Chapter One Introduction to Intercultural Communication
Human being draw close to one another by their common culture, but habits and customs keep them apart.
---Confucian Saying 1. Definition ：Intercultural Communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol
systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.
2. A short history of intercultural communication
2.1 The Burgeoning Period
The term “Intercultural communication” itself did not appear until Hall’s The silent language was published in 1959.
2.2 From 1960 to 1970
a. Two preventative books reflect the continuous efforts made by scholars in the field in the 1960’s:
b. Olive’s Culture and Communication (1962) and Smith’s Communication and Culture (1966)
c. The first college class in this field taught in 1966 at the University of Pittsburgh.
2.3 From 1971 to 1980
a. The 1970s witnessed rapid development in the field of intercultural communication.
b. In 1973, Samovar and Porter published Intercultural Communication: A reader
c. Indiana University awarded the first doctoral degree in intercultural communication.
d. Condon and Yousef’s Introduction to Intercultural Communication (1975)
2.4 From 1981 to the Present Time
a. Condon and Yousef’s stress on cultural value orientations and communication behavior parallels
b. Hofstede’s (1984) later work on cultural values
c .Hall’s writing on high-context an
d low-context cultures in Beyond Cultur
e (1977).
d. Scholars in the early 1970s began to make their contributions in research and teaching by the 1980s.
3. Importance of Intercultural Communication
Three developments
3.1 The new technology
3.2 The new Population
3.3 The new Economic Arena
4. Studying Intercultural Communication
We have met the enemy, and he is us. ---Pogo
Three main obstacles:
First, Culture lacks a distinct crystalline structure; it is often riddled with contradictions and paradoxes.
Second, Culture cannot be manipulated or held in check; therefore, it is difficult to conduct certain kinds of research on this topic.
Third, we study other cultures from the perspective of our own culture, so our observations and our conclusions are tainted by our orientation.
5. Intercultural Communication
The main conceptions in intercultural communication:
Intercultural communication: Face-to-face communication between people from differing cultural backgrounds. Intercultural communication is defined as the extent to which there is shared interpersonal communication between members of the same culture.
5.1 Host and Minority Culture
The host culture is the mainstream culture of any one particular country.
Minority cultures: cultural groups that are smaller in numerical terms in relation to the host culture.
5.2 Subcultures (Co-cultures)
Subculture: a smaller, possibly nonconformist, subgroup within the host culture.
E.G. : Black American; Native American; Hispanic- American, Chinese-American, etc.
5.3 Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is the official recogniti on of a country’s cultural and ethnic diversity (Hollway, 1992)
5.4 Cross-cultural Communication
1.Cross-cultural communication is face-to-face communication between representatives of business, government and professional groups from different cultures.
2.Diplomacy is one of the oldest forms of cross-cultural communication. Travel and tourism is a second form of cross-cultural communication.
3.A third form of cross-cultural communication unique to this has been the growth of the mass media.
Most recently, cross-cultural communication has been accelerated by cross-border information flows brought about by computerization.
5.5 Principles of Intercultural Communication
Condon has highlighted three areas as most problematic in intercultural exchange:
https://www.doczj.com/doc/8e3653227.html,nguage barrier
2.Different values
3.Different patterns of behaviors. (Condon & Saito, 1974)
5.6 Rationale
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions:
First, changes in technology, travel, economic and political systems, immigration patterns, and population density have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures.
Second, one’s cultural perceptions and experiences help determine how one sends and receives messages.
5.7 Approach
1.Fundamental to our approach to intercultural communication is the belief that all forms of human communication involve action.
2.This book takes a view of intercultural communication that is both pragmatic and philosophical.
5.8 Philosophy
First, it is to the advantage of all 5.5 billions of us who share the planet to improve our interpersonal and intercultural communication abilities.
Second, most of the obstacles to understanding can be overcome with motivation, knowledge, and appreciation of cultural diversity.
Activities: Right or Wrong?
?You need to learn to accept and like other cultures.
?You need to respect the validity of other cultures.
?Underneath, people are fundamentally the same.
?Culture is pervasive.
?I can do exactly what I want. My actions are independent of my culture.
?I don’t have total freedom of choice in my behavior.
?Culture and ethnicity are the same.
?If we have more contact, intercultural understanding will improve.
?Cultural worth is in the eye of the beholder.
?The perceptions of the individual relate to the perceptions of the group.
Chapter Two Language Use and Communication
?You cannot speak of ocean to a well-fog, ----the culture of a narrow sphere.
?You cannot speak of ice to a summer insect,----the creature of a season.
---Chang Tsu Communication:
1.our ability to share our ideas and feelings
2.is the basis of all human contact.
1. Human Communication
1.1 Intentional and Unintentional Behavio r
The first one describes communication as the process whereby one person deliberately attempts to convey meaning to another.
The second school of thought proposes that the concept of intentionality fails to account for all the circumstances in which messages are conveyed unintentionally.
1.2 A Definition of Communication
Communication occurs whenever meaning is attributed to behavior or the residue of behavior.
1.3 The Components of Communication
A. The Source=>
B. Encoding =>
C. The Message=>
D. The Channel=>
E. The Receiver =>
F. Decoding =>
G. Feedback
2. Pragmatics: Language Use
2.1 The Problem
(1) We must first distinguish between using language to do something and using language in doing something.
e.g. Hello Goodbye Pass the salt. Please. How old are you? It’ s raining.
(2) What is (successful) linguistic communication? How does (successful) communication work?
2.2 The Message Model of Linguistic of Linguistic Communication
Speaker Hearer
Message Message
Encoding =?Sounds =?Decoding
2.3 Problems with the Message Model
First, Disambiguation
Since many expressions are linguistically ambiguous, the hearer must determine which of the possible meanings of an expression is the one the speaker intended as operative on that occasion.
eg1, flying planes can be dangerous.
eg2, A: We lived in Illinois, but we got Milwaukee’s weather.
B: Which was worse
Second, Underdetermination of reference
Third, underdetermination of communicative intent (by meaning)
Fourth, nonliterality
Fifth, indirection
Sixth, noncommunicative acts
2.4 An Inferential Approach to Communication
The basic idea:
linguistic communication is a kind of cooperative problem solving.
The Inferential Model of communication proposes that in the course of learning to speak our language we also learn how to communicate in that language, and learning this involves acquiring a variety of shared beliefs or presumptions, as well as a system of inferential strategies.
Presumptions: 1. Linguistic Presumption 2. Communicative presumption
3.Presumption of literalness
4.Conversational presumption
2.5 Inferential Theories versus the Message Model
Six specific defects:
1. The Message Model cannot account for the use of ambiguous expressions
2.Real world reference
https://www.doczj.com/doc/8e3653227.html,municative intentions
4.Nonliteral communication
5.Indirect communication
6.Noncommunicative uses of language
3. The Characteristics of Communication
3.1 No Direct Mind-to-Mind Contact
It is impossible to share our feelings and experiences by means of direct mind-to-mind contact.
3.2 We can Only Infer
Because we do not have direct access to the thoughts and feelings of other human beings, we can only infer what they are experiencing inside their individual homes, to continue our analogy.
3.3 Communication Is Symbolic
Symbols, by virtue of their standing for something else, give us an opportunity to share our personal realities.
3.4 Time-Binding Links Us Together
3.5 We Seeks to Define the World
3.6 Communication Has A Consequence
3.7 Communication Is Dynamic
3.8 Communication Is Contextual
3.9 Communication Is Self-Reflective
4. The Brain Is an Open System
First, this concept of the brain alerts us that while each of us can learn new ideas throughout the life, what we know at any one instant is a product of what the brain has experienced.
Second, the notion of the brain as an open system reminds us that we can learn from each other.]
Third, because learning is a lifelong endeavor, we can use the information to which we are exposed to change the way we perceive and interact with the world.
5. We Are Alike and We Are Different
We are alike:
First, everyone realizes at some point that life is finite.
Second, each of us discovers somewhat early in life that we are isolated from all other human beings.
Third, all of us are thrown into a world that forces us to make choices.
Finally, the world has no built-in scheme that gives it meaning.
We are different:
First, the external world impinges on our nerve endings, causing something to happen with us.
Second, we think about what is happening by employing symbols from our past.
Activities: Right or Wrong?
?Sophistication is a subjective concept which is “ in the eye of the beholder”
?Realize that your language reflects and influences the way you se the world.
?All cultures impose some constrains on the body.
?Some language can’t distinguish between the present and the past.
?All cultures express politeness by using words like “please” and “thank you”.
?All cultures have standards for politeness and ways of being polite.
?All cultures are concerned about face. This is what motivates politeness.
?The concept of “face” is universal. Without it, there would be no politeness.
?Your way of showing that you are paying attention may be considered inappropriate by other cultures.
?All cultures require and value politeness, but the ways in which the politeness is achieved may vary significantly.
Chapter Three Culture and Communication
Culture is the medium evolved by humans to survive. Nothing in our lives is free from cultural influence. It is the keystone in civilization’s arch and is the medium through which all of life’s events must flow. We are culture. (Edward T. Hall) Culture also determines the content and conformation of the messages we send. This omnipresent quality of culture leads hall to conclude that “there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture”(Edward T Hall,1977)
Culture and communication are so inextricably bound that most cultural anthropologists believe the terms are virtually synonymous. This relationship is the key factor to understanding intercultural communication.
Studying intercultural communication without studying culture would be analogous to investigation the topic of physics without looking at matter.
In this chapter,We shall explain why cultures develop, define culture, discuss the major components of culture, and link culture to communication by offering a model of intercultural communication that isolates the characteristics of culture most directly related to communication.
1. Culture is our invisible teacher
1.1 The basic function of communication
People maintain cultures to deal with problems or matters that concern them.-------William A Haviland
It serves the basic need of laying out a predictable world in which each of us is firmly grounded and thus enable us to make sense of our surroundings.
Malinowski: three types of needs:
Basic needs (food, shelter, physical protection)
Derived needs (organization of work, distribution of food, defense, social control)
Integrative needs (psychological security, social harmony, purpose in life)
1.2 Some Definitions of Culture
E. Adamson Hoebel and Everett Frost: culture is an “integrated system of learned behavior patterns which are characteristic of the members of a society and which are not the result of biological inheritance (Hoebel and Frost, 1976.6) For them, culture is not genetically predetermined or instinctive.”
First, as all scholars of culture believe, culture is transmitted and maintained solely through communication and learning, culture is learned.
Second, scholars who take the sweeping view believe, each individual is confined at birth to a specific geographic location and thus exposed to certain messages while denied others.
e.g. Geert Hofstede, a psychological perspective, defining culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another”(Hofstede,1984). Both of these definitions stress the mental conditioning that culture experiences impose.
Daniel Bates and Fred Plog: culture is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the member of a society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning.
This definition included not only patterns of behaviors but also patterns of thought (shared meaning that the member of a society attach to various phenomena, natural and intellectual, including religion and ideologies), artifacts (tools, pottery, house, machines, works of art), and the culturally transmitted skills and techniques used to make the artifacts (G.Bates, 1990, 7)
We define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. Culture can therefore include everything from rites of passage to concepts of the soul.
1.3 The Characteristics of Culture
A. Culture is innate; it’s learned.
1. Without the advantage of learning from those who lived before us, we should not have culture. You can appreciate, therefore, why we say that learning is the most important of all the characteristics of culture.
2. Bates and Plog note: whether we feed ourselves by growing yams or hunting wild game or by herding camels and raising wheat, whether we explain a thunderstorm by attributing it to meteorological conditions or to a fight among the gods —such thins are determined by what we learn as part of our enculturation (Bates and Plog,1990,19).
The term enculturation denotes the total activity of learning one’s culture. As Hoebel and Frost say, “conscious or un conscious conditioning occurring within that process whereby the individual, as child and adult, achieves competence in a particular culture”
3. Enculturation takes place through interaction (your parents kiss you and you learn about kissing –whom to kiss, when to kiss, and so on ), observation (you watch your father do most of the driving of the family car and you learn about gender roles –what a man does, what a woman does), and imitation (you laugh at the same jokes your parents laugh at and you learn about humor –it is funny if someone slips as long as he or she does not get hurt).
e.g. The mouth maintains silence in order to hear the heart talk. This saying expresses the value Belgians place on intuition and feelings in interaction.
He who speaks has no knowledge, and he who has knowledge does not speak. This saying from Japan reinforces the value of silence.
We concluded our description of the first characteristic of culture by reminding you of how our discussion directly relates to intercultural communication.
First, many of the behaviors we label as cultural are only automatic and invisible, but also engaged in without our being aware of them.
Second, common experience produces common behaviors.
B. Culture is transmitted from Generation to Generation
For culture to exist and endure, they must endure that their crucial message and elements are passed on.
Richard Brislin: if there are values considered central to a society that have existed for many years, there must be transmitted from one generation to another. (Brislin,1993,6). This idea supports our assertion that culture and communication are linked: it is communication that makes culture a continuous process, for once culture habits, principles, values, attitudes, and the like are “formulated”they are communicated to each individual.
The content of culture is what gets transferred from generation to generation.
e.g. American tell each generation to always look forward.
In China, the message is to look to the past for guidance and strength..
For Mexicans and Native Americans, the message is that cooperation is more important than the contest.
In Korea, the message is to respect and treasure the elderly.
C . Culture is based on Symbols
Our symbol—making ability enable us to both learn our culture and pass it on from individual to individual, group to group, and generation to generation.
The portability of symbols allows us to package and store them as well as transmit them. The mind, books, pictures, films, videos, computer disk and the like enable a culture to preserve what it deems to be important and worthy of transmission. Culture Is therefore historical and preservable.
D Culture is subject to Change
Cultures are dynamic systems that do not exist in a vacuum, so they are subject to change.
Cultures change through several mechanisms, the two most common are innovation and diffusion.
Innovation is usually defined as the discovery of new practices, tools, or concepts that many members of the culture eventually accept and that may produce slight changes in social habits and behaviors (Nanda, 1994, 26)
Diffusion is the borrowing by one culture from another and another way in which changes occurs
E. Culture is integrated
The nature of language makes it impossible to do otherwise, yet in reality culture functions as an integrated whole. This one aspect of culture has altered American attitudes, values, and behaviors.
F Culture is Ethnocentric
William Sumner: defined ethnocentrism as “the technical name for the view of things in which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it”(Sumner,1940,13)
Ethnocentric is the perceptual lens through which cultures interpret and judge each other.
Ethnocentric is found in every culture.
The logical extensions of Ethnocentric are detachment and division, which can take a variety of forms, including war.
e.g. East Indians looking down on the Pakistanis, the Japanese feeling superior to the Chinese, and ethnic rivalries causing strife between Serbs and Croats in the former Yugoslavia.
Why culture is such a puissant influence on all our lives?
The life history of the individual is first and foremost an accommodation to the patterns and standards traditionally handed down in his community. From the moment of his birth the customs into which he is born shape his experience and behavior. By the time he can he the little creature of his culture, and by the time he is grown and able to take part in its activities his impossibilities.
2. Language and Culture
Language and culture are inextricably linked, so that learning language means learning culture and vice versa.
With language and culture so inextricably linked, it is obvious that a language learner has more to do than master a new grammar and vocabulary. He must also learn what utterances are appropriate to particular situations.
3.Teaching Culture
In order to successfully integrate considerations of cultural appropriacy into language teaching, it is necessary that both teacher and students examine their own assumptions of what is natural. This mutual exploration, and the establishment of the relativity of what is considered to be natural, allows participants from both cultures to be both teachers and learners. The mayor skills involved are the ability to suspend judgment, to analyze a situation as a native of that culture would analyze it, and choose acourse of action that is most culturally appropriate to the situation.
4. Forms of Intercultural Communication
Interracial communication occurs when source and receiver are from different races. The team race pertains to physical
Intercultural communication and translation Intercultural communication mainly refers to the communication between the native speakers and non-native speakers, as well as the communication between people who differ in any aspect of language or culture background. Due to the differences in surroundings, societies and religions of different ethnic groups, each language community results in its own code of language, social culture, customs and practices and so on. Intercultural communication studies situations when people from different culture backgrounds interact. Aside from language, IC focuses on social attributes, thought patterns and the cultures of different groups of people. IC also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries. There are three formats of IC: interracial communication (when source and receiver are different races), interethnic communication (situation in which the parties are of the same race but of different ethnic origins) and intracultural communication (communication between members of the same culture including racial, ethnic and other co-cultures). The term translation itself has several meanings: it can refer to the general subject field, the product (the text that has been translated) or the process (the act of producing the translation, otherwise known as translating). The process of translating between two different written languages involves the translator changing an original written text (the source text) in the original verbal language (the source language) into a written text (the target text) in a different verbal language (the target language). This type corresponds to “interlingual translation” and is one of the three Roman Jakobson in his seminal paper. Jakobson’s categories are: 1. Intralingual translation, or “rewording”– an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language; 2. Interlingual translation, or “translation proper”–an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language; 3. Intersemiotic translation, or “transmutation”– an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems. Intralingual translation would occur when we rephrase an expression or text in the same language to explain or clarify something we might have said or written. Intersemiotic translation would occur if a written text were translated, for example, into music, film or painting. It is interlingual translation which is the traditional, although by no means exclusive, focus of translation studies. It is easily seen that the three forms of intercultural communication and the three types of translation are partly corresponding to each other, especially interracial communication and interlingual translation which both attach attention on the communication between native and non-native, and where different cultures of different countries play more important role. To conduct effective intercultural communication, one has to understand the differences between the different nations and then to look for them and pay attention to in every cross-cultural communication situation. By doing this, the high-context communicators can learn to use and respond words, emotions, postures differently, and low-context communicators can learn to
Mysterious Nuer Wedding Customs B12英语2班费丽莎 121101224 Abstract A wedding is a ceremony where two people are united in marriage. Wedding traditions and customs vary greatly between cultures, ethic groups, religions, countries, and social classes. Most wedding ceremonies involve an exchange of wedding vows by the couple, presentation of gifts( offering, rings, symbolic items, flowers, money), and a public proclamation of marriage by an authority figure or leader. Special wedding garments are often worn, and the ceremony is sometimes followed by a wedding reception. Music, poetry, prayers or readings from religious texts or literature are also commonly incorporated into the ceremony.Marriage is sacred the world over, and that is definitely true in Africa , no matter which region or which culture you come from, and no matter what your religious beliefs. In this article, the author list the cryptic wedding customs of Nuer ,one of African nations , by revealing their cultures and wedding traditions and to make its culture clear. Key words: ghost marriage , nuer, cattle , Pater, genitor Content 1.Introduction Ghost marriage: Marriage among the Nuer ,a woman is married to a dead man , this kind of marriage is almost as frequent as marriage to a living man . A living man is found to physically father a child for the dead man. To understand this, one must distinguish between the Genitor-biological father and the Pater- legal father. The ghost marriage often takes place when a man is killed in a feud. Blood wealth payments are used to pay the bride price for the dead man's marriage. The point is to fulfill the dead man's lineage and the children of the dead man may eventually avenge him, despite the payment of blood wealth . In this way , bride's wealth and blood wealth are fluid and tied together in a cycle. 2.Nuer cattle cultures Nuer is located in southern Sudan, whose territory has access to the White Nile, because the proximity to this river and the high annual rainfall, Nuer territory floods often and has lots of diverse wildlife with very dense jungle in most areas but also savannah and swamp .Therefore ,everything revolves around cattle in Nuer life, and cattle is essential for their survival as people. The payment of cattle is usually the only way to square up between wronged parties. Without this resource there is no
跨文化交际知识点： 1.L.S.Hams认为，在世界范围内的交际经历了五个阶段：语言的产生、文字的使用、印刷术的发明、近百年交通工具的进步和通讯手段的迅速发展、跨文化交际。近20年来的交际是以跨文化交际为特征的。 2.跨文化交际学首先在美国兴起，与人类学、心理学、传播学关系密切。 3.Edwar Hall《无声的语言》是跨文化交际的奠基之作。 4.1970年，国际传播学会承认跨文化交际学是传播学的一个分支，成立了跨文化交际学分会。 5.1972年，第一届跨文化交际学国际会议在日本东京召开。 6.70年代影响最大的书籍是《跨文化交际学选读》。 7.Jenny Thomas《跨文化语用失误》：语用—语言失误；社交—语用失误。 8.前苏联的跨文化交际学主要表现在国情语言学方面。 9.传播种类：(1)人类传播①社会传播A交集传播B组织传播C大众传播②非社会传播(2)非人类传播 10.早期影响最大的传播模式是Harold Lasswell提出的5w模式。即who、say what、in what channel、to whom、with what rffects。 11.1949年Claude Shannon和Warren Weaver共同提出了线性模式，增加了“噪音”（干扰因素），把媒介分解。 12.50年代，Charles Osgood和Wilbur Schramm提出循环式的模式，加入“反馈”。 13.社会学家Jack Lyle与M.Lyle把传播过程看作是社会过程之一，特点是把传播放在社会环境中考察。 14.我国最早的辞书《尔雅》。 15.萨丕尔—沃尔夫假说基于对印第安语的研究。 16.red caipet treatment用红毯接待red-light district红灯区red flags提高警惕预防出事的状况in the red赤字 17.politics—“中性”含贬义，为争权夺利不惜采取各种手段的意思；政治—“中性”，实际用时有褒义。 18.intellectual—致力于研究的人，衍生出纸上谈兵的贬义；知识分子—受过大学教育的脑力劳动者。 19.peasant—没有受过教育，举止粗鲁、思想狭隘的人；农民—直接从事农业生产劳动的人。 20.dragon—表示罪恶、邪恶，令人感到恐怖，战争的旗帜，形容人指飞扬跋扈令人讨厌；龙—用于好的意思。 21.phoenix—“再生”、“复活”；凤凰—天下太平，有圣德的人。 22.owl—智慧的鸟，比喻人聪明；猫头鹰—不详之鸟。 23.peacock—通常是贬义，含有骄傲、炫耀、洋洋得意的意思；孔雀—吉祥的象征，大吉大利。 24.dog—中性褒义的情况多；狗—一般用于贬义。 25.Cinderella（灰姑娘）泛指不受重视的人或部门或指有才干但一时未被赏识的人。 26.Shylock（夏洛克）指心肠狠毒唯利是图的小人。 27.to meet one’s Waterloo遭到决定性失败 28.Catch-22进退维谷，左右为难 29.韩国人写文章—归纳法；美国人写文章—演绎法。 30.美国人的思维模式是“桥式”，直接明白地传达给对方。 31.日本人的思维方式是“垫脚石式”，采取迂回、隐含的手法。 32.非语言交际的特点：（1）没有正式的规则和模式，没有固定的结构（2）没有一套具有明确意义的符号（3）有连续性的（4）一部分是本能，一部分是后天习得（5）信息右脑处理 33.阿拉伯人在讲话时总是盯着对方的眼睛。 34.将手掌平放在脖子下面，中国指杀头，英国指吃饱了。 35.食指和中指轻叩桌面，广东指感谢，北方表示不耐烦。 36.美国人站在公路旁边伸出拇指（thunb a ride）表示希望搭车。 37.英美人把中指放在食指上面（let’s keep our fingers crossed.）表示希望某事成功。 38.手兜起来，放在耳后，表示听不见或听不清楚。
第6章非语言交际 1．如果比较语言交际和非语言交际，你认为哪个更重要？为什么？ 答：非语言交际更重要，原因在于： （1）非语言交际通常与语言交际结合进行，在不同的情况下起着不同的作用，大致上起补充、否定、重复、调节、替代或强调的作用。我们在机场欢迎客人，一边说：Welcome to Beijing，一边热烈握手。这握手的动作是对所说的话的一种补充。当你接到你不喜欢的礼物时，尽管嘴里说如何如何喜欢，但脸上的表情却流露出你的真实的不愉快的表情，也就是说，你的表情否定了你所说的话。 （2）一般说来，在语言交际和非语言交际传达的信息冲突时，人们倾向于相信后者。我们有时一边说话一边用手势表达同样的意思。例如，一边说要两杯饮料，一边伸出两个手指，重复已经发出的信息。在两个人谈话时，常用眼神和语调表示下面该是谁讲话，调节相互的关系。在有的情况下，无法用语言交流信息，必须用手势或其他办法。例如，交通警察指挥机动车辆，股票交易所的交易员在嘈杂的大厅里传递买卖的信息和行情都使用非语言手段手势或指挥捧替代语言交际。在人们讲话时，常常用手势加强语气，或强调某一个论点。 2．在非语言交际的各种手段中，你认为哪一种最容易引起误解？ 答：（1）在非语言交际的各种手段中，我认为手势最容易引起误解。 （2）各民族都用手势表达意义，但同一手势在不同文化中可以表示并不相同的意义例如，将手掌平放在脖子下面；在我国文化中是杀头的意思，但是在英语国家的文化中
却可以表示吃饱了的意思。即使在同一民族中，由于地区习俗的不同，同一手势也可能会具有不同意义，例如，在广东，主人给客人斟酒时，客人为了表现感谢，用食指和中指轻扣桌面，而在北方同一动作却表示不耐烦的情绪。 （3）有些手势是某一文化所特有的 例如，英美人所用的一些手势我们并不使用。美国人站在公路旁边向上伸出拇指，这是向过往的汽车司机表示，希望能搭他们的车。英语thumb a ride表达的即是这个意思。英美人把中指放在食指上面，表示希望事情能办成功。把两只手摊开、耸耸肩膀，表示“我不知道”，或“没有办法”。把手兜起来，放在耳后，表示听不见或听不清楚。把手伸出来，微微展开手指，表示等一等，别着急等等。招呼人走过来时，我们伸出手臂，手掌向下，手指上下移动；而美国人则是伸出手臂，手掌向上，手指前后移动。我们招呼人过来的手势类似美国人叫人走开的手势。 3．非语言交际是否一成不变？你能否举出例子说明它的变化？ 答：非语言交际不是一成不变的。 例如，在我国，历代朝廷都对于官服的颜色、花纹、式样有极严格的规定。黄色是帝王服装的颜色，文武官员不论职位多高都不得使用。而随着封建制度的解体，服饰的文化功能就发生了变化，黄色不再是帝皇家的专属颜色。而服装的颜色和花纹不再受到严格的规定。如今，服装的要求与场合的关系更密切些。场合正式，对于服装要求比较正式。在非正式场合，衣着可以比较随便。 4．在非语言交际方面我国各地区的差别是否很大？请举例说明。
《跨文化交际》 课程教学大纲 课程名称：英语教学论 课程类别：专业必修课 考核类别：考试 适用对象：本科 适用专业：英语 总学时、学分：36学时2学分 一、课程教学目的 该课程旨在扩大学生的知识面，对西方文化的不同层面有所了解,以提高学生的交际能力。在传统的外语教学中, 人们往往忽视文化的重要作用, 只注重语言能力的培养而未能顾及交际能力的提高。近年来国内学者认识到外语教学必须引进文化知识的对比，训练学生灵活运用语言知识, 更好地与外国人沟通, 减少和避免误解。 1
二、课程教学要求 该课程教学要求学生提高对文化差异的敏感性, 更有效地与外国人进行交际，为英语专业课程的学习和翻译实践能力的提高奠定基础。 三、先修课程 跨文化交际是英语专业的必修课, 是在完成了精读、泛读、综合英语、写作等基本技能训练后开设的，旨在增强文化差异的敏感性，增强跨文化交际意识，有助于英语专业课程的学习和翻译实践能力的提高。因此，学生先期完成英语听说读写等技能训练基本课程，如《基础英语》、《英国文学选读》等课程。 四、课程教学重、难点 该课程教学重点在于培养学生对英语国家文化的 2
了解及跨文化交际意识, 提高驾驭英语语言的能力, 从而使其能得体地运用语言与操英语的外国人士进行交流。教师的讲授重点是帮助学生认识中西文化的异同，分析文化差异的根源, 帮助学生深化对西方文化的理解。中西文化的差异在表层上很容易识别,但对造成差异的原因却需追根溯源。东西方在历史,思维方式以及哲学等方面的差异则是造成中国学生对西方文化不解的主要原因,也是该课程的难点。 五、课程教学方法（或手段） 教学方法：以课堂讲授为主，适当组织课堂讨论，鼓励学生充分利用课外资源进行探索性、研究性学习。 六、课程教学内容 Unit 1 Communication Across Cultures（4学时） 3
1 Translation 纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。在这种情况下，跨文化交际作为一个特定的研究领域得以形成和发展。值得注意的是，人类文明在发展过程中所遭受的许多挫折，既是个人的，又是全球性的；人类历史进程总是充满了个人间的直接冲突和民族间的误解——从骂骂咧咧到孤立主义直至到武装冲突，大大小小争端不绝。 很显然，文化间以及亚文化间的交往比以前多了，这迫切要求我们共同努力，去理解有着不同信仰和文化背景的人们，并与之和睦相处。通过加深认识和理解，我们能够与生活方式、价值观念不同的人们和平共处；这不但有益于我们周遭环境的安定，也是维护世界和平的决定性因素。 2 Translation 文化有时候被称为我们的心智程序，我们“头脑的软件”。但是，我们可以进一步引申这个用电脑所做的类比，把文化看作是支持运行的操作环境。文化就像电脑使用的DOS或者Unix或者“视窗”（Windows）等操作系统一样，使我们能在各种各样的实际应用中处理信息。用“视窗”这个比喻来描述文化似乎也很有吸引力。文化就是我们心灵的视窗，透过它我们审视生活的方方面面。一个社会中不同个体的视窗是不大一样的，但都有着一些重要的共同特征。 文化就好像是鱼畅游于其中的水一般，人们想当然地把文化看成是客观存在的事实，因而很少去研究它。文化存在于我们所呼吸的空气之中，文化对于我们了解我们自身之为何物是必不可少的，就正如生命离不开空气一样。文化是特定群体的共有财产，而不单是个体的特征。社会按照文化设定的程序运作，这种程序来自于相似的生活体验以及对这种生活体验之含义的相似阐释。 如果文化是一种心智程序，那么它也是现实的心灵地图。从我们很小的时候开始，文化就告诉我们应该看重什么、偏好什么、规避什么和做些什么，文化还告诉我们事物应该是什么样。文化为我们提供超越个体经验可能的理想典范，帮助我们决定应该优先考虑的人或事。文化为我们建立起行为准则，并视遵守这些准则的行为为正当、合法。 3 Translation 43
1.英文原声电影赏析与跨文化交际能力的培养 2."跨文化非语言交际语用失误研究 3."公示语翻译中的语用失误探析 4.国内广告语言语用失误研究现状与分析 5."全球化语境下跨文化交际失误语用归因 6."跨文化交际中的语用失误类型及对策研究 7."基于礼貌原则的跨文化语用失误分析 8."跨文化言语交际中的语用负迁移 9."浅析化妆品广告中的语用预设 10."中西方饮食文化的比较研究 11."中美时间观之对比 1 2."浅析汉英问候语中的文化差异 13."英汉词汇的文化内涵差异探析 14."英语身体语的交际功能研究 1 5."浅谈英汉身势语的表意功能之差异 16."目标语文化的理解与跨文化交际 1 7."中西文化差异对中国学生英语学生的影响 18."跨文化交际中的文化误读
9."浅析文化差异对商务谈判的影响 20."英语禁忌语的文化内涵异同研究 21."英语学习中的文化习得 2 2."英汉思维模式的差异对跨文化交际的影响 23."外语学习者的思辨能力与跨文化交际之成效 24."培养英语学习者跨文化交际能力之策略 25."英汉道歉语差异及原因 26."中西跨文化礼貌语差异探析 27."英汉语言中礼貌表达法之比较 28."英汉习惯用语的文化内涵探源 29."英语称赞语及其回应的异同研究 3 0."中美（西）家庭教育理念的差异及其对孩子的影响 31."中国英语学习者跨文化交际中的主要障碍研究 32."试析跨文化交际中角色互动的作用 3 3."本土文化与异国文化的冲突对跨文化交际的影响 34."跨文化交际中的时间观差异 35."论跨文化交际中的中西餐桌礼仪
6."关于提升英语专业学生跨文化交际能力的培养 37."涉外婚姻中的中西文化冲突 38."论跨文化广告传播中食品商标的翻译439."多媒体教学与跨文化交际能力的培养40."中西方儿童文学的差异 4 1."中西体育文化的差异及其受全球化发展的影响 42."中西传统休闲文化及其价值观的对比分析 43."简爱与林黛玉不同命运的文化透析 44."国际商务活动中礼貌原则的应用 4 5."论文化背景知识在外语阅读教学中的作用 46."国际商务交际活动中的非语言交际 47."浅析英汉汽车商标的特点及其翻译 48."英汉隐喻差异的文化阐释 49."文化语境下的英汉植物词 50."文化语境下的英汉动物词 51."从体态语探析中西文化差异 52."浅析英汉颜色词的文化内涵 53."文化视野下英语谚语的比较
1.Iceberg:{Edward. 7. Hall.--
第一讲跨文化交际 1. 在你的日常活动中哪些是比较典型的跨文化交际？ 答：（1）具有不同文化背景的人从事交际的过程就是跨文化交际。 （2）日常活动中比较典型的跨文化交际有： ①中外领导人谈判、进出口公司的工作人员与外国商人谈生意； ②和外国旅游者、外国留学生、外国教师交往； ③阅读外国小说、观看外国电影、电视节目。 2. 你认为强调个人之间的文化差异有什么利弊？ 答：强调个人之间的文化差异有如下利弊： （1）利：每个人都隶属于若干群体，而且没有哪两个人隶属的群体是完全相同的。即使在同一群体中，每个人的态度、价值和信念也不会完全一样。因此，每个人都应该被认为是独特的。强调个人的差异，就是在从地区、职业、年龄、性别等方面来研究不同文化对个体的影响，这有助于跨文化交际深入开展。 （2）弊：过于强调个人之间的文化差异也有一定的弊端。个体只是一种或多种文化的具体情况。根据传统的观念，文化通常不是指个人行为，而是指一个群体的生活方式和习惯，个人之间的差异研究只有在把他们当作群体代表时才有意义。过于强调个人文化之间的差异会使跨文化交际变得非常繁琐，实际上取消了跨文化研究的意义。 3. 我国的地区文化差异是否可以作为跨文化交际研究的重要方面？ 答：我国的地区文化差异可以作为跨文化交际研究的重要方面。 （1）跨文化交际研究的重要性排序如下：主流文化—亚文化—地区文化—小群体文化。 （2）地区文化的差异是跨文化交际研究的重要课题之一。我国幅员辽阔、地域广袤，地势高低起伏，地形复杂多变，由于空间分布差异，各地区形成了具有各自地方特斯的区域文化。 （3）同时，我国是一个多民族国家，每个民族都有自己的民族文化传统，这些也构成了地区文化的一部分。这些地区文化从总体上看，特点显著，区别性强，差异性大，值得进行跨文化研究。
Unit 2 Passage A 1. 中国的核心价值与儒家思想有关，儒家思想的道德准则是对人际关系中道德品质的总结，孔子就用它来夫妇有别，长幼有序，朋友有信。”在两千多年的封建统治时期，统治阶级用这五伦来处理每件事，这就形成了一个分级的社会，即臣忠于君，子孝于亲的社会。 2. 在英国文艺复兴时期，人们开始强调人的尊严以及现实生活的重要性。他们提倡人不仅有享受美好生活的权利，更要具备完善自己和创造奇迹的能力。这就是人文主义的基本理念。自那以后，人们开始尊重人性，随即有发展出了我们今日称之为“自由”的思想，即民主。 3. 以美国为例，优秀的个人价值观就是独立、努力以及生活成功、个人成就与乐于助人三方面实现平衡。就社会价值观而言，美国人在这6方面领先：言论自由、个人自由、个人权利、公开争论、独立思考和。而中国的价值观则提倡努力工作、尊重学习、诚实守信、独立自由和持久忍耐。亚洲人值得推崇的6个社会价值观是社会有序、和谐一致、政府问责、开拓思路、言论自由和尊重权威。 4. 与美国人不同的是，东亚人通常更尊重权威，赞誉社会有序，可与他们一致的是亚洲人也尊重新观念，政府问责及言论自由。 5. 中西方文化的不同与个人主义和集体主体文化密不可分。 6. 个人主义就是人们注重个体、强调个体需要。一般来说，西方文化倾向于个人主义。 7. 集体主义文化即把自身当作是集体（家庭、单位、部落、国家）的一员，一般认为集体的需要高于个体。大多数亚洲文化，包括中国在内，倾向于集体主义。 8.个人主义是指在一个社会里个人权利是首要的。大多数西方人士认为每个人都有自己独立的身份和人格，这应该得到认可并强化。因此，如果不理解个人主义，则无法理解西方的文化和西方人。唯有理解了个人主义，我们才能明白西方人对家庭、友谊和隐私的看法。个人主义的核心是追求个人利益和成就，作为一项社会的基本品质，它被高度地重视，并被人们真心铭记和认真领会。 9. 在基督教的传统文化中，个人主义不但对彼此重要，而且对社会对上帝都重要。个人主义从他们的祖先那里传承下来，因而对西方人而言，个人主义不是自私而是正直。他们如此重视个人主义，以至于他们认为如果有人不去实践个人主义，那就是错的行为。“自助者天助”，从这句谚语我们可以看出西方人对个人主义的态度。可是对中国人来说，个人主义是贬义词，是利己主义，它就意味着自私的人品和散漫的纪律。 10.传统的中国信条，尤其是儒家思想，欣赏集体主义。它强调群体合作，强调个体的成功归功于单位、组织或社团全体成员的共同努力。中国人认为为了集体而牺牲个人利益是非常高尚的品质，继而谦逊待人、善解人意的品质也受到高度赞扬。 11. 让我们从这两个事例来看文化的基本差异：学校 学校的组织形式可以看出集体主义和个人主义文化的差异。例，中国的中学、甚至大学，学生通常群体组合，他们被编成班，所有同班同学学习同一课程。相反，美国高中和大学的学生都是个体的组合，他们通常根据自己的兴趣至少选择几门课程，因此他们经常到不同的班级上不同的课，也没有类似中国的“班” 12. 另一个集体主义和个人主义区别的例子就是宴会。比如，在中国，宴会通常是大家围坐在一起享受美食或观赏节目，有的观看，有的会亲自参与节目。相反，美国典型的宴会就是鸡尾酒会。在晚会中大家成双成对，或三五成群一起聊天，间或走动走动，换换聊天对象。 13.下面是西方个人主义文化和集体主义文化更具体的区别。
浅谈跨文化交际 【摘要】在中西跨文化交际中，文化冲突的事例屡见不鲜，严重影响了交往的顺利进行，因此我们很有必要找出其深层次的原因，并采取一定的措施来培养跨文化交际的能力，避免文化冲突。 【关键词】跨文化交际、文化差异、文化冲突 随着中国对外开放程度的逐渐深入，西方社会的人和事物越来越多地走进了我们的视野，在这种情况下，跨国域、跨民族、跨文化的经济和社会交往将会与日俱增，这就为我们提供了许多与西方人接触和交往的机会，这对于加深我们的西方社会的理解是一件好事，但这并不是一件简单的事情，因为我们所面对的是来自陌生的文化和国家，思维方式、生活习惯和行为方式与我们迥然不同的人，在与之交往的过程中不可避免的会出现文化冲突的现象。 一．中西跨文化交际中经常出现的文化冲突 在中西跨文化交际中会出现的文化冲突有很多种，在这里我们不可能一一叙述，只能列出比较常见的几种。 1.隐私方面的冲突 中国人的隐私观念比较薄弱，认为个人要归属于集体，在一起讲究团结友爱，互相关心，故而中国人往往很愿意了解别人的酸甜苦辣，对方也愿意坦诚相告。而西方人则非常注重个人隐私，讲究个人空间，不愿意向别人过多提及自己的事情，更不愿意让别人干预。因此在隐私问题上中西双方经常发生冲突，例如：中国人第一次见面往往会
询问对方的年龄，婚姻状况，儿女，职业，甚至收入，在中国人的眼里这是一种礼貌，但在西方人眼里则认为这些问题侵犯了他们的隐私。 2.时间观方面的冲突 西方人的时间观和金钱观是联系在一起的，时间就是金钱的观念根深蒂固，所以它们非常珍惜时间，在生活中往往对时间都做了精心的安排和计划，并养成了按时赴约的好习惯。在西方，要拜访某人，必须事先通知或约定，并说明拜访的目的、时间和地点，经商定后方可进行。而中国人则属于多向时间习惯的国家，在时间的使用上具有很大的随意性，一般不会像西方人那样严格的按照计划进行，西方人对此往往感到不适应。 3.客套语方面的冲突 中国人注重谦虚，在与人交际时，讲求“卑己尊人”，把这看作一种美德，这是一种富有中国文化特色的礼貌现象。在别人赞扬我们时，我们往往会自贬一番，以表谦虚有礼。西方国家却没有这样的文化习惯，当他们受到赞扬时，总会很高兴地说一声“Thank you”表示接受。由于中西文化差异，我们认为西方人过于自信，毫不谦虚；而当西方人听到中国人这样否定别人对自己的赞扬或者听到他们自己否定自己的成就，甚至把自己贬得一文不值时，会感到非常惊讶，认为中国人不诚实。 4.餐饮习俗方面的冲突 中华民族素有热情好客的优良传统。在交际场合和酒席上，热情的
跨文化交际基础知识
跨文化交际基础知识 【复习指南】 这部分内容主要涉及跨文化交际的基本理论及较为常见的日常交际礼仪，在选择题、填空题、判断题中所占比例较少，但与案例分析部分紧密结合；建议考生复习此块内容时，注意相关理论概念在实际案例中的运用。考生可重点看胡文仲《跨文化交际学》或吴为善的《跨文化概论》，这两本书对于跨文化交际的基本概念、基础理论等都有全面介绍。 【知识点归纳】 1.重点概念： （1）文化：culture，涉及内容十分广泛，不同研究者有不同定义。 广义文化：指人类社会实践过程中所获得的物质、精神的生产能力和创造的物质、精神财富的总和。 狭义文化：精神生产能力和精神产品，包括一切社会意识形式；自然科学、技术科学、社会意识形式。英国人类学家泰勒1871年在《原始文化》中提到的定义影响很大。 总的来说，文化是人类社会创造的财富，包括食物、器具，也包括信念、价值观、习俗、知识。可分为物质文化、制度文化和观念文化。 其特性是：人类独有；来自后天习得；大部分存在于人的潜意识；是行动的指南；动态，与一定历史时期相联系。 （2）交际：就是人与人之间的往来交际活动，文化在交际中得到发展与传播。跨文化交际中的交际主要指人际间通过语言等交际工具进行的直接或间接的信息交流和沟通活动。 （3）编码与解码 交际是一个编码和解码的过程；编码是把思想、感情、意识等编成语码的过程，解码是对外界接受的符号或信息赋予意义或进行解释的过程。
“他定势” 定势概念应用到跨文化交际上后，称为文化定势(又译文化定型或刻板印象)，是指人们在跨文化交际研究或跨文化实际交往中对不同文化背景的民族和国家成员的笼统的、先验的看法。 （4）文化冲突 指两种或者两种以上的文化相互接触所产生的竞争和对抗状态。最早由由哈佛大学国际关系教授萨缪尔·亨廷顿（Samuel Huntington )在《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》中提出。 （5）文化曲解 不同民族、社区和集团的的文化，有不同的价值目标和价值取向，并且常常各自以自己的文化为优越，视其他文化为危险物；当其他文化在传播、接触的时候，便会有不顾客观事实歪曲原意或作错误理解。文化曲解既是文化冲突的诱发因素，也是文化冲突的表现。 （6）主流文化与亚文化 主流文化是一个社会、一个时代受到倡导的、起着主要影响、具有群体认同的文化。 亚文化（subculture）:又称小文化、集体文化或副文化，指某一文化群体所属次级群体的成员共有的独特信念、价值观和生活习惯，与主文化相对应的那些非主流的、局部的文化现象。 （7）文化距离 是指不同文化之间的差异程度，主要包括语言方面的差异、生活习惯的差异、社会文化方面的差异等。 （8）文化休克 “文化休克”，Cultural Shock，是1958年美国人类学家奥博格(Kalvero Oberg)提出来的概念。是指一个人进入到不熟悉的文化环境时，因失去自己熟悉的所有社会交流的符号与手段而产生的一种迷失、疑惑、排斥甚至恐惧的感觉。 文化休克常见于移民当中或者是在一个社会内，不同文化背景的民族因文化生活环境发生根本性改变的时候。