普通语言学

《普通语言学》教案教案：普通语言学一、教学目标1.了解普通语言学的概念和基本理论2.掌握语言学的核心概念和术语3.了解语音学、语法学和语义学的基本内容和研究方法4.培养学生综合分析和解决问题的能力5.促进学生对语言及其运用的认识和理解二、教学内容和安排1.导入（10分钟）介绍普通语言学的概念和作用，引发学生对语言学的兴趣，激发学生学习的动机。

2.整体概述（20分钟）讲解普通语言学的研究范畴、历史发展及分支学科，并介绍普通语言学的主要理论和方法。

PPT展示辅助教学，帮助学生直观地理解普通语言学的基本概念。

3.语音学（40分钟）3.1语音学的概念和研究对象3.2语音的分类和表达方式3.3语音的发音机制和国际音标3.4语音变体和语音规则通过示例解释语音学的基本概念和研究方法，引导学生了解语音在语言中的重要作用。

4.语法学（40分钟）4.1语法学的概念和研究对象4.2语法的分类和层级4.3语法单位和语法规则4.4语法结构和语法功能通过例句和语法分析，讲解语法学的基本概念和研究方法，帮助学生理解语言的结构和运用。

5.语义学（40分钟）5.1语义学的概念和研究对象5.2词汇的语义和句子的语义5.3语义的组织和语义的演变5.4语义的逻辑关系和语言的含义通过例句和语义分析，讲解语义学的基本概念和研究方法，培养学生对语义的敏感度和逻辑思维能力。

6.知识拓展与应用（30分钟）6.1语言学与其他学科的关系6.2语言学在语言教学和语言翻译中的应用通过案例分析和小组讨论，加深学生对语言学与其他学科的交叉和应用的理解。

7.课堂小结（10分钟）总结本节课的重点内容，巩固学生的学习成果。

三、教学方法和手段1.预习导入：以问题、典故、实例等方式来引导学生了解普通语言学的概念和学习动机。

2.讲解与示范：采用幻灯片、多媒体等教具，通过讲解和示例来帮助学生理解语音学、语法学和语义学的基本概念和相关知识。

3.案例分析：通过例句和实际语言现象的分析，促使学生分析和解决问题，提高语言学习的应用能力。

Linguistics语言学，the study of human language。

包括Theoretical linguistics，Applied linguistics，Sociolinguistics，Cognitive linguistics和Historical linguistics。

这里主要考Theoretical linguistics，包括:1.Lexis词汇学, the study of what is a word and where words come from2.Semantics语义学，the study of meaning in a language3.Phonetics语音学，the study of speech sounds (voice).4.Phonology音位学/音系学,the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication5.Morphology形态学，the study of the structure and form of words and phrases6.Syntax句法学，the study of the rules, or "patterned relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together，与morphology形态学并称grammer语法学7.Stylistics文体学，the study of style used in literary, and verbal language and the effect the writer/speaker wishes to communicate to the reader/hearer.8.Pragmatics语用学，generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.补充：general linguistics, the study of the structure and development of language in generalChapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. T2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. F4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. T8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. F9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. T10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. T17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. T19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. FⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 PhonologyⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speakerissues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. V owel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A_______ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A_______ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t_______ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s_______ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 35 Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesⅣ. Define the terms below:45. phonology46. phoneme47. allophone48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics53. phone54. phonemic contrast55. tone56. minimal pairⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?。

索绪尔《普通语言学教程》读书笔记语言学是对人类语言的一种科学化、系统化的理论研究。

所以，虽然语言学被归类在中国语言文学之下，但我觉得它更像是一门在实践中不断发展的应用科学，它可不能像文学作品一样可以虚构。

在之前的学习中我确实也学习过语言学的一些知识，但在很大程度上并不成系统，也不够深入。

事实上，对于我来说真正系统的阅读和学习是从本学期才开始的。

世界上的一切事物总是不断变化发展的，语言学也是如此。

索绪尔《普通语言学教程》的划时代意义就在于它标志着语言学研究从历史比较语言学转到结构主义语言学。

如果我们将视角放在当时的背景中，就会发现这一切并非是偶然。

在19世纪末20世纪初的时候，“结构主义”和“普遍主义”在各个学科中兴起，关于语言本体的研究成为了哲学研究的对象。

这样的状况使得历史比较语言学内部产生了分歧，所产生的新语言学派虽然仍占有统治地位但他们以“个人心理主义”语言观和“原子主义”的方法论研究问题，把个人的心理活动看成是语言发展的主要原因，孤立地研究语言现象，仍无法克服自身的问题。

在这种情况下，索绪尔提出了“社会心理主义”的语言观，强调了社会因素对语言的影响，把语言视为社会约定俗成的一条符号系统，认为语言学应研究的对象是语言的内部结构，坚持整体观念，不能孤立地看待各要素之间的关系，从而开创了20世纪现代语言学研究。

虽然《普通语言学教程》名为“普通”，但我通过阅读和学习才发现整本书并不好理解，其中包括很多语言学专业的定义，而且这些定义间也有着内在的联系，同时它涵盖的知识也十分庞杂，涉及到了经济学、天文学、法律等，所以我只能在参考一些文献的帮助下，边阅读边去理解它的主要内容。

接下来，我主要从自己理解和感受最深的四个点来讨论：1、语言和言语我觉得不管是做研究还是写文章，第一件事情是得确定对象，你得知道自己在研究什么，写的是谁。

但在索绪尔之前的语言学研究中，研究对象却在语言和言语中并不确定。

所以索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》开篇便探讨了语言学的对象，明确区分了语言和言语。

33语言是形式而不是实质。
34句段关系是在现场的，联想关系却不在现场。
35不可论证性达到最高点的语言是比较着重于词汇的，降到最低点的语言是比较着重于语法的。
36每一事实应该都可以归入他的句段方面或联想方面，全部语法材料也应该安排在他的两个自然地轴线上面。
37语言学的唯一的真正的对象时就语言和为语言而研究的语言
4.集体惰性对一切语言创新的抗拒。这点超出了其他的任何考虑。语言无论什么时候都是每个人的事情。在一切社会制度中，语言是最不适宜创制的。他同大众生活结成一体，而后者在本质上是惰性的，看来首先就是一种保守的因素。
5.语言之所以有稳固的性质，不仅是因为它被绑在集体的镇石上，而且因为它是处在时间之中。约定俗成使它在任意搭配时有了一种规约的不变，时间的延续性，使它在一段时间内不会发生变化。
3．言语活动与个人的一面，又有社会的一面。
4．言语活动既包含一个已定的系统，又包含一种演变。是共时的，又是历时的。
10符号学是一门研究社会生活中符号生命的科学。
11语言既是言语的工具又是言语的产物。
12我们在建立言语活动理论时遇到的第一条分岔路就是区分语言和言语。这两门科学就是语言的语言学和言语的语言学。
第一编
13语言符号连结的不是事物和名称而是概念和音响形象。
14语言符号是一种两面的心里实体
15我们建议保留用符号这个词表示整体，用所指和能指分别代替概念和音响形象。
2.构成任何语言都必须有大量的符号。这一事实的涉及面很宽。一个文字体系只有二十至四十个字母，必要时可以用另一个体系来代替。如果语言只有为数有限的要素，情况也是这样，但语言符号却是数不胜数的。
3.系统的性质态复杂。一种语言就构成一个系统。我们可以看到，在这一方面，语言不是完全任意的，而且里面有相对的道理，同时，也正是在这一点上表现出大众不能改变语言。