Six Sigma BasicsNAVIN SHAMJI DEDHIASan Jose,California,USAA BSTRACT Six sigma concentrates on measuring product /service quality,reducing variation,driving improvements and saving the cost.The original application was to eliminate assembly-line defects,but since then it has expanded into almost every corporate operation.Six sigma is described as a philosophy,methodology and breakthrough strategy to solve problems.K EY W ORDS :Six sigma,variation,improvement,TQM,strategyIntroductionDuring the past half of the century,more than 69quality related initiatives have come into existence.Statistical Process Control (SPC),Quality Circles (QC),Total Quality Manage-ment (TQM),Bench Marking,Quality Management Systems (QMS),ISO 9000Quality Management System (QMS)Standard and other such initiatives have created a visible impact in the business world.Quality professionals have perpetuated the ‘Keep it Simple’formula for performance measurement over the past 70years in an effort to have the greatest impact on businesses.The classic tools and metrics have been applied differently in a competitive environment.It has been a common misconception that when the previous initiative does not work or fails to provide desired results,a new initiative is created.There has been a lot of talk and many articles have been published on the failures of TQM and QMS.And Six sigma is not far away from such critiques.The previous focus on methodologies using Quality Circles,Kaizen,TQM,ISO 9000QMS System,Quality Award models failed because of flawed applications and expectations.Bill Smith at Motorola,during the late 1970s,developed the six sigma approach to drive quality forward with an objective to control at parts per million (PPM)level.The Japanese were already controlling quality at the PPM level during late 1970s.Mikel Harry is considered as the father of six sigma.Motorola coined the word.Bill Galvin,CEO of Motorola,committed to the concept during the mid-1980s and stressed the need to cover every kind of activity in the company,which resulted to its success and expansion.Bob Galvin reset the agendas for all business unit meetings and he decreed quality always to Total Quality ManagementVol.16,No.5,567–574,July2005Correspondence Address:N.S.Dedhia,5080Bougainvillea Drive,San Jose,California 95111,USA.Email:NavinDedhia@1478-3363Print =1478-3371Online =05=050567–08#2005Taylor &Francis Group Ltd DOI:10.1080=14783360500077468568N.S.Dedhiabefirst.Galvin’s message was,if quality objectives were met,everything else would follow satisfactorily.Galvin would not permit the quality manager to present the quality report. That report had to be provided by the top business unit manager.As a result,the business manager had to understand the qualityfigures to be able to defend the report if it was challenged.Allied Signal was one of thefirst to apply six sigma in its operation.Bob Galvin of Motorola and Jack Welch of General Electric(GE)are good examples of executives,who took a leadership approach in the six sigma methodologies and appli-cations.Six sigma at GE became a company policy in October1995.Six Sigma quality level equates to a3.4Parts Per Million(PPM)defect rate or3.4 defects occurring per million opportunities(DPMO).Six Sigma quality level is like parking a small car in a relatively large space.Quality ToolsDifferent quality tools have a different emphasis.Total Quality Management,Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award(MBNQA)Criteria for Performance Excellence,ISO 9000Standard and Six Sigma all aim at reducing cost and enhancing customer satisfac-tion.In principle,all these tools can be defined succinctly:Total Quality Management(TQM)The TQM approach creates an awareness in the organization.It is a cost effective system for integrating the continuous improvement efforts of people at all levels in an organi-zation to deliver products,services and solutions,which ensure customer satisfaction. Baldrige Criteria for Performance ExcellenceThe Baldrige Criteria for Performance Excellence focuses on performance excellence for the entire organization in an overall management framework.It identifies and tracks all important organizational results and effectiveness.It helps to determine‘Where the organ-ization is’.Essentially,performance excellence criteria involve the regular and systematic review of an organization’s activities and results.The process allows an organization to clearly discern its strengths and areas for improvement.Baldrige criteria are a holistic integrated set of criteria that addresses best business practices.ISO9000QMS StandardThe ISO9000QMS Standard installs a system in the organization using a process approach.It concentrates onfixing quality system defects and product/service non-conformities.It also helps to document‘What the organization is doing’.It is an organized approach to managing elements of a business in such a way that it fosters continual improvement and customer satisfaction.ISO9000requires fundamental concepts and a framework of process approach to be effective.Six SigmaSix sigma concentrates on measuring product/service quality,reducing variation and driving process improvements and reducing cost.It uses a set of statistical and management tools that can make leaps in improvement.The Six sigma process has a failure rate of3.4Six Sigma Basics569 parts per million(PPM)or99.99966%defect-free product.It uses a complicated approach to problem solving called DMAIC(Define,Measure,Analyse,Improve and Control).Six sigma is the foundation for driving breakthrough improvements.Six Sigma MethodologiesPoor quality costs amount to20to30%of a company’s revenues.Six sigma improvement activities should be carried out in a project form.The prioritization and selection of projects to be worked is vital to the success.A well thought-out introduction plan should be developed.Six sigma should occur in the early life cycle(research and design stage) of a product.Strategic process improvements are needed to compete in the market place. Six sigma in organizations is built around the customer’s needs.A six sigma project recognizes a performance gap,and goes through DMAIC steps before attempting a solution.It is more about reducing variation.Six Sigma is primarily a methodology for improving the capability of business pro-cesses by using statistical methods to identify and decrease or eliminate process variation. Its goal is defect reduction,elimination and improvement.A structured project approach and effective execution of the project are the keys to the success of the Six Sigma process.Characteristics of Six Sigma include:.Expected bottom line results delivered..Senior management leadership..A disciplinedfive step approach using Define,Measure,Analyse,Improve and Control (DMAIC)concept..Rapid project completion..Clearly defined performance measurements..A sound statistical approach to focusing on critical areas of a process for improvement. Six sigma is an evolution of the TQM approach.Six Sigma has integrated other tools and methodologies such as Cause-and-Effect Diagram,Poka-Yoke device(mistake-proof mechanism to prevent obvious errors),Kaizen(continuous improvement),Kanban (pulling of a product instead of pushing through a production process),Lean Manufactur-ing(reducing and preventing wastes),ISO9000(process system approach)and House of Quality(Quality Function Deployment or Voice of the Customer).Fundamentally,.Six Sigma relies on total commitment from leadership team..Projects and initiatives are aligned with strategic objectives of the organizationSix Sigma emphasizes checking,inspection,audit and analysis..Empowered employees tackle issues proactively rather than reactively..Six Sigma is a problem solving methodology using systematic and organized project management tools.Initially,Motorola set a10times improvement during thefirst year,100times improvement during the third year and achieving six sigma during the fourth year.It meant reducing defects by10Âduring thefirst year of launching the program.Then within the next two years reducing defects by100Âto achieve six sigma level during the fourth year.Success requires committing to bold actions,continuous improvement and individual accountability.570N.S.DedhiaDMAIC steps involve:(1)Define:The problem has to be defined clearly and explicitly.It is a major step inselecting and prioritizing a project.A well-defined problem clearly sets ground rules for improvement.(2)Measure:Measurement points,sources,tools and equipment,and precision and accu-racy play a vital role in the project.Without measurement there is no control.Measurements are essential to collect data.(3)Analyse:The right approach in using analytical tools or methods will help tofind aclearly defined solution.Data are analysed into information to create a knowledge base and make decisions for actions.(4)Improve:Selecting the best alternative solution and implementing to remove the causeof a problem will bring the desired result.Improvements can be in the form of efficient equipment,new process,enhanced training to the employees,or new material.Impro-vements are actions,both corrective and preventive.(5)Control:After the implementation of improvement activities,monitoring becomesessential to control the processes.Six Sigma AppreciationCritics have already started labelling six sigma with such phrases as‘sick sigma,program of the month or an old wine in the new bottle’.Allfive senses are required to appreciate the wine.Thesefive senses are see,smell,touch,hear and taste.Six sigma application can only be appreciated when all thefive senses are applied.Thesefive senses play a key vital role in selling the six sigma programme to the management.(1)Seeing or observing with eyesEyes do the function of seeing and observing and thus providing evidence to support the claim.A criminal is innocent until proven guilty with evidence from witnesses.ISO9000standard requires supporting evidence for the observed non-conformity.Six sigma application is appreciated when noticing the benefits received from the six sigma project.These benefits come in the form of a cycle time reduction,cost reduction,savings in resources,yield increase,defect reduction,increase in the profits,space savings,etc.(2)Smelling with the noseA pleasant smell is always enjoyable and creates a thought-provoking environment.An event becomes memorable with a fragrance of a rose or an essence or an aroma of a wine.An organization’s environment remains happy and cheerful from the success of six sigma project and the resulting cost savings.(3)Touching with handsTouching gives a sense about the usefulness of an object and characterizes the surface as rough,smooth,hard or soft.Statistical,analytical and management tools are used to tackle a clearly defined problem.(4)Hearing with earsPeople like to hear sweet words and a sweet voice.Hearing excellent results from the six sigma project is as sweet as a song.Six Sigma Basics571 (5)Tasting with the tongueFood can only be tested when put in the mouth.When an application of six sigma tools and techniques bear the desired results,its value is known.Six Sigma SuccessSix sigma is not like a laser-guided smart bomb,but,rather,a statistically heavy regimen of analysing problems that has saved corporations billions of dollars.Numerous large and well-known corporations such as Motorola,General Electric,American Express,Ford Motor Company,and Allied Signal all have ambitiously applied the six sigma method-ologies in their operations.Impressive results have been obtained by the companies apply-ing a six sigma project in their organizations,as evidenced by:(1)Motorola Legal Department took two years for the patent application.Bob Galvinwanted the patent department tofigure out how to make the application time less ing six sigma tools,the patent department reduced time to somewhat less than that and the shortest time was17days.Motorola generated savings of$1.5 billion in a11year period.(2)A Japanese patent system’s application process cost was reduced from$48,000to$1200for eachfiling.(3)General Electric(GE)increased communication satellites’usage from63%to97%realizing a revenue increase of$1.3million/year.GE changed the original Motorola Six Sigma model to a project based approach that had executive buy-in.GE saved$2 billion during1999.(4)The Ames Rubber Corporation(1993recipient of the Malcolm Baldrige NationalQuality Award in Small Business Category)uses the Baldrige criteria,ISO9000Quality Management System and six sigma tools for continuous improvement activities. (5)The National Science Foundation achieved a reduction of sick people evacuationfrom Antarctica to22%with help from Raytheon Corporation on ways to pre-screening scientists prior to engaging them.(6)A hospital in Milwaukee,Wisconsin,used six sigma process to reduce prescriptionerrors.(7)Samsung Electronics Co.(SEC)of Seoul,Korea,uses six sigma tool for innovation,Efficiency and quality.SEC completed3,290six sigma projects during2000and2001.(8)Using six sigma techniques,American Express improved their plastic issuanceprocesses.(9)DuPont used six sigma methodologies to improve the cycle time to process appli-cations for long-term disability benefits.(10)Fort Wayne,Indiana,local governmentfilled98%of the potholes within24hoursusing six sigma project.(11)Military contractors were early implementers of six sigma(Ex:Northrop Grumman,etc.)(12)US Federal Government authorities are looking into six sigma application tofight the‘war on terrorism’(Homeland Security Project).Companies save an average of$100,000to$200,000per implemented improvement panies that have produced good results,have invested adequate resources, provided extensive training and involved many individuals.572N.S.DedhiaSix sigma success requires:.Strong proactive support with required resources provided by the top management. .Acceptance and implementation of six sigma’s basic disciplines by employees.The role of middle management has to be active and supportive for the success of a six sigma. Managers at all levels are required to be active..Linkage with all innovative and infrastructure activities..Accurate and fair evaluation of all successful six sigma projects with meaningful recognition and rewards for employees.General Electric made it clear that there will be no promotions without active participation in six sigma activities.Volvo refers to its Black Belts at future leaders.Lean Six SigmaThe lean manufacturing technique was developed by Toyota Motor Corporation in Japan. Lean tools are used to reduce waste and improve the efficiency of a process.Six sigma tools are used when the goal is to reduce variance and improve the performance. Keeping in mind the constraints,the lean manufacturing technique focuses on eliminating barriers to achieve a smooth continuous processflow.In six sigma,the focus is on elim-inating variation to reduce cost and cycle time and improve quality.Subject experts are trained differently and subjects are deployed differently in lean manufacturing and six sigma.Their approachesfit different types of problems.Lean and six sigma have a positivefinancial impact.Both need management’s active support and both can also be used in the non-manufacturing environment.Savings can be doubled,when lean and six sigma are used in a coordinated manner.Total Productive Maintenance(TPM)is used in the lean manufacturing technique to ensure equipment is operational and available when required.Single Minute Exchange of Dies(SMED)from the lean technique and Design of Experiment(DOE)from six sigma are used to achieve optimal results.The lean technique is aimed at creatingflow through the entire value stream.Six sigma works on reducing variation among the processes that operate on a product.Lean helps uncover the rocks in the value stream that can cause blockages or unnecessary variation in theflow.Six sigma helps tofind the rocks in the value stream.Lean goes beyond Just-In-Time(JIT)and TQM.Six sigma goes beyond TQM.Lean and six sigma both focus on increasing productivity,asset utilization and quality.Six Sigma BenefitsA number of benefits are realized when the six sigma process is applied in a systematic way.A hugefinancial payoff is realized within a short period of time.Some of these benefits are:.Decreased work-in-progressBottlenecks are removed and workflows smoothly in the line,thereby reducing in process inventory.Equipment and tools are utilized efficiently with decreased work-in-progress.There is no wait in line.Six Sigma Basics573 .Improved capacity and outputDue to decreased work-in-process,more can be produced and shipped..Improved customer satisfaction and processflowOn-time shipping and on-time delivery of goods will make customers happy..Improved inventory turnsWith decreased work-in-progress and improved output,product will move faster out the door.There will be less inventory of raw material andfinished product..Increased productivityProductivity increase is realized when equipment and tools are running at capacity and wastage is reduced..Reduced cycle timeFrom start tofinish,the job can be done within the prescribed time.Waiting is removed from the operation.Six Sigma EnvironmentThe success of a Six Sigma project depends on the role played by the team members,who are:(a)Executive(Involve in committing resources and sponsoring the project)(b)Master Black Belt(Training and coaching)(c)Black Belt(Lead improvement projects)(d)Green Belt(Support and run projects)(e)Champion(Involve in supporting the project)Master Black Belts(MBBs)provide training and support for both Black and Green Belts. Black Belts(BB)and Green Belt(GB)holders conduct the improvement projects.Master Black Belt and Black Belt holders are full-time improvement specialists having obtained four weeks’training over a four-month period.Green Belt holders are part-time improve-ment specialist and retain their previous job duties.They receive two weeks’training over a two-month period.Executive leaders establish the strategic focus of a Six Sigma programme.Champions take their company’s vision,missions,goals,and metrics and translate them for individual projects.The Executives and champions keep the programme moving in a planned direction.Executives attend a one-day Executive training session. Champions receive one week of training.Mikel Harry,one of Six Sigma’s creators and chief promoters,introduced the belt system for designating experience levels.Master Black Belts and Black Belts form the backbone of the Six Sigma program.Questions still arise at the validity of six sigma application infixing rare and random problems.Fewer than15%of the Fortune1000companies have embraced it in a significant way.Michael Dell,CEO of Dell Computers,says it is powerful stuff.Jack Welch,CEO of GE,says it requires obsessive and compulsive commitment to drive six sigma deep into a company’s culture.Success of six sigma demands on management com-mitment,full support,a trained workforce and cross-functional teams.The American Society for Quality(ASQ)offers the Six Sigma Black Belt(SSBB) Certification Examination twice a year.It is a150multiple-choice-question four-hour574N.S.Dedhiaexamination.The ASQ certification examination application requires two completed six sigma projects documented by signed affidavits or one project with a signed affidavit and three years of work experience related to six sigma activities.ASQ certification is not a licence or registration.It is peer recognition.ASQ launched a quarterly Six Sigma Forum Magazine in June2002.An annual six sigma conference is held by ASQ.ASQ started the Six Sigma Forum in May2001with an aim of connecting six sigma knowledge with experience for quality professionals.The ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt examination requires knowledge and understanding of:(1)Enterprise wide deployment(2)Business process management(3)Project management(4)Defining,measuring,analysing,improving and controlling six sigma improvementmethodology and tools(5)Lean enterprise(6)Design for six sigmaConclusionSix sigma,as developed by Motorola,was an extension of many existing quality tools and techniques,but with the addition of business accountability.This resulted in process improvement gains that increased productivity and profitability.Six sigma and Lean enter-prise methodologies are both systematic and both have evolved from separate paths.Lean was developed by Toyota.Lean is mainly focused on eliminating waste.In manufacturing, the lean principle includes zero waiting time,pull instead of push scheduling,smaller batch sizes,line balancing and shorter process times.Six Sigma organizations become forward moving organizations by adapting new tools and techniques and overcoming learning disabilities.Much can be achieved from programmes like six sigma with the active,consistent, innovative,continuous and widely apparent participation by top management.When implemented strategically,six sigma can help companies turn over working capital faster,reduce capital spending,make existing capacity available,produce better results from the design and R&D functions.Such outcomes also foster a working environ-ment that stimulates employee development,motivation,morale empowerment and commitment.The primary factor in the successful implementation of a six sigma project is to have the necessary resources,the support and leadership of top management,customer require-ments identified explicitly,and a comprehensive training programme.Six sigma’s DMAIC structure of problem solving is its ability to analyse,improve and control processes with an emphasis on the ability to measure the performance.Deploy-ment of six sigma is best achieved through the defined projects.Success of a six sigma project depends on buy-in by the entire organization,deployment of the process,effective training and key measurements.。
六西格玛大师需掌握的二十个工具前言六西格玛（Six Sigma，6 Sigma）是一种管理策略，它是由摩托罗拉提出的。
这种策略主要强调制定极高的目标、收集数据以及分析结果，通过这些来减少产品和服务的缺陷。
六西格玛背后的原理：如果你检测到你的项目中有多少缺陷，你就可以找出如何系统地减少缺陷，使你的项目尽量完美的方法。
一个企业要想达到六西格玛标准，那么它的出错率不能超过百万分之3.4。
如今，作为经典的质量管理手段，六西格玛备受质量人和生产人的追捧，现在把六西格玛管理中20种常用工具分享给大家，供您学习！01FMEA和FTA分析故障模式与影响分析(FMEA)和故障树分析(FTA)均是在可靠性工程中已广泛应用的分析技术，国外已将这些技术成功地应用来解决各种质量问题。
在ISO 9004：2000版标准中，已将FMEA和FTA分析作为对设计和开发以及产品和过程的确认和更改进行风险评估的方法。
我国目前基本上仅将FMEA与FTA技术应用于可靠性设计分析，根据国外文献资料和我国部分企业技术人员的实践，FMEA和FTA可以应用于过程(工艺)分析和质量问题的分析。
质量是一个内涵很广的概念，可靠性是其中一个方面。
通过FMEA和FTA分析，找出了影响产品质量和可靠性的各种潜在的质量问题和故障模式及其原因（包括设计缺陷、工艺问题、环境因素、老化、磨损和加工误差等），经采取设计和工艺的纠正措施，提高了产品的质量和抗各种干扰的能力。
根据文献报道，某世界级的汽车公司大约50%的质量改进是通过FMEA 和FTA/ETA来实现的。
02Kano模型日本质量专家Kano把质量依照顾客的感受及满足顾客需求的程度分成三种质量：理所当然质量、期望质量和魅力质量。
1、理所当然质量。
当其特性不充足（不满足顾客需求）时，顾客很不满意；当其特性充足（满足顾客需求）时，无所谓满意不满意，顾客充其量是满意。
2、期望质量也有称为一元质量。
当其特性不充足时，顾客很不满意，充足时，顾客就满意。
