A study of Leech's politeness principle in business
conversations
1. Introduction
1.1 research background
In recent years, pragmatics has a significant development, especially the book of “Pragmatics”of S.Levinson published in 1983 and the “Pragmatics standard”of Leech’s, which are drawn many people’s attention. “Pragmatics”systematically evaluated all kinds of theories of pragmatics till then. “Pragmatics standard”set up the new principle based on the old theory. lt is the Politenes Principle.
“Politeness Principle”isn’t set up by Leech. Before him, a lot of linguists and sociologists pay attention to the politeness phenomenon in using language. For example, a variety of languages have a proper appellation in Chinese,such as “you and you”.
In the early fifty’s, E.Gomnan put forward the “face”problem from the sociology angel. He said, in the communication process, in the every hours and moments, people are involved in the “face”problem. “Face”is one of the standards of the people’s behavior, is involved in the people’s behavior. On the one hand, people’s behavior is restrained by the face. On the other hand, we expect that the others should pay more attention to our face. “Face”is the personal sacred and private property, is the backbone of the sense of security and happiness. If we don’t protect the face, we should be regarded as “thick-skinned”. If we don’t protect the other’s face, it should be regarded as callous.
Goffman said: face work, is working with each other. Lost or not lost the
face is just in the hand of us. If we don’t want to lose the face, the most insurance way is not hurt the other people’s face. As a result, in the conversation, as usual we belittle you, rise up the others. If people raise up themselves, belittle the others, social interaction will be magic.
The book of the “Universal language” is written by P.Brown and S.Levinson in 1978.The politeness phenomenon is an article quoted by many people. They investigated the politeness phenomenon in English and indigenous language of Mexico and a native language in the south of India. They found that in the three unrelated cultures, the politeness phenomenon is very similar in using language. They thought, the politeness phenomenon in using language is not by accident, but a common phenomenon. They use the conception of “Face”of Goffman. They think people have two kinds of face, one is the positive face, for example,we would like to be praised by the others of our own character, occupation, hobbies and wearing. The other is the negative face, for example, we don’t want to be against by the others for you, property and freedom of action. Therefore, the politeness behavior can be classified two types, one is the positive politeness, just as we should meet the positive requirements of the other’s face(for example, we should praise the other’s occupation, position, achievements, appearance, children and so on),the other is the negative politeness, just as we meet the opposite requirements of the other’s face(for example, try our best to defense the others, the property and the freedom and so on).For example, the sentence “What a nice garden you’ve got” and “I know you’ve a warm-hearted person”. It is the positive politeness behavior. The sentence “I hate to trouble you like this ,but......”and “Would you forgive me if...... ”.It is the negative politeness behavior.
In addition, Brown and Levinson argue that avoiding to be outspoken in one’s face directly, as a while, we can talk the words in a fuzzy tone, let the others judge by themselves. For example, suggestion method, repeated the sentence meaning and just tell the standard instead of the brief things, This is discussed
by the two researchers. Leech’s politeness principle is just on the basis of them.
1.2 The importance of this thesis
This thesis is mainly about the politeness principle of Leech’s. In today's social services, high-quality society, politeness is a indispensable part of our communication. Of course, so it is in the business conversation. Politeness is the symbol of the human civilization, is an important yardstick of the human social activities. As a kind of social activity, language activities are also constrained by the criterion. In most cases, people speak in communication process is decided by the people's social relations, a language must be a social behavior in the communication. We must consider the various factors which can be accepted in society, use the appropriate language, avoid impolite words, avoid unnecessary unhappiness and misunderstanding in communication. As a result, a lot of researchers have did many research about the politeness principle. On the basis of them, I just do my best to explain some examples to let the reader have a deeper understanding about the politeness principle.
1.3 The structure of this thesis
The politeness principle is the means and strategies for successful session essential, but the use of different politeness principles plays a pragmatic value in different business conversation.
This thesis is simple and concise. This thesis focuses on the applicability of Leech's politeness principle in Business English conversation. This thesis can be divided into three parts. The first part is the introduction part, it is embodied of three parts, it is research background, the importance of this thesis, the structure of this thesis. The second part is the origin and growth of the politeness principle. The third part is the most important part, it is The politeness principle proposed by leech was used to analyze business English conversation.
2. The politeness principle
2.1 The origin of the politeness principle
Politeness is the symbol of human civilization, is an important yardstick of human social activities. Cooperative principle and politeness principle is the premise and the foundation of the success of the conversation.
In 1967, American linguist Grice proposed the concept of the cooperative principle in the conversation. So called the successful communication requires the participants of the communication should cooperate with each other. As a result, the two parts should follow the principle in the conversation, it is the cooperative principle. It requires every conversation participants in the whole conversation process should conform to the conversation goal or direction. Just because of this, the partner can be continued to make the meaningful language communication. If we can obey this rule, people can communicate with each other in a direct and efficient way. Grice summarized the cooperative principle as the maxim of quantity (Quantity Maxim), quality standards(Quality maxim), (Relation Maxim) standards and guidelines (Manner maxim). Any violation of a rule, it will be likely leading to misunderstanding or making a joke. If the violation is intentional, sometimes it is the speaker's implication, or it is in order to achieve the humorous effect. The speaker faced a conflict, if you have to break up a rule ,at the same time, you have to break up the other rule. The conflict often occurs in the number of standards and quality standards.
The politeness principle is a useful complement to complete the conversation.
2.2 The growth of the politeness principle
We have also studied the cooperative principle, the next we will talk the politeness principle.
Let us begin with an example. Why do people not say directly what they mean? Why, for instance, do people say “Could you give me a lift?” instead of “Give me a lift”? In most cases, the indirectness is motivated by considerations of politeness. By using the form “Could you ...? Or “Can you ...?”in a request, the hearer is given the alternative of refusing, for inability to help is more excusable than unwillingness to help. In fact not only the speaker abides by politeness in his speech, the hearer is also guided by the politeness principle in his interpretation of utterances. Leech proposes the Politeness Principle as a supplement to the cooperative principle. Leech says that the cooperative principle regulates what we say so that it contributes to some assumed illocutionary goals. While the politeness principle helps to maintain the friendly relations which enable us to assume that our interlocutors are cooperative in the first place. Leech formulates his Politeness principle and its maxims as follows:
(1) Tact Maxim. The communication of both sides of the speech to reduce adverse information to others. To comply with the common habits and psychological, don't let the others feel uncomfortable. For example, We are much concerned that your sales in recent months have fallen considerably. We would like to know what we can do to help. .This sentence means that we not only to pay attention to the others' performance in the decline of their business , at the same time, it is obviously that we are pleased to supply our assistance to the others. It is the implement of the tact maxim.
(2)Generosity Maxim. The communication of both sides of the speech to reduce Egocentric information, try to let them get useful information from the covering behavior and discourse information. For example, On 8th May I submitted a bill for services rendered to your office at the Lille International Exposition. More than a month has now elapsed without payment or acknowledgment of my bill. Please check this oversight, and remit payment at your earliest, Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter. Not only that this sentence does not recognized their billing and payment .At the same time, also expressed to continue to provide service for the other's desire and hope .When the payment, reflects the generosity principle.
(3) Approbation Maxim the speech delivered International action to avoid belittle each other, and should appreciate each other. Otherwise, easily lead to communication failure. For example, thank you for your letter of May 6, enclosing an account of the organization and work of your Chamber of Commerce and Industry. We are very grateful for such a detailed account of your activities. This information is certain to help increase our future cooperation. Here is the specification from the others about the work of the chamber of Commerce the organizational structure, to express the full agreement for the other's help . We can get the appreciation from the others.
(4) Modesty Maxim. To try to be modest in speech communication behavior. Modest including be patient to listening, evaluated myself with a humble and low-key attitude, don't exaggerate their own advantages, to ignore or conceal their shortcomings. For example：I would like to call on you to discuss our new monitor. Would 8:30 on Tuesday, June 5 be convenient? Humility in this sentence said to Each other to discuss the new monitor themselves, and for each other at eight thirty on June 5th is convenient, very friendly and polite.
(5)Agreement Maxim. The act of communication with each other should reduce differences, we should be near to the view to the others as far as possible in the non principle problem, that is to increase the consistency. Everybody expect the others to agree with their point of view. In the conversation, if we can find the rationality of the other's point of view, and to fully Certain, the exchange will progress smoothly, on the contrary, it is easy to cause the failure of communication. For example, your price is attractive, But I’d like your
Advice about my quotation. Your offer is very attractive, but I want to hear the advice you have quoted to me. This sentence is firstly and firmly to confirm the rationality of the other parties’ price, then we kindly put forward the suggestion to the others. We try to Reach an agreement.
(6)Sympathy Maxim. The communication between the two sides should reduce the other's emotional confrontation; try to increase the understanding between the two parties. Otherwise, if the emotional confrontation, will not get a good result. For example: (1) Please excuse my Late reply to your very friendly letter of June 4 please forgive me for you in June 4 Letter of reply delay. (2) We hope you will pardon us for troubling. Please forgive me for your trouble.
These maxims can help to explain, among other things, why certain forms are more acceptable than others. Following the Tact Maxim, for instance, in proposing an action potentially costly to the hearer, the more indirect the utterance is, the more polite the utterance,(Cf. Answer the phone and Could you possibly answer the phone)On the contrary, in initiating some action beneficial to the heater ,the more direct and insistent, the more polite the utterance.(Cf. Do have another apple and Will you have another apple?)The Approbation Maxim will explain why a compliment like “What a marvelous meal you cooked.”is highly valued while what an awful meal you cooked.” is not socially usable. Thus
when criticism is inevitable, understatement is preferred as a show of good as it might have been”. The Modesty Maxim accounts for the begin nature of utterances and the offensive nature of “How clever of me”. Regulated by the Agreement Maxim, people tend to exaggerate their common ground first, even when much difference is to follow. The Maxim of Sympathy has such a regulative force.
It is argued that when the CP and PP are in contradiction, it is generally the CP maxims that get scarified. When the truth can not be told for politeness sake, a white lie may be offered. In fact the PP is so powerful that people are often encouraged to violate its maxims in order to ensure a cooperative discourse.
3.The politeness principle proposed by leech was used to analyze business English conversation
3.1 the types of the business English conversation
We have studied Business English; it is can be divided into four parts. The first part is Business Life, it embodied On a Business Trip, Reserving a room, Crossing the Border and so on. The second part is Business Communications. It embodied Business Letters, E-mail and Trade forms and so on. The third part is Business Practice, it embodied Inquiry, Offer, Counter-offer and so on. The fourth part is the Other Business Sectors, it embodied Advertising, Patent and Trademark, Job Interviews and so on.
3.2 explain the brief examples using the politeness principle
Business Practice is we studied in the university. We must be familiar with the example about this .The following is just this type of example. The example is about signing a contract.
A：Now, we have finally reached a basic agreement on the problems that need be worked out .Shall we make sure we’ve got right one more time?
B：Ok. I think tha t’s a good idea and will help clarity some important items that we may have overlooked.
A：First of all, about the format of our sales contact, we always use copies prepared and printed by our own company. Will that be all right?
B：I guess so. As long as yo u’ve got an English version, I have no objections.
A：Yes, we do have that. And all the content is written both in Chinese and in English. Therefore, in terms of law, they are equally authentic.
B：Thanks. Let’s use your own copies then.
A：Now let’s check th e items in the sales contract. Let’s start from the name of the commodity, specifications, quantity, unit price and the total amount···
Do you think they are OK?
B：Yes, very good. But I want to point out here that shipment should be effected and completed before the end of July. We can’t accept any delay.
A：Of course not.
B：Please inform us immediately when shipment is effected.
A：No problem. Then everything else is started clearly in the sales contract and you can go through them on your own. If there should be a problem, you can contact us any time tomorrow before 5 p.m.
B：That sounds good to me. When will the contract be ready?
A：the day after tomorrow. At 3 o’clock in the afternoon,we’ll sign the contract. B：Excellent. I’ll see you then.
A：See you.
B：See you.
The following is that we will discuss the application of politeness principle in the conversation. The first sentence “Now, we have finally reached a basic agreement on the problems that need be worked out .Shall we make sure we’ve got right one more time?”We can easily make out that it has use Agreement Maxim. The two parts have got the agreement, but because of Modesty Maxim, they should confirm the contract again. This is lively to describe the two principles of the politeness principle. The second sentence is “Ok.I think that’s a good idea and will help clarity some important items that we may have overlooked.” It can be obviously seen the Approbation Maxim .It is pleased by each other, it can let the business be continued. The third is “A：Now let’s check the items in the sales contract.Let’s start from the name of the commodity, specifications, quantity, unit price and the total amount···Do you think they are OK?
B：Yes, very good. But I want to point out here that shipment should be effected and completed before the end of July. We can’t accept any delay.” This dialogue
uses the Tact Maxim. They discussed with each other. They respect each other. It is great contribution to the success of the business. The fourth sentence is “ev erything else is started clearly in the sales contract and you can go through them on your own .If there should be a problem, you can contact us any time tomorrow before 5 p.m.
B：That sounds good to me “.If you have any problem, you can contact with me. it uses the Tact Maxim. we should learn how to cooperate with each other. Business can be conducted with a happy atmosphere and a good environment. Doing business we can’t hurt the other’s feeling, we should respect each other.
4.Couclusion
With the global economic integration advancement, international trade has the increasingly fierce competition; the business English letters to create are fined and courteous. A respect to each other, seek cooperation atmosphere, make each other happy with me.
Our cooperation, which helps to occupy a space for one person in the competition. / ceremony appearance is one of the mall on the weapon, write and do not pay attention to politeness, like war time no bullet. 0 business correspondence is not only realize communication
medium, and is building friendship, the means of attracting customers. Written a business English letter, politeness principle is must pay attention to, because this directly related to your letter have positive effect, or is the success of it. Therefore, attention should be paid to the use of polite, decent English Language, with honest attitude to write, write down each other especially in for the letter, remember / temperate reply can eliminate 0. Such, business letters in order to play its due role. Timely feedback, language words appropriately, respect each other, be neither humble nor pushy, writing carefully, politeness in principle, but the need of business letters.
Cooperative principle and politeness principle is the interaction, complement ary-relationship in conversation analysis. Because in the actual conversation of people sometimes side. The cooperative principle consideration, especially when people communicate more pay attention to the information content, the politeness principle to consider in cooperative. Then, And sometimes, people only care about good manners, such as:greetings, greetings. Therefore, the cooperative principle and the politeness principle is a kind of advance and retreat, complementary phase relationship. The cooperative principle and the politeness principle is often with the other principles, such as: the aesthetic principles, the social norms, the rules and the constraints of people's conversation. The total is that clarify these relationships, especially the relationship of cooperation and politeness principle, can effectively help us to guide the students to conversation analysis.
基于礼貌原则研究的相关评述趋势探究 资料来源：大学生教育资源 摘要：礼貌原则的研究从上世纪七十年代以来一直受到各领域学者的关注。本文概述了在语用学领域里礼貌原则的研究历史及现状，讨论礼貌原则研究中存在的问题，指出礼貌原则研究中存在的问题与研究人员的预设，语料的真实性，研究过程的布控等方面有着密切关系。本研究希望能够展示出礼貌原则研究现状，并对今后的同类研究有所帮助。 关键词：礼貌原则面子普遍适用性 早期礼貌的研究学者如Lakoff，Brown＆Levinson和Leech 主要在语用学范围内研究礼貌现象，寻找具有普遍适用性的礼貌原则。他们以言语行为理论为依据，注重说话人的意图，从普通说话人归纳出具有理性和面子的“典型人”。他们认为不同文化至少在本质上都是统一的，都对什么是礼貌有着共同的理解。因此这些学者尝试从接触到的语料中归纳礼貌原则。 后人针对早期的礼貌原则中存在的一些问题，如文化制约性、静态化、理想化等问题做了诸多实验性研究，以图突破前人的研究框架，寻求更具活力、更有普遍性适用性的礼貌原则。 一、早期的礼貌原则研究评述 (一)早期的礼貌原则研究概述
礼貌的概念源于美国社会学家Erving Goffman关于“面子”的着作《礼仪的相互作用：面对面的行为论集》。Goffman在书中说到面子是一个人在交往中按照能被其他人接受的方式有效地为自己确立的正面的社会价值，并通过自身社会属性的认可实现自我形象。它是人类行为和自我体现的指导，是一种在社会中自我保护的内在的情感支持。[1人们在日常交际活动中，为了使自己的行为有面子会去做“面子工作’：。“面子工作”是相互的，即一个人要想保全自己的面子首先必须努分保全他人的面子。[~]Goffman认为，这解释了人们在交际中为何礼貌行事。Goffman 对面子的研究激起了礼貌原则的研究浪潮。 1973年，早期研究礼貌原则的学者RobinLakoffE~提出了三个关于礼貌的基本条件1．不要强加于人。2．给他人与选择。3．与对方友善，使对方感觉良好。后人对这三个条件不断地进行质疑、验证和修改。 其中颇有影响力的是GeoffreyLeech的礼貌原则。利奇的礼貌原则包含六大准则：得体准则：慷慨准则：赞扬准则；谦虚准则：赞同准则：同情准则。Fraser认为这些准则注重使交际对象感觉良好219—236，可被视为是Lakoff三个礼貌条件的延展。 Br0wn＆Levinson认为，为了建立某种社会关系，人们必须认可并留意交际对象的面子，即他们的公众自我形象、自我感觉。他们认为交际双方必须尊重彼此对自我形象的期待，考虑对方的感受，避免“威胁面子的行为”。当威胁面子的行为无可避免时，
“文明礼仪教育”活动月方案 一、活动意义: 为切实提高学生的文明礼仪水平,培养学生高尚的道德情操,理解、宽容、谦让、诚实的待人态度和庄重大方、热情友好、谈吐文明、讲究文明的行为举止,构建和谐校园,我校把培养学生“文明行为习惯”作为学生德育工作的重要内容,通过学生“在校学习礼仪、走向社会实践礼仪、带动百万家庭传播礼仪”,来形成人人讲文明、重礼仪的良好氛围,从而全面提高德育教育工作水平,形成德育工作特色。 二、活动目标: 1.通过开展内容丰富、形式多样的主题教育活动,培养学生良好道德品质和文明行为习惯,使学生具备文明生活的基本素养。 2.通过文明礼仪测评活动,提高学生的文明修养,让校园洋溢文明之风。 三、组织机构: 参加成员:四年级三班全体学生 四、活动安排: 1.宣传学习阶段 A、组织学生学习《小学文明礼仪活动方案》。 B、利用晨会、国旗下讲话、校园广播站、学校网站、校宣传橱窗,宣传文明礼仪知识,提高学生礼仪素养。 C、班级内设立固定的文明礼仪宣传阵地。 2.行动实施阶段各班结合学校方案,开展有关活动。 (1利用学生对学生进行礼仪培训。
(2利用课堂、晨会、班队对学生“课堂礼仪、行进礼仪、问好礼仪、集会礼仪”等进行强化训练。 (3通过规范的指导和训练,逐步培养学生良好的文明举止。(如课前课后起立,进入办公室称谓等 (4多渠道、多手段、多方位地开展文明礼仪教育活动,如讲身边的礼仪小故事、文明礼仪情景剧等。 (5召开文明礼仪主题队会 从“坐、站、行”、排队出教室、礼貌用语、行为习惯等入手,通过规范的指导和训练,养成文明的举止。 3.考核评比表彰阶段 (1对学生文明礼仪进行测评,通过同学(班干、队干部、教师、家长对学生的评价让学生对自己有着正确的认识。 (2根据测评得分对达到要求的同学授予本班“文明学生”。 五、总结: 1.全面总结活动开展情况 2.评价文明礼仪之星。 “文明礼仪教育”班会 活动目的: 1、通过学习中学生在校礼仪,具体细致地了解在校学生应该做到的礼仪细则,去指导学生的日常行为规范。 2、学生通过学习在校礼仪,能够指导学生走好人生之路,做个社会有用之人。
礼貌原则及其在言语交际中的实际运用 陶胜 (湘潭职业技术学院 湖南 湘潭) 【摘要】 人们在言语交际中不仅要遵循合作原则,同时也要遵循礼貌原则,这样才能达到相互的友好交流。本文阐述了Leech提出的礼貌原则的六准则并通过实例分析了礼貌原则在言语交际中的实际运用。 【关键词】 礼貌原则 言语交际 准则 运用 成功的会话需要交际双方的合作,即双方必须遵守一些基本的原则。美国语言学家H.P.Grice于1975年提出了言语交际的合作原则(Co-operative Princi p le):说话时交际双方要相互合作,要遵守合作原则的四大准则———量的准则、质的准则、关系准则和方式准则。但是,人们在实际交际中往往不遵守这些准则,甚至故意违反这些准则。在对合作原则之下的各准则普遍性提出质疑的同时,B r own,Levins on和Leech等学者经过进一步研究,提出了语言使用的礼貌问题。Leech指出,出于礼貌,说话人在言语交际中会故意违反合作原则,让听话人去意会说话人的真正意图。Leech提出了言语交际中要遵守的礼貌原则,意以此来拯救合作原则,圆满地解释了为什么人们在言语交际中要故意违反合作原则。礼貌是人类文明的标志,是人类社会活动的一条重要准绳。作为一种社会活动,语言活动也同样受到这条准绳的约束。大多数情况,人们说话交际是由人们的社会关系决定的,一种语言行为必定是一种社会行为。在交际中我们必须考虑社会所能接受的各种因素,使用恰当的语言,运用合适的礼貌原则,促成有效的言语交际。 1 Leech礼貌原则的六准则 在社会交际活动中,人们必须遵守一些特定的原则,才能达到相互的友好交流。这些原则包括交际时要宽宏、谦虚、同情、得体等,英国著名语言学家Leech提出了礼貌原则的六项准则,其中每条准则都包含两条次准则。 1.1 得体准则(TactM axi m) 使他人受损最小,使他人受惠最大。 Lend me your car!(不礼貌) Could you lend me your car?(礼貌) 112 慷慨准则(Gener osity Maxi m) 使自身受惠最小,使自身受损最大。 You must come and have dinner with us.(礼貌) W e must come and have dinner with you.(不礼貌) 113 赞扬准则(App r obati on Maxi m) 尽力缩小对他人的贬损,尽力夸大对他人的赞扬。 A:Do you like these app les? B:I’ve tasted better.(含蓄礼貌地评判) 114 谦逊准则(ModestyMaxi m) 尽力缩小对自身的赞扬,尽力夸大对自身的贬损。 How stup id of me!(礼貌) How s mart of me!(不礼貌) 115 赞同准则(Agree mentM axi m) 尽力缩小自身和他人之间的分歧,尽力夸大自身和他人之间的一致。 A:That dress she is wearing is beautiful,don’t you think s o? B1:Yes,abs olutely.(礼貌) B2:I don’t think it’s beautiful at all.(不礼貌) 1.6 同情准则(Sy mpathy Maxi m) 尽力缩小自身对他人的厌恶,尽力夸大自身对他人的同情。 A:My kitten died last week. B1:So we won’t be annoyed by that nasty little ani m al any more.(不礼貌) B2:It’s most unfortunate that you l ost your pet.(礼貌) 人们在交际中一般都应遵守以上礼貌原则的各项准则,从以上各项准则中,我们可以得出这样的规律:说话人说话时应尽量多尊重别人,多给别人一些方便,尽可能多让自己吃一点亏,从而使交际双方都感到受尊重,同时又反过来使对方获得对自己的好感。当然,人们并非在任何时候、任何场合都要恪守礼貌原则,例如在紧急的情形下,或在意外事件中,在激烈争辩或紧张工作的场合,或在十分亲密友好的朋友间,礼貌原则可能会让位于话语的内容,屈居于次要地位。 参考文献 [1] Byra m.M.Cultural Studies in Foreign Language Educati on,Multilingual Matters46.MultilingualMatters L td,1989. [2] 川上郁雄.「「日本事情」教育における文化の問題」[J].「21世紀 の日本事情」創刊号, 京:くろしお出版,1999. [3] 李!奉.「転 期を迎えた日本語教育に求められるもの」[J].「日 本語教育」119号,2003.[4] 倉地 美.「対話からの1文化理解」[M].頸草 房,1992. [5] 原綾乃.「留学生と日本人学生の交流促進を目的とした ψ 教育の実践」[J].「日本語教育」117号,2003. [6] 国立国語研究所日本語教育 ψ日本語教育研究室.「1文化 接触と日本語教育」[J].「日本語学」8号,1989. [7] 细川英雄.「ことばと文化を結ぶ日本語教育」[M]. 京:凡人社, 2002. 2007年6月 双语学习?教育创新?
The Relationship between Cooperation Principle and Politeness Principle in Verbal Communication Abstract: Cooperation principle, a center major theory in pragmatics, is proposed by Oxford linguist philosopher H. P. Grice, but cooperation principle itself converses endless to consummate. Sometimes, because of politeness and different occasions, people violate cooperation principle, which leads to the produce of conversational implicature. English famous linguist G. N. Leech proposed politeness principle theory, and thought politeness principle and cooperate principle may mutually make up for the profit, and politeness principle may save cooperate principle. Key words; Cooperation principle, politeness principle, conversational implicature, relations Introduction: The cooperation principle explained the relations between the words’ literal significant and its practical significant and how the conversational implicature is produced, but cooperation principle had not explained why people did have to violate the conversation criteria to implicitly, indirectly express our own intention. In order to make up this kind of insufficiency, G. N. Leech put up with politeness principle to “rescues” the cooperation principle. This article will introduce the relations between cooperation principle and politeness principle, with the insufficiency of cooperation principle as well as the daily conversation which actually observe politeness principle but violate cooperation principle to achieve arts of speaking. ⅠCooperation principle and politeness principle In daily life, people don’t usually say things directly, but tend to imply them. In Grice’s theory, the two participants of the conversation communicate with each other smoothly because they keep some basic principles, which make them cooperate with each other and understand each other. Our talk exchanges do not normally consist of a succession of disconnected remarks, and would not be rational if they did. They are characteristically, to some degree at last, cooperative efforts; and each participant recognizes in them, to some extent, a common purpose or set of purpose, or at least a mutually accepted direction.（胡壮麟，2006，P191）In other words, we seem to follow some principle like the following: “Make your conversational contri bution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.” To specify the cooperation principle, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follow: QUANTITY:
夫君子之行，静以修身，俭以养德，非淡泊无以明志，非宁静无以致远。诸葛亮讲话气势汹汹，未必就是言之有理。萨迪 不会宽容人的人，是不配受到别人的宽容的。——贝尔奈 谦虚使人进步，骄傲使人落后。我们应当永远记住这个真理。——毛泽东 自觉心是进步之母，自贱心是堕落之源，故自觉心不可无，自贱心不可有。——邹韬奋好脾气是一个人在社交中所能穿着的最佳服饰。——都德 无论你怎样地表示愤怒，都不要做出任何无法挽回的事来。——培根 峣峣者缺，皎皎者易污。《阳春》之曲，和者必寡，盛名之下，其实难副。——范晔有谦和、愉快、诚恳的态度，而同时又加上忍耐精神的人，是非常幸运的。——塞涅卡谦固美名，过谦者，宜防其诈。——朱熹 当我们是大为谦卑的时候，便是我们最近于伟大的时候。——泰戈尔 卑己而尊人是不好的，尊己而卑人也是不好的。——徐特立 九牛一毫莫自夸，骄傲自满必翻车。历览古今多少事，成由谦逊败由奢。——陈毅一知半解的人，多不谦虚；见多识广有本领的人，一定谦虚。——谢觉哉 宋代的理学大师周敦颐在《通书》里的一句话很值得拿来看看：“礼，理也。乐，和也。阴阳理而后和。君君臣臣，父父子子，兄兄弟弟，夫夫妇妇，万物各得其理，然后和。” 文明礼貌 学习争先虽重要，文明礼貌也要好。学校规定都遵守，见到老师有礼貌。同学之间相友爱，友谊之手牵的牢。爱护公物放心上，树立新风我做到。 礼仪的原则 礼仪、礼节、礼貌内容丰富多样，但它有自身的规律性，其基本的礼仪原则：一是敬人的原则；二是自律的原则，就是在交往过程中要克己、慎重、积极主动、自觉自愿、礼貌待人、表里如一，自我对照，自我反省，自我要求，自我检点，自我约束，不能妄自尊大，口是心非；三是适度的原则，适度得体，掌握分寸；四是真诚的原则，诚心诚意，以诚待人，不逢场作戏，言行不一。 礼仪的用语 用语：敬语，表示尊敬和礼貌的词语。如日常使用的“请”、“谢谢”、“对不起”，第二人称中的“您”字等。初次见面为“久仰”；很久不见为“久违”；请人批评为“指教’；麻烦别人称“打扰”；求给方便为“借光”；托人办事为“拜托”等等。要努力养成使用敬语的习惯。现在，我国提倡的礼貌用语是十个字：“您好”、“请”、“谢谢”、“对不起”、“再见”。这十个字体现了说话文明的基本的语言形式。 图书馆等公共产所礼仪 图书馆、阅览室：图书馆、阅览室是公共的学习场所。 ①要注意整洁，遵守规则。不能穿汗衫和拖拉鞋入内，不要为别人预占位置，查阅目录卡片时，不可把卡片翻乱或撕坏，或用笔在卡片上涂抹划线。 ②要保持安静和卫生。走动时脚步要轻，不要高声谈话，不要吃食物。 ③对图书馆、阅览室的图书桌椅板凳等等属于公共财产，也应该注意爱护，不要破坏。 礼仪的题目文明，是每个人必须具备的素质讲文明、创和谐 文明是城市之魂，美德是立身之本文明礼仪伴我行 加强道德建设，共建美好家园共建文明家园，同创美好未来 文明礼仪手抄报：教学礼仪规范 (一)组织教学上课时，学生起立向老师致敬，起立致意是为了表示对主讲人也就是教师的尊敬。师生互相问好，同时老师向同学点头致意，并对学生说：“请坐”。这些都是课堂的问候方式，使师生之间形成良好的交流与互动。 (二)课堂提问在教学过程中，老师在提问时，使用礼貌用语，如：“某同学，请你来回答”。在学生回答的过程中，用眼睛看着对话者脸上的三角部分，这个三角以双眼为底线，上顶角到前额。如果你看着对方的这个部位，会显得很严肃认真，别人会感到你有诚意。在学生
“礼貌原则”和“面子理论”在跨文化交际中的应用 研究 篇一：语用学中的面子理论和礼貌原则的应用 摘要 中国饮食文化博大精深、源远流长是来华外宾了解中国文化的一个重要窗口。菜铺上的菜名对人们有着很好的指示作用,它传神的表达出菜本身的特点和美好寓意。与此同时,随着我国日益与国际接轨,中国菜越来越受外国友人的亲睐。 但由于中国饮食烹饪方式多样，文化内涵丰富，相关专业性强，因而容易导致中国菜名的英译错误。同样的，英语广告是一种跨文化的交际活动，在翻译过程中，必须考虑到两种不同文化形成的语用原则。语用学在实际应用中涉及多方面的理论，包括面子理论和礼貌原则。关键词：中国菜名;面子理论;礼貌原则 Abstract chinesedietculture,withalonghistory,isrichandprofound,whichhasbecomea nimportantwindowfortheforeigngueststogetacquaintedwithchineseculture. chinesedishnamesonthemenuhaveagoodindicationforpeople.Itvividlyexpr essesthecharacteristicsofthefoodandgoodmoral.Atthesametime,asourcount ryincreasinglyhasinterfacedwithinternational,chinesedishesarebecomingm oreandmorepopularamongforeigners.
however,differentchinesefoodcookingways,richfoodcultureandprofessiona lstrongbringaboutdifficultiesfortranslation.Theapplicationsofpragmaticsin cludingfacetheoryandpolitenessprincipleintheareaofdiet.samely,advertise mentisancross-culturalactivity,soweshouldconsiderthepragmaticsprinciple bothinchineseandenglish.pragmaticsinvolvesvariousaspectsoftheroies,incl udingfacetheoryandpolitenessprinciple. Keywords:chinesedishnames;Facetheory;politenessprinciple Theapplicationofpragmaticsinadvertisement 英语广告advertisement一词产生自拉丁语advertere，意为“唤起大众对某种事物的注意，并诱于一定的方向所使用的一种手段。”而成功的商业广告是则是通过文字信息、非文字信息(如音乐、图片等)或图文并茂的方式来吸引消费者以期实现销售目的。然而,在广告所采取的各种形式中,语言一直是最重要和最根本的。众所周知，广告翻译是一种跨文化的交际活动，在这个翻译过程中，必须考虑到两种不同文化形成的语用原则。如果翻译准确，则可使持两种语言的人成功地实现交际，达到商标的目的。反之，就容易 产生失误。 一、避免语用失误广告翻译的几点注意 1、跨文化语用失误（cross-culturalpragmaticfailure） （1）品牌的翻译避免直译上海产“白翎”钢笔，其英译为“whiteFeather”,在英语国家无人问津,其原因在于英语中有句成语“toshowthewhitefeather”意思是“临阵逃脱”,而“白色羽毛”象征
合作原则、会话含义及礼貌原则 摘要：“合作原则”（cooperative principle）是美国哲学家Grice 提出的一套假想的原则，合作原则这条根本原则可以具体体现为四条准则，即数量准则，质量准则，关联准则和方式准则。但是在实际的日常生活中人们并不总是遵循这四条准则，其实也就是因为对合作原则下的这四条准则的违反才产生了“会话含义”(conversational implicature)。但是Grice 并没有解释人们为什么要违反“合作原则” （cooperative principle）。在此之后，Leech 又提出了“礼貌原则”(politeness principle)，作为对合作原则的补充。Leech 认为在日常会话中，人们往往因为遵守礼貌原则而违反了合作原则。但是实际上，人们并不总是因为礼貌才违反合作原则的。 关键词：合作原则；会话含义；礼貌原则 一．合作原则和它的四个准则 合作原则（cooperative principle）是Grice1967年在哈佛大学的一次演讲中提出的，他认为，合作原则是一切成功的语言交际活动的基础，所以我们可以这样认为，所有参加交谈的人在他们进行交谈活动时采取的是合作的态度。 首先让我们来搞清楚什么是合作原则。它是一套设想的准则，如果在交谈过程中交谈双方都希望更好的理解对方的话语意思，就得遵循合作原则，Grice把它具体化为四条准则。 质量准则（quality maxim）——也就是说要尽量说真话 （1）不要说自己认为是不真实的话； （2）不要说缺乏足够证据的话 例1： A：你认为他适合做这个工作吗？ B：当然了，完全适合。 数量准则（quantity maxim） A：使自己所说的话达到现时的交际目的所要求的详尽程度； B：不能使自己所说的话比要求的更详尽。
国外有不少学者对跨文化交际中礼貌用语的使用有过研究。在20世纪70年代后期，首先由Brown&Levinson发表《语言运用中的普遍问题：礼貌现象》。80年代，英国语言学家利奇对交际活动中的礼貌原则进行了归纳和分类中国学者中，礼貌研究的代表人物主要是徐盛桓和顾曰国。徐盛桓提出礼貌原则的新构想。1992年，顾曰国总结了中国文化礼貌中的四个基本要素，即尊敬他人、谦虚、态度热情和温文尔雅；归纳了与汉语言文化有关的五条礼貌准则。1997年，蒋玉新提出，正是文化差异导致了行为举止、问候语、社会价值观等方面的差异。2002年，戈玲玲认为语用失误主要源自不同的文化背景。 本选题在以往研究范围的基础上，基于礼貌原则的理论研究，将英汉礼貌用语进行对比研究，旨在探究跨文化交际中礼貌用语使用失误的内在原因，以礼貌原则的视角探究中西方礼貌用语的文化差异和语用差异，这样即可以更透彻的了解中国文化，也有助于跨文化交际的顺利进行。 本选题侧重对礼貌用语的概念，分类和使用不当的原因进行阐述、对比，以英汉礼貌用语为主要研究对象，运用对比分析的研究方法，具体分析英汉礼貌用语在内涵，使用方法，文化背景上的差异，结合Grice的合作原则，Leech的礼貌原则和顾曰国的中国礼貌研究等相关理论，和一些跨文化交际双方礼貌用语使用失误进行典型案例分析。重点在于运用语言学和语用学理论以及礼貌原则的视角来解决跨文化交际中的实际问题。 本选题的难点在于相关资料过多，礼貌用语产生的背景过于复杂，交际失败案例过于零散，归纳总结时稍有难度。本选题注重实用性，但是理论到实际是有一定的差距和难度。相关理论相对抽象，用来指导实践并不具备直观性。
试论会话中合作原则与礼貌原则之间的关系 一．会话中的合作原则 会话含义理论是理解自然语言的一种学识，它是由格莱斯于1967年在哈佛大学的讲座中提出。这个理论提出，谈话的参与者都必须有把谈话进行下去的愿望。所谓成功的言语交际需要会话双方互相合作互相配合,要求每一个交谈参与者在整个交谈过程中，所说的话符合这一次交谈的目标或方向。正是交谈者的这种配合，使得他们能够持续地进行有意义的语言交际。交谈者在交际中所遵循的那些原则和准则就是所谓的“合作原则”，即Cooperative Principle,简称CP。 合作原则又可以具体体现为四条准则 1)质量准则( The Maxim of Quality): A.不要说自已认为是不真实的话。 B.不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。 2)量的准则( The Maxim of Quantity): A.使自己所说的话达到(交谈的现实目的)所要求的详尽程度。 B.不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。 3)关联准则( The Maxim of Relation): 说话要贴切。 4)方式准则(The Maxim of Manner) 表达要清楚 A.避免晦涩的词语 B.避免歧义
C.说话要简要(避免赘述) D.说话要有条理 但是，后来人们发现，在实际交往中，人们不可能时时刻刻都遵循这四条准则，甚至有时是故意违反这些准则。那么我们就可以从人们故意违反这些准则中来，探究隐含在语言之下的那些言外之意，有时会达到幽默的效果，有时却会引起听者的误解，以至于有时说话者不得不额外的注以解释。例如在（1）对话中： 女孩：我漂亮吗？ 男孩：你带眼镜的时候很漂亮。 在这个对话中女孩所期待的回答是:是的，你很漂亮。这样也遵守了合作原则。但偏偏男孩没这样回答，也就是说他违反了合作原则，所以令女孩产生了误解，她完全有理由这样想：“那就是说我不带眼镜的时候很丑了”。而男孩为了不让女孩误解，赶紧接着说“你不带眼镜的时候更漂亮。”以此来消除前句话有可能带来的负面的效果。 例（2）He is a machine. (3) Tom has wooden ears. 上面这两句话都违背了质量准则里的第一条，因为人不可能是机器，人的耳朵也不可能是木制的。但是我们却可以从中推导出特殊的会话含义。比方说，说他是个机器，可能是想描述“他工作努力”，“他只知道干活”，“他不理解女孩的心”等，视具体情景而定。而（3）则可能说他对音乐，或其他的能用耳朵来听的东西没有鉴赏能力等等。 （4）A: Where does John live?
礼貌原则在商务英语信函中的应用 篇一：英语礼貌原则在商务信函中的具体应用 英语礼貌原则在商务信函中的具体应用 摘要：商务英语信函中的礼貌原则是一个非常重要的话题。作 为国际商务活动中的重要载体，商务英语信函是国际贸易双方进行 书面商务信息沟通的重要手段，在国际商务交际中起着举足轻重的 作用。本文介绍了英语礼貌原则，以及其在商务信函中的具体应用。 关键词：礼貌原则；商务英语信函 随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，世界范围内的经济合作与 交流也在不断增多。人们不可能跟自己的贸易伙伴一一亲自会面协 商。这时商务信函就成了取代亲自
拜会的一种便宜有效的沟通媒 介。遵循礼貌原则有助于促进和发展同客户的关系，在促进达成新 的业务方面起着积极的作用。 一、英语礼貌原则 在语言学的框架内，英语礼貌原则一般可以细分为如下几类： 1、策略原则 即尽量减少他人付出的代价，增加对他人的益处。这一原则较为 适用于当我们在向别人发出动作时。根据这一原则可以得出以下两个结论。 首先，就祈使句而言，提供比要求要礼貌一些。如：have some more sugar 就比clean up the floor 要礼貌。 其次，在表示请求时，间接比直接要礼貌一些。所以根据礼貌由 浅至深的程度，直接的祈使句不如普通的疑问句礼貌，普通的疑问 句又不如首先提出“是否可以做出
请求”的疑问句礼貌。例如： pass me the sugar. can you pass me the sugar? can i probably ask you to pass me the sugar? 这三句话的礼貌程度是逐步加深的。请求越来越不明显，从而给 听者更大的拒绝的自由。 2、慷慨原则 即尽量减少对自己的益处，增加自己付出的代价。这一原则较为 适用于当我们自己要发出动作时。当发出提供性的动作时，直接比 间接礼貌，如： let me set the table. i was wondering if i could possibly set the table. 当发出请求时，间接比直接礼貌。如： i want to borrow your car. could i possibly borrow your car? 3、称赞原则
不礼貌原则综述 不礼貌现象，和礼貌现象一样，也是我们沟通的一种非常重要的语用现象。尽管与礼貌现象相比，之前的研究忽略了不礼貌现象。在某种程度上，无论在国外还是国内仍然有不少相关的研究发现，并且当今关于不礼貌现象的研究越来越受到重视。本文是一篇关于不礼貌现象研究的文献综述，作者旨在从以下几部分展示一个关于不礼貌现象研究清晰的轮廓：不礼貌的定义，不礼貌策略及其回应策略，国内外不礼貌研究的领域。同时，从该文献综述中可以看出，目前国内外对该话题的研究已取得不少成果，但仍有进一步研究的空间。 不礼貌是日常言语交际中普遍存在的现象，被认为是交际策略之一。像礼貌原则一样，不礼貌原则也在我们的生活中扮演着重要的角色。由于不礼貌原则的重要性，本文将对国内外不礼貌原则的研究进行回顾并提出进一步的发展空间。 1不礼貌的定义 对“不礼貌”定义并不容易，研究者之间也没有统一的定义。这是因为不礼貌本身与许多因素密切相关，如社会基本准则、社会阶层、社会权力、不同的文化背景等。Watts（2003：9）指出，“...不礼貌是过去、目前乃至将来都有争议的术语。”Culpeper（1996）结合了Goffman（1967）和Brown & Levinson（1987）的观点，试图将“礼貌”的反面“不礼貌”定义为“使用旨在产生相反效果的策略，即社会中断的策略”。随后，Culpeper（2003）将不礼貌定义为“一种旨在攻击面子，从而导致社会冲突和不和谐的交际策略”。此后学者对不礼貌提出了不同的定义。 Mills（2005）提出，在一些谈话中，不礼貌行为是违反社会行为规范的。Bousfield（2008）提出，“不礼貌是礼貌的对立面，而不是试图减轻面子威胁行为，不礼貌是一种故意进行的口头威胁行为。” 在中国，关于不礼貌的研究尚且不多。主要有以下学者试图定义“不礼貌”。杨子和于国栋（2007）把言语不礼貌的话语定义为直接或间接损害了他人面子的话语，在交际中会引起受话人以及第三者尴尬、不愉快等。李元胜（2006）把不礼貌解释为在一定条件下违背了语言规范下的话语，从而产生正面和负面的交际价值”。丁崇明（2001）以反复的形式分析了不礼貌的话语。他指出，重申不同于重复，有其自身的特点。重申并不总是带来不礼貌的语用效果，因为它们与提问者的心理期望和社会因素密切相关。 从以上的研究者们的定义来看，近二十年来，中外学者对“不礼貌”的研究越来越重视。 2不礼貌策略 随着对不礼貌研究的深入，学者们提出了与布朗和莱文森的礼貌策略相平行
文明礼仪有哪些？ 礼仪是人类为维系社会正常生活而要求人们共同遵守的最起码的道德规范，它是人们在长期共同生活和相互交往中逐渐形成，并且以风俗、习惯和传统等方式固定下来。对一个人来说，礼仪是一个人的思想道德水平、文化修养、交际能力的外在表现，对一个社会来说，礼仪是一个国家社会文明程度、道德风尚和生活习惯的反映。重视、开展礼仪教育已成为道德实践的一个重要内容。 礼仪教育的内容涵盖着社会生活的各个方面。从内容上看有仪容、举止、表情、服饰、谈吐、待人接物等；从对象上看有个人礼仪、公共场所礼仪、待客与作客礼仪、餐桌礼仪、馈赠礼仪、文明交往等。在人际交往过程中的行为规范称为礼节，礼仪在言语动作上的表现称为礼貌。加强道德实践应注意礼仪，使人们在“敬人、自律、适度、真诚”的原则上进行人际交往，告别不文明的言行。 礼仪、礼节、礼貌内容丰富多样，但它有自身的规律性，其基本的礼仪原则：一是敬人的原则；二是自律的原则，就是在交往过程中要克己、慎重、积极主动、自觉自愿、礼貌待人、表里如一，自我对照，自我反省，自我要求，自我检点，自我约束，不能妄自尊大，口是心非；三是适度的原则，适度得体，掌握分寸；四是真诚的原则，诚心诚意，以诚待人，不逢场作戏，言行不一。 一、个人礼仪 ( 一)仪表：仪表是指人的容貌，是一个人精神面貌的外观体现。一个人的卫生习惯、服饰与形成和保持端庄、大方的仪表有着密切的关系。 1、卫生：清洁卫生是仪容美的关键，是礼仪的基本要求。不管长相多好，服饰多华贵，若满脸污垢，浑身异味，那必然破坏一个人的美感。因此，每个人都应该养成良好的卫生习惯，做到入睡起床洗脸、脚，早晚、饭后勤刷牙，经常洗头又洗澡，讲究梳理勤更衣。不要在人前“打扫个人卫生”。比如剔牙齿、掏鼻孔、挖耳屎、修指甲、搓泥垢等，这些行为都应该避开他人进行，否则，不仅不雅观，也不尊重他人。与人谈话时应保持一定距离，声音不要太大，不要对人口沫四溅。 2、服饰：服饰反映了一个人文化素质之高低，审美情趣之雅俗。具体说来，它既要自然得体，协调大方，又要遵守某种约定俗成的规范或原则。服装不但要与自己的具体条件相适应，还必须时刻注意客观环境、场合对人的着装要求，即着装打扮要优先考虑时间、地点和目的三大要素，并努力在穿着打扮的各方面与时间、地点、目的保持协调一致。 (二)言谈：言谈作为一门艺术，也是个人礼仪的一个重要组成部分。 1、礼貌：态度要诚恳、亲切；声音大小要适宜，语调要平和沉稳；尊重他人。
礼貌原则在汉语中的应用 摘要：礼貌原则是一套规约人们日常行为的准则．礼貌原则也是语用能力的一种。加深对礼貌原则的理解可以有助于提升自身的语用能力。该文章就是从语用学的角度对礼貌原则进行了浅析。 关键词：语用学礼貌原则 礼貌原则在汉语里有什么体现呢，可以从积极礼貌语言、消极礼貌语言和隐性礼貌语言这几个方面来分析。 一、积极礼貌语言 积极礼貌就是讲话人在表达难以避免的有损面子的话语时，采取补偿行动，对受话人的积极面子（即希望受到恭维和赞扬）加以保护。在语言交际活动中，批评、埋怨、取笑、反驳、挑战等都有可能损害受话人的积极面子，道歉、认错等则有可能损害说话人的积极面子。这时候往往要采用积极礼貌语言手段对受话人的面子加以保护。通常一下几种体现： 1、赞扬：对受话人的某些方面例如服饰、物品、兴趣、爱好等表示特别赞赏，使之感到脸面光彩，从而乐于为你效劳。例如向人借东西时这样说：“哟，你做的这个新发型真好看！……能把你的自行车借我一下吗？”这样就比较容易奏效。
2、体贴：对受话人的愿望、需要等表示特别的关心和体贴，使之感到十分亲切，从而愉快地接受邀请或建议。例如邀请别人进餐时说：“哎，你不是挺喜欢吃酸菜鱼的吗？前面有一家川味馆，咱们去尝尝吧。” 3、暄叙：通过尽情叙谈的方法表示非常乐意与对方交谈，使之感到你将其视为亲密的朋友。例如，对初次来访的客人说：“来来，你看我家，客厅乱成了什么样子！椅子没放好，沙发上全是书，小孩子的玩具到处乱丢，先到书房坐坐吧。”这样很容易消除客人的拘束感。 4、昵称：用比较亲密的称呼来拉近距离，打动对方，使之满足自己的请求或按照自己的希望去做。例如，向年长者问路，称对方为“同志”肯定不如称“老大爷”、“老大娘”的效果好。不过要注意，对文化层次和地位较高的人这种方法不太适宜。 5、重复：对对方的话语或者话语中的核心词语进行重复，以表示赞成、同情、感慨等。例如： 甲：刚才进校门时摔了一跤，真倒霉！ 乙：刚才摔跤了？没伤着吧？这场雨真够呛！ 6、善意谎言：为使对方面子上过得去或不使对方为难撒一些善意的小谎，说一些言不由衷或违背事实的话。例如：
2008年第43 期周刊摘要：“合作原则”（cooperative principle ）是美国哲学家Grice 提出的一套假想的原则，合作原则这条根本原则可以具体体现为四条准则，其实也就是因为对合作原则下的这四条准则的违反才产生了“会话含义”(conversational implicature)。但是Grice 并没有解释人们为什么要违反“合作原则”（coop -erative principle ）。在此之后，Leech 又提出了“礼貌原则”(po -liteness principle)，作为对合作原则的补充。但实际上，人们并不总是因为礼貌才违反合作原则的。 关键词：合作原则会话含义礼貌原则一、合作原则和它的四个准则 合作原则（cooperative principle ）是Grice1967年在哈佛大学的一次演讲中提出的，他认为，合作原则是一切成功的语言交际活动的基础，所以我们可以这样认为，所有参加交谈的人在他们进行交谈活动时采取的是合作的态度。 合作原则是一套设想的准则，如果在交谈过程中交谈双方都希望更好地理解对方的话语意思，就得遵循合作原则，Grice 把它具体化为四条准则。 1.质量准则（quality maxim ）—— —也就是说要尽量说真话（1）不要说自己认为不真实的话。（2）不要说缺乏足够证据的话。2.数量准则（quantity maxim ） （1）不能使自己所说的话比要求的更详尽。 （2）使自己所说的话达到现时的交际目的所要求的详尽程度。 3.关联准则(relation maxim) 要保证你说的每一句都和所进行的谈话是关联的，你所说的话和你们正在讨论的话题有紧密的联系，如果对方问你一些中国的事情，你就不应该告诉对方美国的事。 4.方式准则（避免赘述）(manner maxim)（1）说话要清晰明了，有所指。 （2）不要使自己的谈话含糊不清，模棱两可，从而难于理解。在这四个准则中，前三个是规定说话的内容的，最后一个是规定说话的方式的，质量准则规定说话的真实性，数量原则要求在交谈中所传递的信息的适中性，关联原则要求说话要切题，而方式准则要求说话要简洁和有条理。在这四个准则中，关联准则是最基本的也是最重要的，合作原则就要求每一个说话人的话语都应该是切题的，同时也是和对方所说的话相关联的。只有这样语言交际才能进行下去。 二、对合作原则的违反以及会话含义的产生 但是在实际的语言交际中，人们并不总是遵循合作原则的四个准则，甚至在有些情况下，人们还会故意违反这些准则，比如说故意说谎，拐弯抹角的说话，把本来简单的事说得很复杂，等等。那么，人们故意违反这些原则肯定有其他的意图，也就是说，在字面意义下，肯定还有更深的隐含的意义，这就是“会话含义”(conversational implicature)，在这些情形下，交谈双方都应该从对方的话语的字面含义中推导出他的真实意图，也就是要明确对方的“会话含义”，只有这样语言交际才能顺利地进行下去。对合作原则的四个准则的违反的具体情形。 1.对质量准则的违反 人们违反质量准则总是采取说谎的方式，有时候说话者也利用暗喻、反语、夸张等修辞手法来表达他们的真实意图，所以在语言交际中，字面意义和隐含意义经常是完全不同的，有时甚至是完全相反的。 例5：（1）有人背叛了你，你对他的行为非常气愤，当你谈起他时，你会说，“我还从来没见过这么好的朋友”，在这里你用的就是“反语”修辞格。 （2）“你去哪里了？我等了你几个世纪了”，“几个世纪”用的就是夸张的修辞格。 2.对质量准则的违反 例6：A ：约翰什么时候到？B ：明天某个时间到。 这里A 并没有给B 提供约翰到达的准确时间，这个说法隐含着或者B 并不清楚约翰到底什么时候到，或者B 不想告诉A 约翰到达的准确时间。 3.对关联准则的违反 例7：A ：你知道这个词的意思吗？B ：你不是有词典吗？ A 的意思是，你能告诉我这个词的意思吗？但是 B 并没有用一个陈述句来回答B 的问题，相反，B 用了另外一个问句拒绝了A 的请求。 4.对方式准则的违反 例8：A ：我们给孩子们搞点东西吃吧？ B ：好的，但是我反对给孩子们吃 C —H —O —C —O —L —A —T —E 这是夫妻之间的谈话，B 本来应该直接把“chocolate ”这个词整个直接读出来，但是他没有这样做，而是故意地把这么长的一个单词一个一个字母读出来，他采用这种说话方式是为了避免孩子们听出来他们是在谈论“chocolate ”。 三、对合作原则的违反和对礼貌原则的遵守 从以上分析，我们可以推导出另外一个问题，那就是：“为什么人们总是用间接的方式来表达自己的真实意图呢？”Grice 提出了合作原则并指出对合作原则的违反就产生了会话含义，但是Grice 并没有解释清楚为什么人们要违反合作原则。后来Leech 从修辞和语义的角度提出了“礼貌原则”，作为对Grice 合作原则的补充，Leech 认为，在语言交际中，人们为了礼貌才违反了合作原则，Leech 的礼貌原则有以下六条： 1.得体准则，又叫圆通准则（tact maxim ）①尽量使他人受损最小。②尽量使他人受惠最多。 2.慷慨准则，又叫大方准则（generosity maxim ）①尽量使自己受惠最少。②尽量使自己受损最大。 3.赞誉准则，又叫赞许准则。(approbation maxim)①尽量缩小对别人的贬损。②尽量夸大对别人的赞扬。 4.谦虚准则，又叫谦逊准则。(modesty maxim)①尽量缩小对自己的赞扬。②尽量对夸大对自身的贬损。 （皖西学院外语系，安徽六安 237012） 从合作原则到礼貌原则 田灵枝 ○外语教学与研究 111