5.1 Syntax
Syntax deals with how words are combined to form sentences; it is concerned with the principles governing the internal structure of sentences. Syntax can be approached from various perspectives.
5.2 Syntactic relations
5.2.1 The structural approach: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
The structural approach to the study of language was started by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in the beginning of the 20th century. In this approach, linguistic units are regarded as interrelated with one another in a structure or system.
5.2.1.1 Signifier and signified
According to Saussure, language is a system of signs. Each sign consists of two parts: signifier (sound image) and signified (concept). The relationship between the signifier and signified is arbitrary. Therefore it is not advisable to study a sign in isolation. The value of a sign can be specified only in relation to other signs in the system.
5.2.1.2 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
Syntagmatic relation: the relation linguistic units or signs such as words, clauses, etc. have with one another because they occur together in a sequence; words in a syntagmatic relation are both semantically and syntactically conditioned.
Paradigmatic relation: the relation linguistic units or signs such as words, clauses, etc. have with one another because they can be substituted for each other in a particular position in a structure; words in a paradigmatic relation are only syntactically conditioned.
Notes: the two relations between linguistic signs apply to every level of linguistic analysis such as phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase / word group, clause, etc. Other terms for these two relations are horizontal / vertical, chain / choice, sequential / associative, etc. Those signs in the former relation form a structure and those in the latter relation form a system.
5.2.2 The traditional approach: concord and government
5.2.2.1 Concord
a grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a sentence, in which the forms of these elements
agree with one another in terms of some grammatical categories; cases includes the concord between subject and predicate, modifier and noun, etc.
5.2.2.2 Government
a grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a sentence, in which the choice of one element
causes the selection of a particular form of another element, thus the first element is said to govern the second element; cases are: verb governs its object, preposition governs its object.
5.3 Grammatical constructions
5.3.1 Major concepts
Construction: a unit of linguistic analysis (e.g. a word, a phrase, a clause or a sentence) which is constructed level upon level.
Constituents: the component elements of a construction
Immediate constituents: constituents which are immediately below the level of a construction
Ultimate constituents: constituents that constitute the lowest level of a construction
5.3.2 Immediate Constituent (IC) analysis
The notion of IC analysis was first proposed by the American linguist Bloomfield, who realized that a sentence not only has a linear structure but also a hierarchical structure.
Definition: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents, viz. phrases or word groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the
ultimate constituents are reached.
Representation: Bracketing; Tree diagram
Criterion for division: paradigmatic relation
Merits & demerits:
Merits: IC analysis can capture the hierarchical or multi-level structure of a sentence, in contrast to traditional grammar which treats a sentence as a linear structure only; it can demonstrate the
internal structure of a sentence clearly and reveal ambiguity, if any.
Demerits: IC analysis is based on binary division and poses problems to a construction that requires a three-way division; it can not cope with discontinuous constituents; there are some still some
ambiguous constructions that IC analysis cannot deal with.
5.3.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions
Endocentric construction: one whose distribution is functionally equivalent or approximate to one of its
constituents which serves as the center or head of the whole; examples are noun
phrases and adjectival phrases; can be further divided into two types: subordinate
and coordinate.
Exocentric construction: one whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents, that is, it
has no center or head; examples are prepositional phrases and English basic sentences;
how about “Verb + Object” construction?
5.4 Syntactic functions
Syntactic function: the function that a linguistic form has in relation to other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.
5.4.1 Subject
Can you define subject?
The properties of subject in English (Hu, 2006: 93-4)
5.4.2 Predicate
Can you define predicate?
Predicate vs. predicator
5.4.3 Object
Can you define object?
Direct vs. indirect object
5.4.4 The relation between classes and functions
Which determines which?
One-to-one or one-to-many?
5.5 Grammatical categories
Grammatical category: a class or group of items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language
5.5.1 Person
a grammatical category which determines the choice of persons in a sentence according to such principles:
a. whether the pronoun represents or includes the speaker(s), →1st person
b. whether the pronoun represents or includes the addressee(s), →2nd person
c. whether the pronoun represents something or somebody other than the speaker(s) and the addressee(s), →
3rd person
5.5.2 Number
a grammatical category which determines whether nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs in a sentence are singular
or plural, or even dual or trial in some languages
5.5.3 Gender
a grammatical category in which words such as nouns, pronouns, adjectives and articles are marked according
to a distinction between masculine, feminine and sometimes neuter
5.5.4 Case
a grammatical category that indicates the functions of nouns and pronouns in a sentence; there are nominative,
accusative, dative, genitive, vocative, ablative and other cases.
5.5.5 Tense
a grammatical category which represents the relationship between the form of a ver
b and the action or state it
describes
5.5.6 Aspect
a grammatical category which deals with how the event described by the ver
b is viewed, such as whether it is in
progress, habitual, repeated, momentary, etc.
5.6 Phrase, clause and sentence
Phrase: a group of words that form a constituent that is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than clauses; there are nominal phrases, verbal phrases, adjectival phrases, prepositional phrases and adverbial phrases;
phrase vs. word group
Clause: a constituent with its own subject and predicate and included in a larger sentence; finite vs. non-finite clauses
Sentence: the minimum unit of language that expresses a complete thought; structural classification: simple vs.
non-simple (complex vs. compound); functional classification: declarative vs. interrogative vs.
imperative vs. exclamatory; Bolinger’s (1969) classification bas ed on word classes; Quirk et al.’s (1972)
classification
6.7 Recursiveness
Recursiveness: the syntactic phenomenon that one constituent can be embedded in another larger constituent and the resulting constituent can be embedded in still another larger constituent and the process can
proceed so long as language user’s memory allows.
Related phenomena: conjoining and embedding; coordination and subordination; hypotactic and paratactic
6.8 Beyond the sentence
Text linguistics / discourse analysis: linguistic analysis that goes beyond the syntactic unit
Sentential connection: sentences can be connected either in a paratactic way or in a way.
Cohesion: semantic connection between sentences; realized by such devices as reference, substitution, ellipsis, repetition, logical connection, etc.
1、历史比较语言学：是运用历史和比较两种方法，发现几种语言在历史演变中的对应规律从而确定语言的亲属关系，构拟产生这些亲属语言的原始母语。 2、组合关系：语言符号与符号之间组成的言语链条关系叫组合关系。组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序的、可数的横向关系。 3、聚合关系：在链条某一环节上能够互相替换的，具有相同作用的符号聚积成类的关系叫聚合关系。聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。 4、语言的融合：一种语言战胜另一种语言或一种语言被另一种语言吞噬的现象，叫做语言的融合。 5、语言的层级性：语言系统是一套层级装置，底层是一套音位装置，上层分为语素、词、句子三层。 6、音素：音素是人类语言在一次发音中从音质角度切分出来的最小的语音单位。 7、音位：音位是具体语言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。 8、国际音标：国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年公布的一套记音符号。大部分符号采用拉丁字母，少数用希腊字母，还有的采用大小写、正反写、合体写或添加符号与改变符号等方法。国际音标可分为宽式音标和严式音标两种。它的优点是形体简便，记音准确、灵活、完备。 9、音位变体：可归并为同一个音位的各个音素，我们称之为音位变体。 10、非音质音位：利用音高、音长、音强这些非音质要素形成的音位叫非音质音位。 11、语义：指语音形式表现出来的语言和言语的全部内容，它包括语言意义和言语意义两大类。 12、义素：义素是对某个义位的语义特征进行分析后得到的最小的语义单位。 13、语义场:语义场就是归属于一个总称之下的在意义上紧密联系的一组词的义位的聚合体。 14、语境：语言环境简称语境，指人们用语言进行交际时的具体环境。 15、词：词是语言中可以独立运用的最小音义结合单位。 16、语素：语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合单位。 17、词缀：词缀指附着在词根之上的语素，它对词义的构成起附加作用。 18、复合词：复合词由两个或两个以上的词根复合构成。例：汉语中的“火车”、“心疼”，英语中的“black-board(黑板)”、“rail-way(铁路)”。 19、重叠词：是由相同的词根相叠构成。如：看看、试试、多多等。 20、语法：语法是音义结合的各结构单位之间的组织规则的汇集，它包括词的构词、构形的规则和组词成句的规则。 21、词组：词组是实词与实词的有机组合。词组在句子中具有相当于词的作用，但它是比词大的语法单位。 22、语法范畴：是把同一性质的语法意义进一步综合概括所形成的语法意义的类别，如词形范畴与词类范畴等。 23、语法手段：对语法形式再概括所得出的类别就是语法手段，也叫语法方式，一般包括内部屈折法、附加法、重叠法、异根法、重音法、词序、虚词、语调、冠词、前置词和后置词、助动词等。 24、直接成分分析法：指从句法结构的外部形式，特别是隐形形式入手，对句子的直接组成成分进行分析的方法。由于句子的直接成分与句子的层次性一致，所以也叫层次分析法。 25、意音文字：一部分字符是义符，一部分字符是音符的文字是意音文字。 26、字符：字符也就是文字符号，是文字的最基本的单位，也就是直接跟某种语言单位相联系的符号。
郑州大学现代远程教育《社会语言学》课程考核要 求 说明：本课程考核形式为提交作业，完成后请保存为WORD 2003格式的文档，登陆学习平台提交，并检查和确认提交成功（能够下载，并且内容无误即为提交成功）。 1． 作业要求 1. 认真学习课程，广泛查阅文献资料，高质量完成课程作 业。 2. 必须由自己独立完成，不得抄袭或请人代写，雷同作业按照零分 处理。 2．作业内容 论述题 （1） 中国社会语言学发展的三个阶段（25分） 答：一）初创阶段（1979-1987）：从自发到自觉 一般认为，中国的社会语言学是舶来品，源于20世纪60年代的美国。中国最早提出社会语言学的学者之一陈原则指出，社会语言学发源比较早。自古以来，中外语文学家都曾讨论过古语与今语、文语与口语、标准语与方言在社会功能上的差别。欧洲19世纪初的方言学家对于自己民族语言内部各种变体的调查，其实即是进行社会语言学的工作。事实上，社会语言学的诞生和有没有社会语言学的研究是两回事。进行某一方面的研究并不等于建立了某一个学科。当然，一个学科的出现决不是突然从天上掉下来的。它一定是长时间学科积累的结果。现代中国历史上的许多语言运动，如20世纪初期的国语运动、20年代的白话文运动、30年代的大众语讨论以及北方拉丁化运动，50年代的推广普通话、现代汉语规范化等等，都可以算是社会语言学的工作。但是这些运动或工作可以说是自发的，而不是自觉的。70年代后期，随着“社会语言学”这个术语的出现，人们对社会语言学的研究从自发走向自觉[7]。 这一阶段，中国社会语言学的成果主要表现在通论性的著作和理论的译
介方面。前者除上述陈原的两本著作外，还有陈松岑的《社会语言学导论》（北京大学出版社，1985）、游汝杰、周振鹤的《方言与中国文化》（上海人民出版社，1986）。许国璋早在70年代末开始引进社会语言学，有关论文后来收入《许国璋论语言》（外语教学与研究出版社，1991）。1980年到1982年，英国语言学家特鲁基尔的《社会语言学导论》由林书武等翻译，在《国外语言学》连载。1987年北京大学出版社出版了祝畹瑾编的《社会语言学译文集》和前苏联什维策尔的《现代社会语言学》（卫志强译）。此外，《国际社会科学杂志》1985年第5期（中文版）以 “语言与交往：社会语言学研究个案与应用”的专刊形式，发表了一大批社会语言学的论文，很有指导意义。可惜因为发行上的原因，许多人没有看到。 这一时期有两大缺点：一是结合中国社会实际不够，二是对社会语言学的对象和范围的认识还相当模糊。例如有的学者把语言与思维的关系之类问题也列入社会语言学，这显然是不妥的。此外，受国外的影响，也有热衷于无谓的名份之争的现象。 迅速发展阶段（1987-1993）：从引进走向结合中国实际 1987年12月1日至5日，中国社科院语言文字应用研究所在北京举办了首届社会语言学讨论会。会议展示了70年代以来中国社会语言学的研究现状和水平，它标志着中国社会语言进入了一个火热的阶段，对推动我国的社会语言学研究具有重要意义。1988年8月，深圳教育学院深港语言研究所主办了首次“双语·双方言”讨论会。1990年11月，中国社会科学院语言文字应用研究所和苏州大学在苏州召开了首届应用语言学讨论会，其中有不少的论文也是关于社会语言学的。 这一时期出现了许多社会语言学的专题研究。著作有张清常的《胡同及其他——社会语言学的探索》（北京语言学院出版社，1990）、高天如的《中国现代语言计划的理论和实践》（复旦大学出版社，1993）等。论文数量很多，结集出版的有《双语双方言》（1-4集）（分别由中山大学出版社等出版）、《语言·社会·文化——首届社会语言学学术讨论会论文集》（语文出版社，1991）等等。 这个阶段，继续出版了一批关于社会语言学的译介、概论性著作和教材。在译介国外社会语言学研究成果方面，除了《国外语言学》等杂志连续刊登译介文章（例如Lesley Milroy的《语言和社会网络》等）外，还出版了佐伊基的《社会语言学演讲录》（刘明霞等译，北京语言学院出版社，1989）、郝德森的《社会语言学》（丁信善译，中国社会
语言学概论复习大纲
导言 一、解释以下概念并指出其区别 语言学语文学小学 二、语言学理论在指导语言实践上有哪些作用？ 第一章第一节 一、名词解释 语言的主观性 二、举例说明 1、语言的两大社会功能 2、信息传递中接受存在的方式 三、论述：语言是人类社会传递信息第一性的、最重要的手段第一章第二节 一、名词解释 语言能力 二、举例说明：语言的民族性 三、简答 1、语言和思维的关系 2、语言思维功能的生理基础 3、聋哑人的语言问题与思维特点 四、论述 1、儿童语言习得与思维的发展过程基本一致
2、思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性 第二章第一节 一、名词解释 1、征候 2、心理现实 二、辨析概念的区别与联系（定义区别相同点分点答题） 1、语言和言语 2、征候与符号 3、语言与符号 三、简答 1、语言符号与心理现实之间的关系（分点答题不举例） 2、怎么理解“人的心理现实是不断增量的” 第二章第二节 一、名词解释 1、语言符号的线条性 2、语言符号的组合关系 3、语言符号的聚合关系 二、举例说明：语言符号的任意性 三、论述 1、语言符号系统是一种分层装置 2、语言层级装置靠语言单位的组合和替换来运转
第二章第三章 一、名词解释 语言能力 二、简答 1、人的语言能力是先天具备的，但后天的语言环境决定着人的语言能力的现实和维持 2、语言是其他动物与人类之间无法逾越的鸿沟 三、论述 人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的根本区别 第三章第一节 一、名词解释 1、音标 2、国际音标 二、辨析区别和联系 语音学和音乐学 三、简答 1、语音与自然界声音的异同 2、语音学研究的诸方面 第三章第二节 一、名词解释 1、纯音
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义 一、常考题型 1.填空 2.单项选择 3.判断正误 4.解释词语并举例说明 对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明 5.回答问题 做题要求：用英文进行答题。 二、各章节学习要点 Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论） 1.What is linguistics? 1.1 Definition （语言学的定义） P.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general. 1.2 The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴） P.2—4 The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas. Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支： 1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学） The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.
Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period
“社会语言学与方言学专题”讲义3 分类:我的阅读 2006.9.1 00:34 作者：ittho | 评论：0 | 阅读：323 “社会语言学与方言学专题”讲义(四) 复旦大学游汝杰 第五节底层语言、上层语言和傍层语言 一、关于底层语言理论 底层语言理论（Substratum theory）认为在一种上层语言里有可能残留底层语言的成分；底层语言以多种不同的形式对上层语言产生影响；上层语言的演变与底层语言的影响有关；如果一个地区的语言被另一种语言所替代，那么前者就有可能成为后者的底层。所谓底层语言（Substratum）是指两种不同的语言互相接触、竞争的结果，战胜的语言所吸收的战败的语言成分。战胜的语言即是上层语言，战败的语言即是底层语言。 语言底层须有民族底层作为前提。外来民族在征服土著民族或移居到土著民族的住地的时候，同时带来一种新的语言。新的语言如果在文化、经济或使用人口上占优势，那么就可能成为上层语言。土著民族不得不放弃土著语言，改而使用新的语言。他们在使用新的语言的时候，一方面受到原有的语言习惯的制约和影响，造成有规律的错误；另一方面有时候在新的语言里找不到相应的表达方式（多是词汇），就保留原来语言中那些有用的成分。这些有规律的错误和保留下来的有用的成分，即是底层语言成分的两大源流。底层语言成分可以包括语音、词汇和语法三方面，但是以词汇为最常见。 底层语言的产生可以说是一种特殊的语言借用现象。底层成分和一般的所谓借 词（loan word）都是指从一种语言渗透到另一种语言的成分。但是借词的产生不必以底层民族作为前提；底层成分的渗透更深入、更隐秘、更不易觉察；底层成分 可以包括语音、词汇和语法结构。 底层语言理论最初是由意大利语言学家雅科夫布列兹托尔夫（J H Bresdoff 1790-1841）奠定的，其代表作是“Om aarsagerne til spiogenes forandringer”（1821），法译本名“Des causes des changements Linguistiques”（1933，哥本哈根）。而后意大利语言学家阿思科里在1881年的著作里，具体运用底层影响的概念来说明语音演变。
NO.1217195812 《中国社会语言学》杂志创刊 ( 2003-11-3 16:48 ) 《中国社会语言学》杂志创刊并即将出版 《中国社会语言学》（The Journal of Chinese Sociolinguistics）于2003年10 月在澳门创刊，国际标准刊号为：ISSN 1729-5173。《中国社会语言学》由中国社会语言学会（The Association of Chinese Sociolinguistics）编辑出版，每年出版一或二期。 《中国社会语言学》刊登社会语言学研究的各类文章，包括研究论文、调查报告、评论、报道、书讯等，尤其欢迎关于海内外华人、中国各民族语言的社会语言学研究成果。 《中国社会语言学》园地公开，文责自负。本刊实行专家匿名审稿制度，审稿时间为收到来稿之日起6个月。无论稿件采用与否，编辑部均会在6个月内以书面形式通知作者。本刊暂不设稿酬，稿件一经刊用，即赠送该期刊物10册。 来稿注意事项 （一）来稿长短不拘，繁简体皆可，中英文皆可。 （二）来稿时请寄：打印件两份，word电子文件一份，txt电子文件一份。稿件内容请按以下顺序排列： 1.中文标题； 2.中文提要； 3.中文关键词； 4.英文标题； 5.英文提要； 6.英文关键词； 7.正文；8.附注；9.参考文献（先中文后外文，请按作者姓名音序排列）。 （三）在另纸上写明：作者姓名，学历学位，职称，工作单位，通信地址，联系电话，E-mail地址，主要研究方向和研究成果。 （四）所有来稿均需以显著方式注明“《中国社会语言学》投稿”字样。 （五）在来稿审稿期限内切勿另投他刊（包括会议论文集），否则如发生重刊事故将追究作者的责任。 联系方式 （一）澳门邮政信箱956号，联系人：邵朝阳博士，电话：（00853）6691003，E-mail：acs@https://www.doczj.com/doc/d517022657.html,.mo。 （二）100083北京市海淀区学院路15号北京语言大学语言研究所，联系人：张世方博士，电话：（0086）10-82303573，Email：zhangshf@https://www.doczj.com/doc/d517022657.html,。 订购方式
如何学好汉语言文学 专业
马景仑教授谈如何学好汉语言文学专业——南京师范大学文学院马景仑教授博士生导师 汉语言文学专业(简称中文专业)是大学里比较普遍的一个专业，学习该专业的学生众多，本文就如何学习该专业，谈一点粗浅的看法，供大家参考。 首先，要努力培养对中文专业的学习兴趣。 兴趣，从心理学的角度讲，就是渴望熟悉、了解、研究、领会某种对象的一种心理指向性，它在人的需要和实践活动中发生和发展起来的。人们常说：“兴趣出勤奋，勤奋出天才”。如果广大学员培养了对中文专业的浓厚兴趣，那么，就会激发出强烈的求知渴望和刻苦钻研的精神，就会有一种昂扬、奋发、不怕任何困难的斗志，就会把学习看成是一种莫大的快乐。孔子说：“知之者不如好之者，好之者不如乐之者。”由“知之”到“好之”到“乐之”，是治学过程中的三个台阶，而兴趣则是攀登这些台阶的重要动力。 其次，要注意掌握良好的学习方法。 学习方法的好坏，直接关系到学习效果的好坏。 学习中文专业，要注意运用哪些学习方法呢? (一)要认真分析各门功课的特点，了解各门课程的主要学习内容，抓住学习重点，避免平均用力。 中文专业的专业课程，基本上可以分为三大类： 1、文学类。包括古代、现代和外国文学作品选、文学史；以及文学理论等。作品侧重在介绍古今中外各种主要的文学作品，要把功夫花在理解和熟悉有关作品的作者、创作时间、创作的时代背景、主要内容、主题思想、情节、矛盾、表现手法、艺术特色、写作线索、段落结构、主要人物形象、社会影响、体裁、作品的隐含深义、构思特点等等方面。学习作品选，必须认真阅读原著不能只看教材不看作品。文学史重在介绍文学发展的历史情况，因此，要从各个时代的政治、经济、文化、社会等状况入手，抓住各个时代的代表作家、代表作品、文学流派、文学团体、文学现象及其兴衰过程、原因、历史影响等等。学习文学史，既要抓纵的历史发展线索，又要抓横的时代剖析。文学理论重在介绍文学的本质、构成、特点、流派、创作过程、创作手法、文学鉴赏、文学发展的内部规律及外部因素、马列主义经典作家对文学和文化的论述、古今中外美学名家对美的本质、特点以及审美问题的种种探讨，等等。自学文学理论，应当在理解概念、术语、基本观点、基本理论上着力。
An Analysis of the Features and Causes of Female Language 1401 全雪萍1430100137 Introduction: The study of gender language has a long history. As early as 1922, Jens Otto Harry Jesperson has specially opened up a chapter of “ The Women” in his book Language, which discusses the language differences between men and women. Since the 1970s, some famous scholars such as Lakoff , Trugill and others advanced the study to systematize the study of gender study. In recent years, the studies of “female language” are increasing in many magazines and books, which draws much attention. Many researchers have almost reached the same conclusion that women have their own language. Crosby and Nyquist got the conclusion from their studies: the so-called female language is not existed since women are born, but this kind of language reflects the people in the society always put the female in this position that is hard to change. In our society, the female language is characterized by a lack of social status. In this paper, I will start from the features of female language, and simply discuss the factors of its formation. I.The features of female language Many observers believe that men and women are different in language communication. The female language exists in any language as a widespread phenomenon. Men and women have different choices in expressing ideas when they use the same language. For example, abstract nouns have gender differences in grammar, men call women as “ feminine”, while women call men as “masculine”. The education received by women is that they tone should be soft when they talk; do not refute others; be gentle and modest in language communication; avoid arbitrary or offending others; be aware of overconfidence. The features of female language can be summarized from following aspect：the choice of words, the choice of syntactic and pronunciation and intonation. 1.The choice of words Both men and women have their partial words, which can be said that a considerable number of words have been given the label of “feminine” or “masculine”. Men don?t use( scorned, unwilling to use) some peculiar words in female language that is “ feminine” words. At the same time, women also avoid the “ masculine” expressions. Women often express their feelings without control, they like exaggeration when they talk, so they have the following characteristics of choosing words: 1)Like using exaggerated adjectives, such as divine, charming, cute, gorgeous, heavenly” and so on. Men sometimes also use these words, but they rarely use these words to express the same meaning in terms of tradition. “ What a divine idea!” obviously comes from a woman?s mouth. 2)Like using some degree adverbs to emphasize, also like choosing some adverbs to strengthen adjectives, such as “ so” “quite” etc. Lakoff( 1972) and Tarone (1979) prove that men like using “very” and “really” while women like using “so”. 3)Are good at using some color words, especially some rare color words, such as “ lavender, magenta, aquamarine”.
1 One of the main features of our human language is arbitrariness .Can you briefly explain what is this feature refers to ? Give examples if necessary(10 points). 2 In English we can describe a story as "a successful story" or "a success story ".Do you think they mean the same ? Please explain and give your reasons(10 points) 3 Explain the following terms ,giving examples where necessary.(50 points) <中山2003》design feature macro linguistics vowel minimal pair folk etymology aspect anaphor error analysisr metaphor 4 Language can change through blending ,met analysis ,back-formation, analogical creation and borrowing. Give two English words for each of them ( 5 points) 清华2000年试题 5 Answer the following question briefly.clearly,grammatically and correctly.(10 Points ) 湖南师大2003年What is it wrong to assume that the meaning of a sentence is the sum of the meaning of the words which compose it ? 7 Define the following terms.(10 points) 中国海洋大学1999 Phoneme,consonant,morpheme,lexicon,syntax,endocentric construction,semantics,hyponymy ,language ,design feature 8 Define the following terms .(20 points) 苏州大学1997 allophone morpheme assimilation internal authority interlingua phatic communion closed-class word government semantic triangic lingua franca What is the main grammatical difference between a sentence and a clause ? 同上 6 Translate into Chinese and exemplify each of the following.(10 points ) Example : dialectal synonyms Answer , 方言同义词，Fall and autumn are dialectal synonyms . homograph homophony gradable opposites endocentric construction exocentric construction List the six important characteristics of human language . What are the types of morphemes? Illustrate the deep and surface structures. What do u know about the semantic features? How does language change? 10 Words in our mental lexicon are known to be related to one another .Discuss the relationships between words ,using examples from the English language .(15 points ) 北外2003年试题 11 What do you think are the similarities and dissimilarities between learning a first and a second language? ( 30 points) 同上 31. .cultural transmission (as a defining feature of human language) is One of the major defining features of human language. Humans are born with the ability to acquire a language, but different from animals, the actual use of human language is not genetically transmitted, rather it is culturally transmitted, i.e.it has to be taught and learnt. 32. .phonic medium of language isThe limited range of sounds that are used in human language communication, i.e.the speech sounds. 33.Voicing is a phonetic feature of some sounds.It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords. 34.Inflectional morphemes are morphemes that are used to indicate the grammatrcal relations and categories,such as-ed,-(e)s,-est in English. 35.Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.For example ,if we say, "The dog is barking," we must be talking about a certain dog known to both the speaker and the hearer in the situation.The actual dog the word "dog" refers to in this particular situation is the reference of the word "dog". 36.Locutionary act refers to the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses.It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. For example, by saying "You have left the door wide open",the locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words and expressed what the words literally mean. 37.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages. 38.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language,often cutting across regional differences. It is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation. 39.Registers are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations,in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For this reason, registers are also known as situational dialects. 40.Acculturation refers to a process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community.
《中国社会语言学》读书笔记 《中国社会语言学》读书笔记 徐君善 从语言史研究的观点出发，有理由认为，社会语言学的产生，从本质上说，是折衷主义思想的直接产物。最能体现这种折衷主义思想的，则是社会语言学本身所具有的跨学科、应用型特征。这一特征，充分反映出20世纪末以来，全球新兴学科发展的一般规律与趋势。因此，当我们面向新世纪，展望语言学发展之时，有必要对社会语言学这门新兴学科的主要特征做一研讨，旨在促进中国社会语言学的研究。社会语言学的产生背景不同于其他语言学流派。它不是源于一个理论构造的种子，而是从一个关系错综复杂的社会科学领域里蔓生出来。由于这一特定的学术背景，社会语言学在其成长发展过程中始终没有形成明显的门户之见，而以其宽厚的学术胸怀，包容了来自各种不同学术背景与传统的研究者。正是这种海纳百川的学术气派与折衷主义精神，才使得其广泛的跨学科研究潜势成为现实中的可能。正是因为这个原因，社会语言学才体现出理论模式多样性、研究方法随机性、研究群体广泛性，以及研究内容驳杂性的学科特征。社会语言学研究具有多学科交叉的学科特色，这是不可置疑的事实。回顾社会语言学的历史，从早期的开拓者身上，即可见到这一点。北美学派的几位首领人物鲍厄斯、萨丕尔、沃尔夫，以及英国功能学派的创始人马林诺夫斯基、弗斯等人，有的从人类学、社会学、民族学的角度观察语言的具体使用现象，有的从文化传统与语言结构的关联探讨语言与思维的关系。 20世纪60年代以后，社会语言学异军突起这一事实本身，更是社会学和人类学对于语言问题持续的关注，以及语言学内部对于跨学科研究的渴望这两种力量协同作用的结果。由于跨学科交叉研究的这一特色，导致了社会语言学理论模式的多样性。研究方法的随机性，是社会语言学跨学科研究特色的另一种体现。虽然，20
语言学纲要讲义笔记 导言 一、语言的定义 语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具、是由音义结合的词汇和语法构成的一种符号系统。 二、语言学的对象和任务 语言学是研究语言的科学。 要把语言学跟语文学区分开来 中国传统语文学——“小学” 小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。 在古印度，公元前4世纪，著名学者潘尼尼在整理、注释婆罗门教经典《吠陀》时，写了一本《梵语语法》，提出3996条规则，被人们称为最完备的语法书。在古希腊，伯拉图和亚里斯多德是从哲学的角度来研究语言的，他们讨论了词为什么具有意义等内容。 三、语言学在科学体系中的地位 语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 1、与社会科学、自然科学的联系 语言研究的成果是哲学、历史学、考古学、文学、政治学、经济学、逻辑学、社会学、民族学、计算机科学等学科所必须利用的，可见语言研究在这些社会科学中已占重要地位。 语言学与其他学科相交叉产生社会语言学、心理语言学、计算语言学、生物语言学、模糊语言学、实验语音学等。如：运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为五个阶段： 编码——发送——传递——接收——解码 对这一具体过程的解释需要结合物理学、生理学、心理学等其他学科的知识。三、语言学的基本类别 总体上，根据研究对象的不同，语言学可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学两大类。（一）理论语言学可分为： 1、一般/普通语言学
2、个别/具体语言学 具体语言学 （1）历时语言学 （2）共时语言学 （二）应用语言学 1、社会语言学：研究语言与社会集团的关系。如地域方言、社会方言、语言的接触、语言规划等。 2、心理语言学：研究儿童语言习得、语言的接收和发生过程，等。 3、神经语言学 最近二十年才从心理语言学中分离出来的一门新的学科，主要研究语言和大脑结构的关系，中心是大脑如何生成语言。 此外，还有数理语言学、统计语言学、实验语音学等。 第一章语言的功能 第一节语言的社会功能 一、语言的信息传递功能 信息传递功能是语言的最基本的社会功能。 人类还借助语言之外的其他形式传递信息，它们是文字，旗语，信号灯，电报代码，数学符号，化学公式等等。 身势等伴随动作等是非语言的信息传递形式。 身势等非语言的形式多半是辅助语言来传递信息； 文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的再编码形式； 旗语之类是建立在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式； 语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段，是最重要的交际工具。二、语言的人际互动功能 语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这就是语言的人际互动功能。互动包括两个方面：一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。