Phonological Demands vs. System Constraints in an L2 Setting

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第二章：语音您所查看的帖子来源于考研加油站考研论坛() Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative以下内容跟帖回复才能看到==============================Key:I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABBII.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme neveroccur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.。

Frequency effect（频率效应）: the ease with which 频率效应） a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the L. Recency effects（近因效应）: the ease with which 近因效应） a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context. Cotext（语境）: We recognize a word more readily 语境） when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.
使用更多的功能词： 岁之前的话语象电报， 使用更多的功能词：3岁之前的话语象电报，忽略功能词 和曲折形式；语言的各方面都可在四岁前掌握（除了罕用、 和曲折形式；语言的各方面都可在四岁前掌握（除了罕用、 主要用于书面语中的句式结构或者成人也要费力掌握的句 式结构） 式结构）
2.2 Language comprehension- （1） comprehensionWord recognition 单词辨识 Mental lexicon（心理词汇库）: information 心理词汇库） about the properties of words, retrievable when understanding language
Mature speaker
Purpose
I don’t want to go to sleep I am not tired Where is the doll? The truck is on the table Daddy is running I (Joe) pushed (the cat) I pushed the car Give me the candy

What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language.----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.Prescriptive &Descriptive规定性&描写性(定义、区别)linguistic behavior in using language Prescriptive ---- If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct”(traditional grammar)Descriptive ---- If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use (modernlinguistic)Synchronic & Diachronic 共时性对历时性（定义）Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time in history (modern linguistics)Diachronic study---- description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of languageover a period of time)Langue &Parole (F. de Saussure) 语言对话语Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence &Performance (Chomsky) 语言能力对语言运用（定义）Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of this languagePerformance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of themind of each individual.Traditional grammar & Modern linguistics 传统语法对现代语言学（区别）Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based frameworkThe design features of human language (Charles Hockett)Arbitrariness（任意性）声音和事物之间的关联Productivity/Creativity（能产性）Duality（双层性）Displacement（移位性）Cultural transmission（文化传承）Phonetics语音学(定义和分类)Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds thatoccur in the world’s language.Three branches of phonetics（发音语音学，听觉语音学，声学语音学）Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.Classification of vowels（元音）Monophthongs or pure/single vowels（单元音）Diphthongs or gliding vowels （双元音）According to which part of the tongue is held highest in theprocess of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:。

1.Input versus intakeInput is everything around us we may perceive with our senses.Input is the main source of information for learning , but not all input leads to intake , which is necessary for teaching .Intake is what we pay attention to and notice.Intake may refer to information that strengthens existing knowledge, or it may fill a gap in knowledge that was noticed by the learner before.In language learning, input refers to language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.In second or foreign language learning , a distinction is sometimes made between input and intake. Intake is input which is actually helpful for the learner. Some of the language (ie input) which a learner hears may be too rapid or difficult for the learner to understand, and therefore cannot be used in learning (i.e cannot serve as intake) 2. What is Interlanguage（1）Il refers to the language that the L2 learner produced .（2）The language produced by the learner is a system in its own right.（3）The language is a dynamic system, evolving over time.（4）IL studies moved one step beyond EA, by focusing on the learner language system, rather than only on its errors.3.Fossilization:It refers to the phenomenon in which second language learners often stop learning even though they might be far short of native-like competence. The term is also used for specific linguistic structures that remain incorrect for lengthy periods of time in spite of plentiful input.4. What is UG ?The language faculty built into the human mind consisting of principles and parameters.UG is the system of principles, conditions and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages.5. Acquisition v.s learningThe term “acquisition”is used to refer to picking up a second language through exposure, whereas the term “learning “ is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language.6. Linguistic Competence and Linguistic PerformanceLinguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge of the language that a native speaker of that language possesses.Linguistic performance refers to the actual utterance produced by the native speaker7. Implicit versus Explicit LearningImplicit learning is acquisition of knowledge about the underlying structure by a process that takes place naturally, simply and without conscious operations.Explicit learning is a more conscious operation where a learner makes and tests hypotheses in a search for strcture.nguage learning strategiesIntentional behaviour and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn or remember new information .Learning strategies are classified into: 1. meta-cognitive strategies2. cognitive strategies3. socio-affective strategies9.What are the cognitive and affective factors in SLA research?Cognitive factors；（1）Intelligence（2）Language aptitude（3）Language learning strategiesAffective factors :（1）Language attitudes （2）Motivation10. Contrastive AnalysisContrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors.The ultimate goal was to predict areas that would be either easy or difficult for learners .11. Error analysisError analysis is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners’interlanguage and a target language, while contrastive analysis between languages. (native language and target language)12. Positive evidence and negative evidencePositive evidence: input that provides information only about what is grammatical in the language.Negative evidence: input that provides direct evidence of what is ungrammatical in a language.Positive evidence comes from the speech learners hear and thus is composed of a limited set of well-formed utterance of the language being learned .Negative evidence is composed of information to a learner that his or her utterance is deviant with regard to the norms of the language being learned.1. The Monitor Model by KrashenThe Monitor Model is an overall theory of SLA, which had important implications for language teaching. Here are the five central hypotheses underlying the Monitor Model.1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis2. The Monitor Hypothesis3. The Natural Order Hypothesis4. The Input Hypothesis5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis2. What it is that needs to be learnt in language acquisition （What arebranches of modern linguistic? ）Phonetics and Phonology：（1）It entails knowing what possible sounds are and what are not for its native speakers .（2）It also involves knowing what happens to words in fast speech as opposed to more carefully articulated speech.Syntax：The study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences. The rule is frequently known as its grammar.Morphology：The study of morphemes and their different forms , and the waythey combine in word formation .In short , morphology is the study of word formation.Semantics：（1）The study of meaning（2）There are many different approaches to the way in which meaning in language is studiedPragmatics：The study of language use in context3. The differences between the Behaviorist learning model and that of Mentalist ?Behaviorist learning model claims that children acquired the L1 by trying to imitate utterances produced by people around them and by receiving negative or positive reinforcement of their attempts to do so. Language acquisition, therefore, was considered to be environmentally determined.A mentalist model claims: 1. Language is human specific.2. Language exists as an independent faculty in the human mind.3. LAD4. Input data4. What are the differences of error analysis from contrastive analysisContrastive analysis stresses the interfering effects of a first language on second language learning and claims that most errors come from interference of the first language. (Corder ,1967). However, such a narrow view of interference ignores the intralingual effects of language learning among other factors. Error analysis is the method to deal with intralingual factors in learners’language (Corder , 1981).it is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’language systems .Error analysis is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners’interlanguage and a target language, while contrastive analysis between languages. (native language and target language)5. Principles and parameters theory in UGDual aim : 1. Characterize the Native Speaker’s knowledge of language, or linguistic competence.2. Explain how the acquisition of such competence is possible.The universal principle is the principle of structure-dependency, which states that language is organized in such a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence.Parameters are principles that differ in the way they work or function from language to language. That is to say there are certain linguistic features that vary across languages.6. Two groups cognitive theory concerning language learning1. Processing Approaches （1）Information processing model（2）Processability theory2. Constructionist Approaches7. Anderson’s ACTThis is another general theory of cognitive learning that has been applied to SLA Also emphasizes the automatization process.Conceptualizing three types of memory: 1. Working memory2. Declarative long term memory3. Procedural long-term memory8. McLaughlin’s Information-processing modelSLA is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill that must progress from controlled processing to automatic processing.9. Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorism was established by American psychologist John B. Watson in 1913 and developed by B.F. Skinner who is the founder of modern behaviorism.Behaviorism postulated that all human behaviors could be explained in terms of the way in which simple stimulus-response connections were built up.Two key notions of behaviorismHabits :habits are regular connection of stimulus and response.Errors : old habits inhabit learning new habits.Interference : This is concerned with the way in which previous learning gets in the way of learning new habits.10. Shumann’s Pidginization or Acculturation Model (语言文化适应模式）Pidginization（洋泾浜语化）In second and foreign language learning, the development of grammatically reduced form of a target language. This is usually a temporary stage in language learning. The learner’s INTERLANGAUGE may have a limited system of auxilary verbs, simplified question and negative forms, and reduced rules for TENSE, NUMBER, and other grammatical categories.11. The History of SLA Research1960s : Behavioristic View of Learning（1）Habit formation（2）Contrastive Analysis （3）Behaviorism under Attack1970s-1980s :Mentalism （1）Error Analysis and Interlangauge （2）Krashen and His Monitor Model（3）Shumann’s Pidginization or Acculturation Model Beyond 1990s: （1）The Developmental Patterns in Language Acquisition（2）Different Roles Found in Language Acquisition12.What is the difference between linguistic performance and linguistic competence?Linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge of the language that a native speaker of that language possesses.Linguistic performance refers to the actual utterance produced by the native speaker13. What is fossilization ? Can we avoid it in our foreign language learning? Fossilization: It refers to the phenomenon in which second language learners often stop learning even though they might be far short of native-like competence. The term is also used for specific linguistic structures that remain incorrect for lengthy periods of time in spite of plentiful input.14. Suppose you are to investigate the developmental pattern in the English learning as L2. What data would you collect and how would you collect it ?The investigation of developmental patterns in learner language aims to describe the learner language in its own right. First language acquisition researchers have found the evidence to test the behaviorist and mentalist accounts of language learning. In L2 acquisition, early learner language is characterized by the silent period, extensive use of formulas and structural and semantic simplification.Then we researched L2 acquisition in terms of the order of acquisition through the study of different features and also the sequence of stages through the study of a single feature. Considering the L2 acquisition is similar to L1 acquisition to some degree, the discussion of L2 =L1 hypothesis is introduced and briefly discussed.1. to examine whether learners’ errors change over time.2. to examine samples and data of learner language collected over a period of time in order to identify when specific linguistic features emerge.3. obligatory occasion analysis4. native-like analysis5. frequency analysis6. to infer the order of development from data of cross-sectional studies by using s number of statistical procedures .7.implicational scaling15. Why do some learners have a silent period while others do not ?Troike suggests that the reason may lie in differences in the learners’social and cognitive orientation: outer-directed and inner-directed.The former “approach language as an interpersonal task, with a predominant focus on the message they wish to convey”.The latter “approach language learning as an intrapersonal task, with a predominant focus on the language code”。