英国制度发展历程英文The development of the British system of government has a deep-rooted history that spans over centuries. It has evolved from a monarchy with absolute power to a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. This article will provide a brief overview of the key milestones in British constitutional development.The first significant development in British governance was the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215. This document, forced upon King John of England by rebellious barons, established the principle that the monarch is not above the law and that the rights of the people should be protected. Although the Magna Carta was initially only intended to safeguard the interests of the nobility, it laid the groundwork for future legal principles and civil liberties.In the 17th century, England experienced a turbulent period known as the English Civil War. This conflict was primarily a power struggle between the monarchy, represented by King Charles I, and Parliament. The Parliament emerged victorious and executed the king, establishing the Commonwealth under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell. However, this experiment in republican government was short-lived, and the monarchy was eventually restored in 1660 with the ascension of Charles II.It was during the Glorious Revolution of 1688 that the British system of constitutional monarchy began to take shape. The Catholic King James II was overthrown by his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. The Bill of Rights was subsequently enacted, guaranteeing a number of civil liberties andlimiting the powers of the monarchy. This event marked a significant shift in power from the monarchy to Parliament.The 19th century witnessed further advancements in British governance. The Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884 expanded suffrage and reduced the influence of the aristocracy. The act of 1832 extended voting rights to middle-class men, while subsequent acts increased enfranchisement for working-class men and women. These reforms paved the way for a more representative democracy.The early 20th century brought about the rise of the Labour Party and the emergence of the welfare state. The government began to take a more active role in providing social benefits and addressing inequality. The establishment of the National Health Service in 1948 was a landmark achievement that provided universal healthcare to all citizens, regardless of their economic status.In recent years, there have been debates around issues such as devolution and the role of the European Union. The devolution acts of the late 20th century granted Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland varying degrees of self-governance. However, the decision to leave the European Union in 2016 has arguably been the most significant development in recent British constitutional history. The Brexit process has raised questions about the relationship between the UK and the European Union, as well as the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches.In conclusion, the development of the British system of government has been a gradual and complex process. From the Magna Carta to the present day, the British constitutionalframework has continuously evolved to incorporate new ideas and respond to changing societal needs. While it may face challenges and uncertainties in the future, the British system of governance remains a key pillar of the country's identity and democracy.。
人物与历史文献USTea Act 茶税法The Treaty of Paris 巴黎公约1783年美英两国于巴黎签订的条约同样成为《巴黎条约》，该条约的签订代表着英国承认美国独立，停止敌对行为，但仅承认美国占领密西西比河以东的土地。
第二次大陆会议(The Second Continental Congress) 费城(Philadelphia)召开George Washington 乔治·华盛顿: commander in Continental Army«美利坚合众国宪法»（The Constitution of the United States），通称«美国联邦宪法»或«美国宪法»（U.S. Constitution）1787年宪法Thomas Jefferson托马斯·杰斐逊:The Declaration of Independence «独立宣言»Abraham Lincoln亚伯拉罕·林肯:the Emancipation Proclamation «解放黑人奴隶宣言»Homestead Act «宅地法»Franklin D. Roosevelt富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福: The New Deal罗斯福新政1933年富兰克林·罗斯福就任美国总统后所实行的一系列经济政策，其核心是三个R：救济（Relief）、复兴（Recovery）和改革（Reform），因此有时也被称为三R新政。
Agricultural Adjustment Act «农业调整法»National Industrial Recovery Act «全国工业复兴法»«社会保障法»马丁．路德．金恩(Martin Luther King)Civil Rights Movement 民权运动我有一个梦想(I Have a Dream)Harry Truman哈瑞．杜鲁门:杜鲁门主义The Truman Doctrine马歇尔计划（The Marshall Plan），也称为欧洲复兴计划European Recovery ProgramReagan里根: Star Wars Program 星球大战计划Irangate Scandal 伊朗门事件Nixon尼克松: Watergate Scandals 水门事件Bill Clinton 克林顿: Zippergate ScandalUK«大宪章»：Magna Carta / The Great Charter 1215年King John 国王约翰to impose legal limits on the King's personal power in raising money from his subjects «权力请愿书»: The Petition of Right 1628年Charles 查理一世第29页«权利法案» :Bill of Rights 第32页The treaty of Paris 1763年第32页概念搭配UK1、ConstitutionA constitution is a set of rules and conventions that lays down the powers and functions of state institutions and their relationship with each other.2、The cabinetThe major decision-making body in the government, is often associated with the office of the Prime Minister.3、Tribunal (法院，仲裁机构)A more informal and less expensive alternative to civil and criminal courts, which handles minor cases outside of the official court system.4、The Lord Chancellor（英国上议院的）大法官The Lord Chancellor is head of the judiciary (司法部，法院)in England and Wales.5、The social security systemIt is designed to secure a basic standard of living for people in financial need from the cradle to the grave.US1、Congress (国会)The legislative branch of the federal government ,is made up of the Senate and the House of Representative.2、The Supreme CourtConsists of a chief justice and eight associate justices.问答题英国部分Unit 3 P411. Who were the main foreign invaders of Britain at different times in British history? What contributions have they respectively made to the British culture, or what impacts have they had? 英国历史上不同时期主要的外国侵略者？及对英国的文化贡献或影响？P13(1)Julius Caesar 凯撒大帝(55BC) Hadrian’s Wall Words of Latin origins, Roman numbers, the solar calendar, Roman laws, and the census人口普查 ['sensəs] took root locally. Christianity spread(2)Germanic tribesmen 日耳曼人developed the Heptarchy, ['heptɑːkɪ]七王国；七头统治；七国连盟established Old English(3)Anglo-Saxon盎格鲁-撒克逊Christianity gained hold in Britain(4)Normans 诺曼人made Norman feudalism封建主义；封建制度['fjuːdəlɪz(ə)m]2. What was the social background for the Reformation to take place in England? What major achievements did the Elizabethan [i,lizə'bi:θən] 伊丽莎白一世时代的era ['ɪərə] witness?英格兰革新的社会背景？伊丽莎白一世见证的成就？P28In the Middle Ages, the Church had gained not only material importance, but also extensive power in politics and law. ﹙P28﹚Elizabeth: Putting to rest the religious issues;Reducing the power of the old nobility;Reaching farther than before through trade and adventure;Defeating Armada at sea Cultural and artistic movements (the English Renaissance) 3. How did the English Civil War break out? What were the consequences of the war?英国内战如何爆发？结果如何？P29The absolute rule of Charles I aroused the resistance of the people and the bourgeoisies. Charles took conteraction. He wanted to arrest Pym, Hampden and three other leaders of the Commons, but he failed to do so. So, he departed for the north, hoping to find supporters in the west and north districts. Thus the Civil War began. Consequences: The King Charles’s arm was defeated. Charles I was beheaded. In 1649, the House of Lords and the office of King were abolished and a Council of State was set to carry the executive work of the government, and England was declared a Commonwealth.Unit 4 P504. What are the characteristics of the British Constitution ?英国宪法的特点？P43(1)Constitutional monarchy ['mɒnəkɪ] 君主立宪制(2)Parliamentary sovereignty ['sɒvrɪntɪ] 议会至上(3)Representative democracy 代议民主(4)The rule of law ﹝P43﹞5. What are the functions of Parliament? How does the law-making process work?议会的功能是什么？法律制定工作是如何运行的？P44(1)To legislate立法(2)To vote the taxation 征税and expenditures [ɪk'spɛndɪtʃɚ] 支出of thegovernment(3)To examine government policies and administration 行政(4)To debate major political issues of the day （P45）6. What is meant by the “two-party system” in the UK today? How effective is such a system ?英国两党制在今天有何意义？这种制度如何起作用？P48The British party politics of government in the UK Parliament with power being held by either Conservative Party or Labour Party. The party which wins most MP seats in the House of Common becomes the goverment. The largest minority party becomes the official Opposition,with its own leader and "shadow cabinet".美国部分Unit 1 P1231.What are the characteristics of "Middle America", geographically, culturally, andpolitically?美国中部的地理、文化、政治特点？P115Geographically, the Middle America refers to the territory between the East Coast of the United States (particularly the northeast) and the West Coast. It has yielded some of America's greatest agricultural and mineral wealth,is the heart of America.Culturally, America is contrasted with the more culturally progressive urban areas of the country, particularly, those of the East and West Coasts. The conservative values considered typical of Middle America (often called "family values" in American politics) are often called "Middle American values".The idea of Middle America may exclude locations such as Chicago (the third largest city in the United States and one of the world's ten alpha cities) and very wealthy cities like Aspen, Colorado. The coastal regions of the southern United States are implicitly included.Politically, The phrase Middle American values is a political cliché; like family values, it refers to more traditional or conservative politics, although larger cities such as St. Louis, Missouri and Minneapolis, Minnesota, and major university towns such as Madison, Wisconsin, Columbia, Missouri and Lawrence, Kansas provide exceptions. Many of the political battleground states are situated in "Middle America".2.What makes the Northeast stand out as a unique cultural region?美国东北部独特的文化区域？P119the Northeast of America is densely populated and high urban, and it's the nation's economic and cultural center. Since this area was one of the two earliest settlements by British colonists, Americans tend to trace many of the nation's core values to theregion. One of the region's greatest strengths in its economic competition with other regions is its long tradition of support for education. Additionally, the region has also enjoyed a long history of booming tourism industry, both for its beautiful landscape and for its significant role in shaping the early part of American history.Unit 2 P1433.What do you think of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America?Were they great ?你怎么看待美国的开国元勋？他们获得哪些伟大的成就？America has produced such great men as George Washington,Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Undoubtedly, the Founding Fathers of the United States of America made great contributions to the US. All served in important positions in the early government of the United States. They also put forth a set of political ideas that became so deeply embedded in the national consciousness that they are often referred to as the "American Credo".4.What were the main reasons that made the United States the world's leadingindustrial power in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?19到20世纪美国位于世界工业霸权的地位的主要原因？P128A Yankee tradition of trade and commerce that provided both the skill and the capital required for industrial expansion; a commitment to private property and the profit system that gave the Rockefellers , the Morgans , and the Carnegies the incentive to build corporate empires ; an abundant and skilled labour supply ; political institutions ......P130第一段全部5. What were the chief causes of the Great Depression? Did the New Deal solve the problems brought about by the Depression? Why and why not?大萧条的主要原因？新政解决大萧条问题了吗？P132The chief causes can be found in the unbalanced economy both domestic and international of the twenties.The New Deal didn't solve the problem itself. The New Deal was a series economic programs to help alleviate the disastrous impact of the Great Depression. The programs focused on three aspects, including relief for the unemployed and poor, recovery of the economy to normal levels and reform the financial system to prevent a repeated depression.小测Part 1: True or False1. The United Kingdom consists of four political divisions —England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland. F Northern Ireland英国由四个政治区组成：英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰P32. The longest river in Britain is the Thames. F the Severn英国最长的河流是赛文河P73. In the UK, most undergraduate (bachelor’s) degrees take three years to complete. T在英国，大多数本科（学士）学位需要三年才能完成P964. The English, the Scots, and the Welsh are Anglo-Saxons, but the Irish are Celts. F只有英格兰人才能可盎格鲁—萨克逊人only The English is Anglo-Saxons P135. Social class in the UK lays more emphasis on money and property. F英国的社会阶层更注重金钱和财产6. The name “England” derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who came to England in the 5th and 6th centuries. T“英国”的名字来自于盎格鲁，在第五和第六世纪中来到英国的日耳曼部落中的一个P137. The Bank of England is a commercial bank. F英国银行是一家国家中央银行the country’s central bank P678. The members of House of Lord are non-elected. T上议院的成员是非选举产生的P459. More than half of the full-time farms in the UK are devoted to livestock. T超过一半的英国全日制农场从事畜牧业P6510. The UK’s biggest-selling newspaper is The Times. F英国销量最大的报纸是太阳报The Sun P10411. The UK Parliament comprises two elements: the House of Lord and the House of Commons. F英国议会由三个部分组成：王权、上议院和下议院The Crown、the non-elected House of Lord and the elected House of Commons P4512. Social Security in U.K. is mainly supported by the government.F英国的社会保障主要是由纳税机构支持的。
英国的管理制度Historical Development of Management in the UKThe management system in the UK has its roots in the medieval feudal system, where landowners and landlords exercised control and management over their estates and vassals. Over time, the industrial revolution and the rise of capitalism ushered in a new era of management practices, with the growth of large corporations and the need for more formalized management structures. The Companies Act of 1862 was a landmark piece of legislation that laid the foundation for modern corporate governance in the UK, requiring companies to register with the government and disclose their financial information.In the early 20th century, the UK witnessed the rise of labor unions and the enactment of labor laws to protect workers' rights. The Factory Acts of the 19th century and the Employment Rights Act of 1996 are examples of legislation aimed at regulating the relationship between employers and employees. The UK also has a long tradition of financial regulation, with the establishment of the Bank of England in 1694 and the subsequent development of a comprehensive framework for regulating the banking and financial services sector.Current State of Management in the UKCorporate GovernanceCorporate governance in the UK is governed by a combination of statutory laws, common law principles, and self-regulatory codes. The Companies Act 2006 is the primary piece of legislation governing corporate governance in the UK, setting out the legal duties and responsibilities of company directors and officers. The Act also requires companies to prepare and disclose financial statements, as well as to adhere to accounting and auditing standards.In addition to statutory laws, the UK has adopted a number of self-regulatory codes and guidelines to promote good corporate governance practices. The Corporate Governance Code, issued by the Financial Reporting Council, sets out best practices for board composition, remuneration, and risk management. Many listed companies in the UK also adhere to the UK Stewardship Code, which outlines principles for institutional investors to engage with companies on governance-related issues.Financial RegulationThe UK has a sophisticated and comprehensive framework for regulating the financial services sector. The Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 is the primary legislation governing the regulation of financial services in the UK, establishing the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) and the Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA) as the two main regulatory bodies. The FCA is responsible for regulating conduct in the financial markets, while the PRA focuses on prudential regulation and supervision of banks and insurance companies.In addition to the regulatory framework, the UK has implemented a number of international standards and best practices for financial regulation. The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision's Basel III framework, for example, has been adopted by the UK to strengthen the resilience of banks and enhance the stability of the financial system. The UK also plays a leading role in shaping European financial regulation through its membership in the European Union and its participation in the development of the Single Market for financial services.Employment LawThe UK has a comprehensive and complex system of employment law that regulates the relationship between employers and employees. The Employment Rights Act 1996 is one of the key pieces of legislation governing employment in the UK, setting out the rights and obligations of employers and employees in areas such as minimum wage, working hours, and dismissal procedures. The Act also provides for the establishment of tribunals to adjudicate disputes between employers and employees.In addition to statutory laws, the UK has adopted a range of employment-related regulations to protect workers' rights and promote equality in the workplace. The Equality Act 2010, for example, prohibits discrimination on the basis of age, disability, gender, race, religion, or sexual orientation. The Act also requires employers to make reasonable adjustments for employees with disabilities and to promote diversity and inclusion in the workplace.Challenges and Future TrendsWhile the UK has a well-established system of management and governance, it also faces a number of challenges and future trends that will have a significant impact on the management system in the years to come. Brexit, for example, has raised questions about the UK's future relationship with the European Union and the potential divergence of regulation in areas such as financial services and employment law. The UK's departure from the EU could also have implications for the enforcement of international standards and best practices, as well as the ability of UK-based companies to access European markets.The rise of technology and digitalization is another major trend that is shaping the future of management in the UK. The increasing use of artificial intelligence, big data, and blockchain technology has the potential to transform traditional management practices and regulatory frameworks. The UK government and regulatory bodies will need to adapt to these technological developments by implementing new regulations, standards, and guidelines to address the unique challenges and opportunities presented by digitalization.In conclusion, the management system in the UK is a complex and evolving framework that has evolved over centuries to address the needs and challenges of a modern economy. From corporate governance to financial regulation and employment law, the UK has established a diverse set of laws, regulations, and best practices to govern the conduct of companies and individuals in the management and governance of business. As the UK faces new challengesand opportunities in the global economy, it will be essential for the government, regulatory bodies, and industry stakeholders to work together to ensure that the management system remains robust, adaptable, and responsive to the changing needs of the UK economy.。
