经济发展的“心脏”，它在地理位置、交通和文化等方面都占有有利因素，不仅可增强生产要素、人口和产业聚集的力量，也有利于市场的发展。因此，中部地区正在成为服务行业的主要区域（李2007）。本文在分析杭州中心城区的服务业竞争力的基础上，进行了相关的评价，旨在寻找到一种有效的策略以提高城市的服务行业发展。 2. 服务产业竞争力的文献研究 大部分关于服务行业的竞争力的学术研究都是基于它们的地区竞争能力之上的。因此，服务业的竞争力可以简单地定义为“服务行业在竞争中获取和利用资源的能力”。国外的研究学者更倾向于特定的服务行业的竞争力分析与研究，如商业服务行业（2001年Rubalcaba和加戈）、保险业（哈德威克和窦1998）、知识密集服务（1999年Windrum和汤姆林森）。然而，在中国，学者们的研究重点则集中于一个特定的区域，而不是一个特定的行业，如中国的31个主要省份（吴2003），中国六大发展先进的省份（2004年刁、庄），中国16个主要省份（2005年苏、张）。由于很多的因素都可以影响服务业的竞争力和复杂性，大多数中国学者认为，我们应该建立一个多层次的综合评价指标体系，如“总目标指导指数”。
Automobile Brake System汽车制动系统 The braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes. Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake. The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set. The brake system is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the c ar. The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure). Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.