2008 A Structural Model of Personality Factors, Learning Approaches,Thinking Styles and Academic Ach

Revision Contents:Unit 1 Language and Learning1. What are the major views of language? What are their implications to language teaching or learning?Structural View: It sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentence. Each language has a finite number of such structural items.To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language.Audiolingual approach: The teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed. The principal features of audiolingualism are an emphasis on structures in the language which can be learned as regular patterns of verbal behavior and the belief that learning is a process of habit formation.Functional View: It sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Most of our day-to- day language use involves functional activities: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. Therefore, learners learn a language in order to do things with it. To perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Communicative approaches are based on this view of language.Interactional View: It considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language, but also need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative context.Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are: Strategic interaction; communicative approaches.2. What are the major Views on language learning? What are their implications to language teaching?Behaviouralist theoryBased on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested language is also a form of behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of language learning is referred to as behaviouralism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in America.One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which involves endless “listen and repeat” drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakeswere immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of the world today.Cognitive theoryIt seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behavioural theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics.The key point of Chomsky’s theory is reflected in his most famous question: if language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others before.One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the Audio-Lingual Method.According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data. The basic technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task.Constructivist theory: Learning is a complex cognitive process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his or her own experiences and what he /she already knows. Implications for classroom teachingTeaching should be built based on what learners already know and engage learners in learning activities.It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rotate or recall what is learned.Teachers need to design activities to interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners.Teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learners’ interest and curiosity for learning.Socio-constructivist theory: It emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD) and scaffolding.Learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peers’ support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his / her skills and knowledge to the fullest potential.Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Activities1. The goal of CLT is to develop students’communicative competence.2.What is communicative compentence? Try to list some of its components and theirimplication to teaching.Communicative compentence refers to both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations. According to Hedge, it includes five components.Linguistic competence --- knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning Pragmatic competence --- the appropriate use of language in social contextDiscourse competence--- one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them (ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse /ability to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation)Strategic competence--- strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resourcesFluency---- one’s ability to ‘link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitationImplications for teaching and learning:Linguistic competenceTeachers need to help learners----achieve accuracy in the grammatical forms of the language;----pronounce the forms accurately;----use stress, rhythm, and intonation to express meaning;----build a range of vocabulary;----learn the script and spelling rules;----achieve accuracy in syntax and word formation.Pragmatic competenceTeachers need to help learners---learn the relationship between grammatical forms and functions;---use stress and intonation to express attitude and emotion;---learn the scale of formality;---understand and use emotive tone;---use the grammatical rules of language;---select language forms appropriate to topic, listener, or setting, etc. Discourse competenceTeachers need to help learners----take longer turns, use discourse markers and open and close conversations; ----appreciate and be able to produce contextualised written texts in a variety of genres;----be able to use cohesive devices in reading and writing texts;----be able to cope with authentic texts.Strategic competenceTeachers need to enable learners----to take risks in using the language;----to use a range of communicative strategies;----to learn the language needed to engage in some of these strategies, e.g. ‘What do you call a thing that/person who…’FluencyTeachers need to help learners-----deal with the information gap of real discourse;-----process language and respond appropriately with a degree of ease;-----be able to respond with reasonable speed in ‘real time”.3.What is communicative language teaching?Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a replacement to Situational Language Teaching. This was partly in response to Chomsky's criticisms of structural theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional linguistics, as well as American sociolinguists.The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs.Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of communication. Students usually work with authentic materials in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.This method is learner-centered and emphasizes communication and real-life situations. The role of the instructor in CLT is quite different from traditional teaching methods. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is in charge and "controls" the learning. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning.4.Principles in communicative language teachingCommunication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learning supports the learning process.5.Strong version and week versionA weak version: Learners first acquire language as a structural system and then learn how to use it in communication.It regards overt teaching of language forms and functions as necessary means for helping learners to develop the ability to use them for communication.A strong version:Strong version: The strong version claims that ‘language is acquire through communication’. Learners discover the structural system in the process of learning how to communicate.It regards experiences of using the language as the main means or necessary conditions for learning a language as they provide the experience for learners to see how language is used in communication.5. List some of the communicative activities.1) Functional communicative activitiesIdentifying picturesDiscovering identical pairsDiscovering sequence or locationsDiscovering missing informationDiscovering missing featuresDiscovering “secrets ”Communicating patterns and picturesCommunicative modelsDiscovering differencesFollowing directionsReconstructing story-sequencesPooling information to solve a problem2) Social interaction activitiesRole-playing through cued dialoguesRole-playing through cues and informationRole-playing through situation and goalsRole-playing through debate and discussionLarge-scale simulation activitiesimprovisation 6. Main features communicative activities Some main features of communicativeactivities (Ellis 1990)Students make use of materials6. No materials control Students work by themselves.5. No teacher interventionStudents are free to use all kinds of language forms and skills, not just certain forms given by teacher.4. Variety of languageConcentrate on what to do and what to say in the activity, not how to say certain forms.3. Content, not formA need to do something 2. Communicative desireA need to know something.---’an information gap ’1. Communictive purposenotes The six criteria7. The Task-based ApproachA task-based approach sees the language process as one of learning through doing.It stresses the importance to combine form-focused teaching withcommunication-focused teaching.The task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for the learners toexperiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learningactivities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical andfunctional use of language for meaningful purposes.Task -based Learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In a task-basedlesson the teacher doesn't pre-determine what language will be studied, the lessonis based around the completion of a central task and the language studied isdetermined by what happens as the students complete it.So it aims to provide learners with a natural context for language use．As learnerswork to complete a task，they have abundant opportunity to interact．Such interactionis thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understandeach other and to express their own meaning．By so doing，they have to check to seeif they have comprehended correctly and，at times， they have to seek clarification．By interacting with others，they get to listen to language which may be beyondtheir present ability，but which may be assimilated into their knowledge of the targetlanguage for use at a later time．Task presented in the form of a problem-solving negotiation between knowledgethat the learner holds and new knowledge7. What is a task?Any one of the following definitions is ok:A task is “a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or forsome reward. Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child. Inother words, by ‘task’is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life,at work, at play and in between”. -------- Long (1985) [A task is] an activity which require learners to arrive at an outcome from giveninformation through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to controland regulate that process. ------ Prabhu (1987)… a piece of classroom work which involve learners in comprehending,manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attentionis principally focused on meaning rather than on form. ----Nunan (1989) Tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learnerfor a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.”A task is an activity in which students use the target language to do something,usually with a non-linguistic purpose.8. A task is believed to have four components: a purpose, a context, a process, anda product.9. What is PPP model?In this model, a language classroom consists of three stages: Presentation ofnew language item in a context---controlled practice (drilling, repetition,dialogue reading, etc)---production of the language in a meaningful way (a role-play,a drama, an interview, etc.)10. A task-based language classroom consists of three stages. They are pre-task stage,the stage of task cycle, and the stage of language focus.Unit 31. The overall language ability required in the 2001 National English Curriculumincludes the following aspects language knowledge, language skills, learningstrategies, affects and cultural understanding.2. What is a syllabus?。

Chapter 2 Aspects of Foreign Language TeachingTeaching GuideThis chapter contains 7 parts and the main content is almost the same as that of Chapter 2 in Students’ Book except the content about syllabus design in section 2.3.2 and three new parts added. In the original chapter 2, the content concerning syllabus design (section 2.2.2) is more abstract and more macro, but the relevant content in this book is introduced in a more specific and more micro way, which can help readers to conduct the practices in a more operational way. For example, in “Implementation”we provide three activities concerning syllabus design, syllabus identification and FLT principles.2.1 Teaching ObjectivesThrough the study of this chapter, students should be able to:1. understand views of language and foreign language teaching.2. understand foreign language teaching syllabus.3. understand foreign language teaching principles.4. understand aims and objectives of foreign language teaching and learning.2.2 Interpreting Chapter ContentThis chapter mainly deals with the following four issues:2.2.1 Two Views of Language and Foreign Language Teaching1. The Structural ViewThis view sees language in terms of the bits and pieces by means of which it is put together (see the diagram on P 13 Students’ book).2. The Functional ViewThis view is concerned with language as an instrument of social interaction rather than as a system that is viewed in isolation. It considers the individual as a social being and investigates the way in which he or she acquires language and uses it in order to communicate with others in his or her social environment.According to the functionalists, language has three main functions: descriptive, expressive and social.1). The descriptive function of language is to convey factual information. This is the type of information which can be stated or denied and in some cases even tested.e.g. It must be well below ten degrees outside.2). The expressive function of language is to supply information about the speaker, his or herfeelings, preferences, prejudices, and past experiences.e.g.I’m not inviting the Smiths again.3). The social function of language serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople.e.g. Will that be all, Sir).If language teaching follows a functional view, the language content of a course will be arranged in terms of functions together with the language items needed for them.2.2.2 Foreign Language Teaching Syllabus1. Definition of SyllabusThe syllabus is a description of the contents of a course and the order in which they are to betaught. It provides the overall organizing principle for what is to be taught and learned. It may be based on grammatical items and vocabulary, the language needed for different types of situations, or the meanings and communicative functions which the learner needs to express in the target language.2. Types of SyllabusThere are many types of syllabuses such as grammatical syllabus, task-based syllabus,skill-based syllabus, topic-base syllabus, content-based syllabus, lexical syllabus, product-oriented vs. process-oriented syllabus, synthetic vs. analytic syllabus, even integrated syllabus (multi-syllabus). Of these various types, each has its own characteristics and may be applied to different courses. However, some of these different types may be overlapped in some aspects (i.e. situational vs. topic-based syllabus), and the syllabus for a course is usually based on a combination of two or more of these types. There are generally five broad types of syllabuses for foreign language teaching: A. grammar or structural; B. functional-notional; C. situational; D. skill-based; E. topic-based.A: Grammar or Structural (organized according to a list of grammatical structures and one that will readily be recognized by most English language teachers.)B: Functional-notional (based on the communicative and interpersonal uses to which language is put and, in contrast to the formal structural system of the first type, highlights what people do through language. )C : Situational (presents a set of everyday situations or settings.)D: Skill-based (focuses on language skills, and concerned with what learners do as speakers, listeners, readers, and writers.)E: Topic-based(uses topics or themes as its starting point.)3. Design of SyllabusesThe important thing to do in syllabus design is to decide what to include in the syllabus. Below is a list of possible components of syllabuses.Aims/GoalsGeneral statements about what must be accomplished by the end of the course.Objectives/Targets/RequirementsSpecific statements about what content or skills that students must master in order to attain the goals.Non-language outcomesAffect cultivation, such as confidence, motivation, interestLearning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, etc.Cultural understandingLearning contentsKnowledge: vocabulary list, grammar itemsSkills: listening, speaking, reading and writingFunctions and notionsTopicsCultureImplementationApproaches/methodologiesTeaching principlesTeaching suggestionsRecommendation of textbooks/materialsAssessment/Evaluation: Who, what, how and for what purposesWho should carry out assessment/evaluation?What should be evaluated?How is evaluation best done?For what purposes should evaluation be done?Proficiency tests4. Changes in Foreign Language Teaching and the ImplicationsThe major shifts in foreign language teaching are summarized in the diagram on P. 20. (Students’ book)These changes have the implication that the integration of the four skills is the most plausible approach to take within a communicative or interactive framework. Usually a lesson in an integrated English class might include:1) a pre-reading discussion of the topic to activate schemata;2) listening to a lecture or a series of informative statements about the topic of a passage to beread;3) a focus on a certain reading strategy, e.g. scanning;4) writing a paragraph of a section of the reading passage.2.2.3 Principles of Foreign Language TeachingTeaching and learning are interrelated with each other. Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting the conditions for learning. Our understanding of how the learner learns will determine our philosophy of education, our teaching style, our approach, methods, and classroom techniques.According to H. D. Brown (1994), for foreign language teaching there are three broad set of principles which include 12 specific principles (see the following diagram):Cognitive principles: relate mainly to mental and intellectual functions, including automaticity, meaningful learning, the anticipation of reward, intrinsic motivation and strategic investment. Affective principles: more central to the emotional processing of human beings, including language ego, self-confidence, risk-taking and the language-culture connection.Linguistic principles:center on language itself and on how learners deal with these complex linguistic systems, including the native language effect, interlanguage and communicative competence.2.2.4 Aims and Objectives of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning1. General Aim --- to develop student’s communicative competenceForeign language teaching and learning used to focus on imparting the language knowledge to the language learners, but now its general aim is to develop students’communicative competence in the target language, which demonstrates a shift of emphasis from a narrow focus on language as a formal system to the social and cultural k nowledge which speakers need in order to understand and use linguistic forms (Hedge, 2002: 45).According to Hymes (1972), communicative competence consists of linguistic / grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociocultural competence, and strategic competence.Linguistic/Grammatical Discourse Sociocultural StrategicLinguistic competence refers to the ability to recognize the lexical, morphological, syntactic, and phonological features of a language, the sentence-level grammatical forms, and to make use of these features to interpret and form words and sentences.Discourse competence is concerned, in oral texts, with the ability to perform the turns in discourse, to maintain the conversation and to develop the topic; while in written context, theability to understand and interpret the relationships through formal devices and to create coherent written texts.Social-cultural competence refers to an ability to interact effectively with people of different social and cultural backgrounds. Socio-cultural competence comprises four components:1) Awareness of one's own socio-cultural world view;2) Attitude towards cultural differences;3) Knowledge of different social and cultural practices and worldviews;4) Cross-cultural skills. Developing cultural competence results in an ability to understand,communicate with, and effectively interact with people across culturesStrategic competence is defined as the ability to cope with authentic communicative situations and to keep the communicative channel open by using some cooperation, communicative and affective strategies.The key components of communicative competence, as identified by a number of researchers, could also be listed as: linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence and fluency (Hedge, 2002: 46-56).Linguistic Pragmatic Discourse Strategic Fluencycompetence competence competence competence Chomsky's view of linguistic competence, however, was not intended to inform pedagogy, but serve as part of developing a theory of the linguistic system itself, idealized as the abstract language knowledge of the monolingual adult native speaker, and distinct from how they happen to use and experience language.Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of four components:1) grammatical competence: words and rules2) sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness3) discourse competence: cohesion and coherence4) strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategiesCanale and Swain's definition has become canonical in applied linguistics.A more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom practice (e.g. Savignon, 1998). This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.2. Aims:Aims are descriptions of the overall purpose of a course (ie. the teaching intention and course intention), and are long-term and open-ended. The general aim of language teaching is to develop students’ communicative competence and language awareness is essential. Aims are often affected b y the following factors beyond the teacher’s control:--- community attitudes to learning English;--- educational policy within a state;--- importance of exams;--- time allotted to teaching foreign language (hours per week)--- place within curriculum (compulsory, optional, or taught only at certain level)--- students’ needs: why do they need English?--- students’ level: what level of English do they require?The following guidelines could be used in making aims more concrete:1. Indicate which observable activity or task the students can carry out when he has achieved theaims.2.Indicate the subject matter (learning content) with respect to which the students can carry outthe task described.3.Indicate the conditions under which the student can carry out the tasks described.4.Indicate the criteria for acceptable performance.3. Objectives:Objectives are descriptions of the steps a learner must take in order to achieve the aim. They are specific and realizable, even within one lesson. They are written in general terms (e.g. the objective is to relax the students), in terms of skills (e.g. to give students practice in extracting specific information from a text) and in terms of language ( e.g. to give students practice in the use of the past simple tense using regular and irregular verbs, questions and answers). The written objectives will be more or less specific depending on how specific the teacher’s aims are.Aims and objectives are closely related. If you want to achieve the aim, your objectives must be for the realization of it.However, defining foreign language teaching objectives is no easy matter, it entails at least: 1. specifying what students can do in the target language (behavioral specification) e.g. the students can read novels in the original, non-adapted versions; or the students can call the railway station for information about departure time.2. specifying the linguistic elements ( language forms) necessary to carry out the tasksspecified (linguistic specification). This could for instance include: providing phonetic/phonological information about the target language; compiling a vocabulary list; compiling a list of structure: etc.3. specifying the level of proficiency in listening, speaking, reading and writing.2.3 ImplementationActivity 1 When a syllabus is designed, which of the following aspects of the intended learner should be taken into account:a. the learner’s previous knowledgeb. the learner’s attitude and motivationc. the learner’s past experience of languag e learningd. the learner’s present mastery of the languagee. the learner’s goal of studyf. the gap between the learner’s present mastery of the language and his/her goalReference:Generally speaking, all of the above-mentioned aspects should be taken into account in designing a syllabus.Activity 2 The following is an excerpt from a textbook written on the basis of situational syllabus. Study the excerpt carefully and then try to describe the difference between the situational syllabus and the grammatical syllabus.Talking about WeatherWang: Oh, it is raining outside. Mark, the weather is quite different in different places. What is the weather in your hometown?Jones: It is very hot. The temperature is sometimes over 40C.Wang: Do you like the weather in Beijing?Jones: Well, I like Beijing in autumn and summer, but I don’t like it in spring.Wang: Why?Jones: It’s very windy and cold in spring.Wang: What about the weather in your wife’s hometown?Jones: It changes very quickly. A sunny day will probably become very rainy and cold.Wang: Really?Jones: One day last week, we went for walk in the country. When we started in the morning, the sky was blue and it was warm and sunny. There were no clouds at all. But at midday, a sudden rain came. There was a strong wind, too.Wang: Oh, that’s terrible. Did you bring any raincoats?Jones: No, we didn’t bring any raincoats or umbrellas. There were no houses nearby. We walked in the rain for about half an hour.Wang: Did you catch cold in the rain?Jones: Yes, I had a bad cold after that. So people sometimes say that you can have four seasons in one day.Reference:As for the situational syllabus, the fundamental principle for the organization of the contents is situation, instead of grammar items, although which will also appear in the syllabus. Situational syllabus attaches much importance to the context within which the theme and the linguistic topics are presented; more often than not there would be a list of useful situations which learners would encounter during the course. On the contrary, a grammatical syllabus is based on the structures of a language. Learners learn grammatical structures in a sequence that reflects their complexity, rather than their use in communication. And also learners are not usually exposed to more difficult structures than the ones they are learning. The whole purposes of the grammatical syllabus was to control input to the learner so that only one item was presented at a time.Activity 3 Match Column A with Column BColumn A Column BCognitive principles risk-takingmeaningful learning,the anticipation of reward,intrinsic motivationstrategic investment.Affective principles the native language effect,the language-culture connectioncommunicative competence.Linguistic principles language ego,self-confidence,automaticityinterlanguage.Reference:1.Cognitive principles include automaticity, meaningful learning, the anticipation of reward,intrinsic motivation and strategic investment.2.Affective principles includes language ego, self-confidence, risk-taking and thelanguage-culture connection.3.Linguistic principles includes the native language effect, interlanguage and communicativecompetence.2.4 Suggested A nswers to the “Questions and T asks”(Page 28-29)1. How do you understand the two approaches to language study, the structural and the functional? How do they respectively contribute to language teaching?As for these two approaches to language study, it is not the matter of right or wrong. Both of them are contributable to language. The structural approach mostly stresses the importance of all the aspects of language (i.e. word, phrase, clause, etc.) but it just considers language within language system itself and ignores the social aspects of language. The functional approach is concerned with language as instrumental of social interaction rather than as a system that is viewed in isolation, but it does not mean that it ignores the importance of the eight aspects of language, any kind of function is expressed by language items.2. Must we pay equal attention to all the eight aspects of language in teaching? Why or Why not?No, it is not necessary. The eight aspects of language are equally importance in terms of language itself, but it does not mean that we should pay equal attention to all of them in teaching. How much attention should be paid to the eight aspects in language depends on many factors such as the materials, the teaching objectives, the levels of learners, etc.3. How do you understand the last feature of language-“language and language learningboth have universal characteristics”?There are numerous kinds of languages in the world such as Chinese, English, Japanese, etc. and every kind of them has its own special features. However, according to Chomsky, there is a set of rules that are shared by all languages in the world. In other words, they share some universal characteristics. For example, they are mainly used for communications, for expressing personal ideas, feelings, etc. Thus accordingly, the ways of learning one language(i.e. Chinese) will be probably suitable to learning another language (i.e. English), though thelanguages themselves do differ from each other in many aspects.4. Of the 12 teaching principles specified by Brown, which do you think have been implemented in your teaching or/ and learning experience? Which should get more attention from you as a pre-service (or in-service) teacher？Why?Different language learners may have different experiences. According to my own experiences, among the 12 teaching principles, the anticipation of reward, self-confidence, the language-culture connection, the native language effect and communicative competence have been implemented in my teaching and learning, and the rest should be given more attention. For example, as a teacher, strategic investment should be paid more attention in teaching practices, that is, we should help learners become autonomous learners, letting them “invest” certain time, effort and attention in language learning according to their own situations.5. The aims and objectives of a certain course should be made clear to both the teacher and the student. Think of a course you like, say “Advanced Reading and Writing”, and specify the aims and objectives of the course in the position of a teacher.This is for open discussion.6. If you were asked to design a syllabus for a new English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) course, what are some of the first things you would do as preparation？If I were in such a situation, some of the first things I would do as preparation are as the follows: a. the objectives of the course; b. the situations of learners; c. the situations of teachers, and etc.7. Locate three different EFL textbooks. Study the introduction and a chapter or two in each. What are some of the obvious differences in the goals of each book? In other words, what does the author of each book intend for the student to learn through the use of the book? What kinds of activities does the author provide? After studying the books, get together with a friend who has also reviewed a few texts. Take turns showing the text materials and discuss the goals of each book.This is for open discussion.2.5 Technical TermsAutomaticity: the ability to use a language using automatic processing which refers to the performance of a task without conscious or deliberate processing.Curriculum: an educational programme which states (a) the educational purpose of the programme; (b) the content, teaching procedures and learning experience which will be necessary to achieve this purpose; (c) some means for assessing whether or not the educational ends have been achieved.Interlanguage: the type of language produced by second-and foreign-language learners who are in the process of learning a language and it differs form both the mother tongue and the target language.Language ego: (in SL or FL learning) the relation between people’s feelings of personal identity, individual uniqueness, and value (i.e. their ego) and aspects of their first language.Objective: a goal of a course of instruction. Two different types of objectives may be distinguished. General objectives, or aims, are the underlying reasons for or purposes of a course of instruction; specific objectives are descriptions of what is to be achieved in a course.Risk-taking: a personality factor which concerns the degree to which a person is willing toundertake actions that involve a significant degree of risk. It is said to be an important characteristic of successful SLL, since learners have to be willing to try out hunches about the new language and take the risk of being wrong.Syllabus design: the procedures for deciding what will be taught in a language programme. Syllabus: a description of the contents of a course of instruction and the order in which they are to be taught. Language-teaching syllabuses may be based on (a) grammatical items and vocabulary;(b) the language needed for different types of situations; (c) the meanings and communicative functions which the learner needs to express in the target language.2.6 Further readingBreen, M.P. (1987) “Contemporary paradigms in syllabus design” (Part I and II). Language Teaching (20.2): 81-92; (20.3):157-174.Brown, H.D. (2002) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.Crombie, W. (1985) Discourse and Language Learning: A Relational Approach to Syllabus Design. Oxford: Pergamon.Nunan, D. (1988) Syllabus Design. OUP.Widdowson, H. (1990) Aspects of Language Teaching. Oxford OUP.Wilkins, D. A. (1976) Notional Syllabuses. Oxford OUP.Willis, D. (1990)The Lexical Syllabus. London: Collins Cobuild ELT.Yalden, J. (1987) The Communicative Syllabus: Evolution, Design and Implementation. Prentice-Hall International (UK).。

Revision Contents:Unit 1 Language and Learning1. What are the major views of language? What are theirimplications to language teaching or learning?Structural View: It sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentence. Each language has a finite number of such structural items.To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language.Audiolingual approach: The teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed. The principal features of audiolingualism are an emphasis on structures in the language which can be learned as regular patterns of verbal behavior and the belief that learning is a process of habit formation.Functional View: It sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Most of our day-to- day language use involves functional activities: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. Therefore, learners learn a language in order to do things with it. To perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Communicative approaches are based on this view of language.Interactional View: It considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language, but also need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative context.Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are: Strategic interaction; communicative approaches.2. What are the major Views on language learning? What are their implications to language teaching?Behaviouralist theoryBased on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested language is also a form of behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of language learning is referred to as behaviouralism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in America.One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which involves endless “listen and repeat” drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of the world today.Cognitive theoryIt seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behavioural theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics.The key point of Chomsky’s theory is reflected in his most famous question: if language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others before.One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the Audio-Lingual Method.According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data. The basic technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task.Constructivist theory: Learning is a complex cognitive process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his or her own experiences and what he /she already knows.Implications for classroom teachingTeaching should be built based on what learners already know and engage learners in learning activities.It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rotate or recall what is learned.Teachers need to design activities to interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners.Teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learners’ interest and curiosity for learning.Socio-constructivist theory: It emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD) and scaffolding.Learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peers’ support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his / her skills and knowledge to the fullest potential.Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Activities1. The goal of CLT is to deve lop students’ communicative competence.2. What is communicative compentence? Try to list some of its components and their implication to teaching.Communicative compentence refers to both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations. According to Hedge, it includes five components.Linguistic competence --- knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaningPragmatic competence --- the appropriate use of language in social contextDiscourse competence --- one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them (ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse/ability to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation)Strategic competence --- strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resourcesFluency---- one’s ability to ‘link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or unduehesitationImplications for teaching and learning:Linguistic competenceTeachers need to help learners----achieve accuracy in the grammatical forms of the language;----pronounce the forms accurately;----use stress, rhythm, and intonation to express meaning;----build a range of vocabulary;----learn the script and spelling rules;----achieve accuracy in syntax and word formation.Pragmatic competenceTeachers need to help learners---learn the relationship between grammatical forms and functions;---use stress and intonation to express attitude and emotion;---learn the scale of formality;---understand and use emotive tone;---use the grammatical rules of language;---select language forms appropriate to topic, listener, or setting, etc.Discourse competenceTeachers need to help learners----take longer turns, use discourse markers and open and close conversations;----appreciate and be able to produce contextualised written textsin a variety of genres;----be able to use cohesive devices in reading and writing texts;----be able to cope with authentic texts.Strategic competenceTeachers need to enable learners----to take risks in using the language;----to use a range of communicative strategies;----to learn the language needed to engage in some of these strategies, e.g. ‘What do you call a thing that/person who…’FluencyTeachers need to help learners-----deal with the information gap of real discourse;-----process language and respond appropriately with a degree of ease;-----be able to respond with reasonable speed in ‘real time”.3. What is communicative language teaching?Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a replacement to Situational Language Teaching. This was partly in response to Chomsky's criticisms of structural theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional linguistics, as well as American sociolinguists.The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs.Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of communication. Students usually work with authentic materials in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.This method is learner-centered and emphasizes communication and real-life situations. The role of the instructor in CLT is quite different from traditional teaching methods. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is in charge and "controls" the learning. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning.4. Principles in communicative language teachingCommunication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learning supports the learning process.5. Strong version and week versionA weak version: Learners first acquire language as a structural system and then learn how to use it in communication.It regards overt teaching of language forms and functions as necessary means for helping learners to develop the ability to use them for communication.A strong version:Strong version: The strong version claims that ‘language is acquire through communication’. Learners discover the structural system in the process of learning how to communicate.It regards experiences of using the language as the main means or necessary conditions for learning a language as they provide the experience for learners to see how language is used in communication.5. List some of the communicative activities.1) Functional communicative activitiesIdentifying picturesDiscovering identical pairsDiscovering sequence or locationsDiscovering missing informationDiscovering missing featuresDiscovering “secrets”Communicating patterns and pictures Communicative modelsDiscovering differencesFollowing directionsReconstructing story-sequencesPooling information to solve a problem2) Social interaction activitiesRole-playing through cued dialoguesRole-playing through cues and information Role-playing through situation and goals Role-playing through debate and discussion Large-scale simulation activities improvisation6. Main features communicative activities7. The Task-based ApproachA task-based approach sees the language process as one of learning through doing. It stresses the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching.The task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for the learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purposes.Task -based Learning offers an alternative for language teachers.In a task-based lesson the teacher doesn't pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it.So it aims to provide learners with a natural context for language use．As learners work to complete a task，they have abundant opportunity to interact．Such interaction is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understand each other and to express their own meaning．By so doing，they have to check to see if they have comprehended correctly and，at times， they have to seek clarification．By interacting with others，they get to listen to language which may be beyond their present ability，but which may be assimilated into their knowledge of the target language for use at a later time．Task presented in the form of a problem-solving negotiation between knowledge that the learner holds and new knowledge7. What is a task?Any one of the following definitions is ok:A task is “a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child. In other words, by ‘task’ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play and in between”. -------- Long(1985)[A task is] an activity which require learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process. ------ Prabhu (1987)… a piece of classroom work which involve learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than on form. ----Nunan(1989)Tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.”A task is an activity in which students use the target language to do something, usually with a non-linguistic purpose.8. A task is believed to have four components: a purpose, a context,a process, and a product.9. What is PPP model?In this model, a language classroom consists of three stages: Presentation of new language item in a context---controlled practice (drilling, repetition, dialogue reading, etc)---production of the language in a meaningful way (a role-play, a drama, an interview, etc.)10. A task-based language classroom consists of three stages. They are pre-task stage, the stage of task cycle, and the stage of language focus.Unit 31. The overall language ability required in the 2001 National English Curriculum includes the following aspects language knowledge, language skills, learning strategies, affects and cultural understanding.2. What is a syllabus?A syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.3. What is curriculum?A curriculum, however, provides (1) general statements about the rationale about language, language learning and language teaching, (2) detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose, and (3) implementations of a program. In some sense, a syllabus is part of a curriculum.Syllabus is often used to refer to something similar to a language teaching approach, whereas curriculum refers to a specific document of a language program developed for a particular country or region.4. Designing principles for the National English Curriculum1) Aim for educating all students, and emphasize quality-oriented education.The English curriculum aims education for all students and stresses quality-oriented education. The new standards particularly show concerns over students’ affective needs as well as other learning needs in order to stimulate their interests in learning, help them experience the sense of success, and gain self-confidence in learning. Its overall objectiveis to develop students’ comprehensive abilities in using the language and to improve their cultural quality, to develop their practical skills, as well as to cultivate their creative spirit.2) Promote learner-centeredness, and respect individual differences.Students’ overall development is the motivation and goal of the English curriculum. Therefore, its objective, the teaching process, the assessment procedures as well as the development of teaching resources should all reflect the principle of learner-centered approach. Classroomteaching should become a process during which students are guided by the teachers in constructing knowledge, developing skills, being active in thinking, demonstrating personal characters, developing intelligence and broadening their views and visions. Teaching should take full consideration of students’ individual differences in learning process and their learning styles and teaching should be flexible in using teaching methods, resources and ways of assessment so as to make teaching beneficial to all kinds of students.3. Develop competence-based objectives, and allow flexibility and adaptability.The overall aim of the curriculum or nine-year compulsory education is to develop students’ c omprehensive abilities in language use. Such abilities are grounded in the development of language skills, language knowledge, affects, cultural awareness and learning strategies. The English curriculum for nine-year compulsory education together with the related senior high school English curriculum divide the English teaching objectives into nine levels. Each level is described in terms of what students can do with the language. It is thus designed toreflect the progressive nature of students’ language d evelopment during the process of school education so as to ensure the integrity,flexibility and openness of the curriculum.4) Pay close attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning and participation.Modern foreign language teaching emphasizes the learning process and advocates the use of different teaching approaches and methods for the purpose of facilitating students’ language development.During the process of learning English in nine-year compulsory education, students should be encouraged to discover rules of the language, master gradually language knowledge and skills, constantly monitor the affective demands, develop effective learning strategies and autonomous learning abilities by means of experiencing, practicing,pa rticipating, exploring and cooperating under the teacher’s guidance.5. Attach particular importance to formative assessment, and give special attention to the development of competence.The assessment for the nine-year compulsory education should begea red to stimulating students’ interests and cultivating their autonomy in learning. The system should include both formative and summative assessment with formative assessment playing a primary role, paying special attention to students’ language performanc e and achievements during the learning process.Assessment should be made facilitative to developing students’ interests and self-confidence in learning. Summative assessment should focus on assessing students’ overall language ability and the ability to use the language. Assessment should function positively for students to develop language abilities and healthy personalities; for teachers to improve their teaching qualities and for the development and improvement of the English curriculum.6. Optimize learning resources, and maximize opportunities for learning and using the language.English curriculum requires that teachers should properly utilize and develop teaching resources so as to provide rich and healthy resources that are practical, lively, up dated for students’ learning.Teachers should make full use of various resources such as videos, television programs, books, magazines and the Internet so as to expand the opportunities for students to learn and use the language. Also teachers should encourage students to take part in exploring andutilizing resources for learning.Unit 4. Lesson Planning1. What is lesson planning?Lesson planning means making decisions in advance about what aimsto be achieved, materials to be covered, activities to be organized, and techniques, resources to be used in order to achieve the aims of the lesson.2. Principles for good lesson planning include: Aim, Variety, Flexibility, Learnability and Linkage3. Lesson planning at two levels:Macro planning: planning over a longer period of time (programme planning / whole course planning---one semester planning---half a semester planning)Micro planning: planning for a specific unit or a lesson (40 or 50 minutes)4. Components of a lesson planBackground information: number of students/ ages/ grade/ genders/ the time and the date of the lesson/ the time duration of the lessonTeaching objectives: What do you want students to know and be able to do?Language contents and skills: structures, vocabulary, functions, topics and so on; listening, speaking, reading and writing.Teaching stages and procedure: the major chunks of activities that teachers go through in a lesson. Procedures are the detailed steps in each teaching stage.1) Five-step teaching model(1) warm-up/ a tarter/revision;(2) presentation(3) drilling(4) consolidation(5) summary and homework2) The three P’s model: presentation, practice, and productionTeaching aids: real objects/ flashcards/ wordcards/ worksheets/ wallcharts/ cassette tapes/ magazine pictures/ video, Multi-media, etc.End of lesson summary: Purposes of making a summary is to take learning further and deeper by helping the students to refer back to the learning objectives; To create a sense of achievement and completion of tasks for the students. To develop with students a habit of reflectionon learning; stimulate interest, curiosity and anticipation about the next phase of learning; help students draw out applications of what has been learned and highlight the important conceptions which have developed.Homework assignmentOptional activitiesAfter class reflection:Teachers are encouraged to keep a brief account of what happened in the lesson: feelings about the lesson, students’ performances, unexpected incidents, surprises, things that went well, things that went wrong and things to be improved and things to be given more attention in the next lesson.Unit 5 Classroom Management1. What is classroom management?Classroom Management refers to the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom.2. Types of student grouping and their advantages and disadvantagesIn language classroom can be grouped in four different ways. They are whole-class work (lockstep), pair work, group work and individual study.1) whole-class work (lockstep)Lockstep refers to the time when all the students are under the control of the teacher. They are all doing the same activity at the same rhythm and pace. Lockstep is adopted when presenting new language, give explanations, check answers, do accuracy-based reproduction, or summarize learning.Advantages:It reinforces a sense of belonging among a group of members. When students are doing the same activity together, everyone feels being together with others.It is good for teachers to give instruction and explanation together and it is an ideal way to show materials and do presentations together.Disadvantages:Everyone is forced to do the same thing at the same time and at the same pace. Individuality is not favored in this sense.Not everyone has the opportunity to express what they want.Some students feel nervous and anxious when they are asked to present in front of the class.It favors the transmission of knowledge from teacher to students rather than students discovering things by themselves.It is not a good way to enhance real communication. Students cannot communicate with each other in this sense.2) pair work: the time when students work in pairs on an exercise or task. It could be a dialogue reading, a game or an information-gap task between two students.Advantages:It dramatically increases students’speaking time in each class.It allows students to work together rather than under theteacher’s guidance.It allows teacher’s time to wor k with the week pair while others are working on their own.It can promote cooperation between students.It can create a more relaxed and friendly context for students to learn.It is relatively quick and easy to organize.DisadvantagesIt is often very noisy and teachers are afraid of losing control of the class.Some students may talk in native language or something not related to the topic. It is not very easy for teachers to monitor every pair.Some students may not like to work with the peers, and they think they can only learn from the teacher. So they refuse to participate in the activities.The choice of a pair is also a problem. Some students don’t liketo work with particular partner while someone may dominate all the time.3) group work: Group work refers to the time when students work in small groups.Advantages:Like pair work, it dramatically increases the amount of talk of individual students.There is always a great chance of different opinions and contributions to the work.It also encourages cooperation and negotiation skills among students.It promotes learner autonomy by allowing students to make their own decision rather than follow the teachers.DisadvantagesLike pair work, it is likely to make the classroom very noisy and some teachers feel very uncomfortable with the noise.Not everyone enjoys the work since many of them prefer to work with teachers rather than peers.Some students may dominate the talk while others may be very passive or even quiet all the time.It is difficult for teacher to organize. It may take a longer time for teachers to group students and there may be not enough space for students to move around in classroom.Some groups may finish the task fast while some may be very slow. So teachers need to prepare the optional activities for the quick group and be ready to help the slower ones all the time.4) individual study: Individual study is the stage where the students are left to work on their own and at their own speed.Advantages:It allows students free time, style and pace to study on their own.It is less stressful compared with whole class work.It can develop learner autonomy and form good learning habits.It can create some peaceful and quiet time in class.Disadvantages：It does not help a class to develop a sense of belonging. Students learn by themselves and it does not promote team spirit. It may not be very motivating for students. It does not benefit communication between students. Students cannot develop speaking abilityin this sense. Teachers need to prepare different tasks for differentstudents.3. The role of the teacher ---- contoller, assessor, organizer, prompter, participant, resource provider4. The new curriculum requires the teacher to put on the following new roles: facilitator, guides, and researchers.5. What are the functions or purposes of questions?To focus students’ attentionsTo invite thinking or imaginationsTo check understandingTo stimulate recall of informationTo challenge studentsTo assess learning6. Classification of questionsQuestions have been classified using different criteria, mainly based on the level of thinking involved in answering thequestions.Closed v.s open--- Closed questions refer to those with only one single correct answer while open questions may invite many different answers.Display v.s genuine--- Display questions are those that the answers are already known to the teacher and they are used in checking if students know the answers, too. Genuine questions are those which are used to find out new information and more communicative.Lower-ordered v.s high-ordered--- Lower-ordered questions refer to those that simply require recalling of information or memorisation of facts while higher-ordered questions require more reasoning, analysis, and evaluation.7. How to deal with errors?The distinction between mistakes and errors:。

Revision Contents:Unit 1 Language and Learning1. What are the major views of language? What are their implications to language teaching or learning?Structural View: It sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem:from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentence. Each language has a finite number of such structural items.To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language.Audiolingual approach: The teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening beforereading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed. Theprincipal features of audiolingualism are an emphasis on structures in the language whichcan be learned as regular patterns of verbal behavior and the belief that learning is a process of habit formation.Functional View: It sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doingthings. Most of our day-to- day language use involves functional activities: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. Therefore, learners learn a language in order to dothings with it. To perform functions, learners need to know how to combine thegrammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Communicative approaches are based on this view of language.Interactional View: It considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is tobuild up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only needto know the grammar and vocabulary of the language, but also need to know the rules forusing them in a whole range of communicative context.Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are: Strategic interaction; communicative approaches.2. What are the major Views on language learning? What are their implications to language teaching?Behaviouralist theoryBased on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested language is also a form of behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli.This theory of language learning is referred to as behaviouralism, which was adopted forsome time by the language teaching profession, particularly in America.One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which involves endless “listen and repeat” drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constantrepetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, andcorrect utterances were immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of theworld today.Cognitive theoryIt seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behavioural theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics.The key point of Chomsky’s theory is reflected in his most famous question: if language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never beensaid by others before.One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentencesbased on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the Audio-Lingual Method.According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in which the learner activelytries to make sense of data. The basic technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task.Constructivist theory: Learning is a complex cognitive process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his or her own experiences and what he /she already knows.Implications for classroom teachingTeaching should be built based on what learners already know and engage learnersin learning activities.It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rotate or recallwhat is learned.Teachers need to design activities to interact with learners to foster inventive, creative,critical learners.Teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learners’ interest and curiosity for learning.Socio-constructivist theory: It emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD) and scaffolding.Learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher andthe learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peers’ support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his / her skills and knowledge to the fullest potential.Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Activities1. The goal of CLT is to develop students’communicative competence.2.What is communicative compentence? Try to list some of its components and theirimplication to teaching.Communicative compentence refers to both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations. According to Hedge, it includes five components.Linguistic competence --- knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaningPragmatic competence --- the appropriate use of language in social contextDiscourse competence --- one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation andthe ability to understand them (ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse /ability to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation) Strategic competence--- strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resourcesFluency---- one’s ability to ‘link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitationImplications for teaching and learning:Linguistic competenceTeachers need to help learners----achieve accuracy in the grammatical forms of the language;----pronounce the forms accurately;----use stress, rhythm, and intonation to express meaning;----build a range of vocabulary;----learn the script and spelling rules;----achieve accuracy in syntax and word formation.Pragmatic competenceTeachers need to help learners---learn the relationship between grammatical forms and functions;---use stress and intonation to express attitude and emotion;---learn the scale of formality;---understand and use emotive tone;---use the grammatical rules of language;---select language forms appropriate to topic, listener, or setting, etc.Discourse competenceTeachers need to help learners----take longer turns, use discourse markers and open and close conversations;----appreciate and be able to produce contextualised written texts in a variety of genres;----be able to use cohesive devices in reading and writing texts;----be able to cope with authentic texts.Strategic competenceTeachers need to enable learners----to take risks in using the language;----to use a range of communicative strategies;----to learn the language needed to engage in some of these strategies, e.g. ‘What do you call a thing that/person who…’FluencyTeachers need to help learners-----deal with the information gap of real discourse;-----process language and respond appropriately with a degree of ease;-----be able to respond with reasonable speed in ‘real time”.3.What is communicative language teaching?Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a replacement to。

英语教学综合专硕考研王蔷《英语教学法教程》考研复习笔记一、语言和语言学习复习笔记要点：1. The way we learn languages我们习得语言的方式2. Views on language语言观点3. The structural view of language结构主义语言理论4. The functional view of language功能主义语言理论5. The interactional view of language交互语言理论6. Common views on language learning关于语言学习的普遍观点7. Process-oriented theories and condition-oriented theories强调过程的语言学习理论和强调条件的语言学习理论8. The behaviorist theory行为主义学习理论9. Cognitive theory认知学习理论10. Constructivist theory建构主义学习理论11. Socio-constructivist theory社会建构主义理论12. Qualities of a good language teacher一个好的语言老师必备的素养13. Teacher’s professional development教师专业技能发展本章考点：我们如何习得语言；结构主义语言理论；功能主义语言理论；交互语言理论；关于语言学习的普遍观点；强调过程的语言学习理论和强调条件的语言学习理论；行为主义学习理论；认知学习理论；建构主义学习理论；社会建构主义理论；成为一个好的语言老师所要具备的基本素质；教师专业技能发展图。

本章内容索引：Ⅰ. The way we learn languagesⅡ. Views on language1. The structural view of language2. The functional view of language3. The interactional view of languageⅢ. Views on language learning and learning in general1. Research on language learning2. Common views on language learning and learning in general（1）Behaviorist theory（2）Cognitive theory（3）Constructivist theory（4）Socio-constructivist theoryⅣ. Qualities of a good language teacherⅤ. Development of a good language teacherⅥ. An overview of the bookThis chapter serves as an introduction for setting the scene for this methodology course. It discusses issues concerning views on language and language learning or learning in general with the belief that such views will affect teachers’ways of teaching and thus learners’ways of learning. The qualities of a good language teacher are also discussed in order to raise the participants’awareness of what is required for a good English teacher.这一章主要是介绍教学法的方法论，其中讨论的问题涉及语言和语言学习的观点，或者一般学习及这些观点对教师教学方式和学习者学习方式的影响，本章也讨论了一个好的英语教师应具备的素质，以提高语言教学参与者对优秀英语教师相关要求的意识。

Term 专业名词（中英文）acculturation 文化移入action research 行动研究affect 情感ambiguity 模糊性approach 方法behavioral psychology 行为心理学cognitive psychology 认知心理学communicative competence 交际能力communicative language teaching 交际语言教学constructivism 建构主义content-based instruction 基于内容的教学conversation analysis 话语分析cooperative learning 协作学习deductive learning 演绎式学习design 教学设计discourse 语篇discourse competence 语篇能力drill 反复操练elicit 诱导error 偏误extrinsic motivation 外在型动机first language 第一语言或母语flooding 泛滥法fluency-first instruction 流利度教学foreign language 外语form-focused instruction 形式训练fossilization 僵化freewriting 自由式写作generative linguistics 生成语言学或转换生成语言学gist 主旨grammatical competence 语法能力hedge 推诿illocutionary force/act 言外行为impulsive learner 冲动型学习者incidental feedback 偶然型反馈inductive learning 归纳式学习informed approaches “万能式”交际学习法interference 干扰interlingual transfer 语际迁移intralingual transfer 语内迁移intrinsic motivation 内在型动机L1 第一语言或母语L2 第二语言language ego 语言自我language function 语言功能learning strategy 学习策略learning style 学习方式metalinguistic feedback 显性反馈method 方式方法motivation 动机Natural Approach, The 自然教学法noticing 目标转移overgeneralization 过度概括paralinguistic features 副语言特征pattern practice 句型操练politeness 礼貌原则pragmalinguistic competence 语用能力pragmatics 语用学proficiency 水平或能力recast 重铸，又称隐性反馈reflective learner 思考型学习者reflective style 思考型register 语域repair 修正response 反应role-play 角色扮演school of thought 学派second language 第二语言second language acquisition (SLA) 第二语言习得、简称二语习得slip 失误sociolinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistic competence 社会语言能力sociopragmatic competence 社会语用能力stimulus 刺激strategic competence 策略能力structural linguistics 结构式语言学sustained content 持久性内容syllabus 教学计划syntax 句法target language 目标语言task-based instruction 任务型教学theme-based instruction 主题式教学Total Physical Response (TPR) 直接式沟通教学法或完全生理反应理论variability 变异性whole language 整体语言教学法Explanation 英文释义the process of adapting to a different cultureteacher-initiated classroom research focusing on a specific classroom issue(n.) emotion or feeling; (affective, adj.)a situation in which the intended meaning is not clear(n.) beliefs about the nature of language and language learning based on well-known theories(n.) a branch of psychology that focuses on observable actions, particularly stimulus-response methodsa branch of psychology that focuses on human perception and learning, in contrast with behavioral psychology which focuses on observable behaviorthe ability to communicate in a second or foreign language, requiring knowledge of social, cultural, and pragmatic rulesan approach that emphasizes interaction as both a means and the goal of learning a new languagea school of thought which integrates psychological and linguistic principles and emphasizes social interaction and the discovery, or construction, of meaningwhen a subject, such as math or history, is taught in a second language or when texts from such content areas are used for learning a second languagestudying the ways people participate in conversations and how conversation works in different settingsa learning process in which learners work togetherlearning that starts with learning language rules such as grammar, before practicing those rules(n.) the organizing principle that reflects learning theories, teaching objectives, teacher and student roles, textbooks, and materialslanguage used in particular kinds of speech and writingthe ability to connect longer sentences coherently and to produce long pieces of talk or writing(n.) a technique for practicing language, involving guided repetition to ask careful questions in order to get students to give a specific answer; (elicitation, n.)a mistake learners make when trying to say or write something above their level of languagemotivation that does not come from the learnerthe language used at home, usually in the country or region where that language is spoken; also know as the mother tongue or native languagemultiple exposures to the same language form (such as the simple past tense) within a textan approach to teaching that stresses speakinga language learned in an environment where a different language is spokenexplicit or implicit teaching which is designed to draw students' attention to formwhen the student does not show signs of progress and continues to make the same mistakesa writing activity where the focus is on flow of ideas without concern for language accuracy(n.) a school of thought that views language as a set of fixed rules that can be used to create an unlimited number of sentencesthe main idea or meaning of a written or spoken textthe ability to use the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of a languageavoiding directness in communication in an attempt to lessen a negative effectthe speaker's intended meaninga learner who has the tendency to respond quickly, responses sometimes involve risk-taking or guessingunplanned, on-the-spot feedback and correction of errorsusing known facts or patterns to form a general rulelanguage learning approaches based on the belief that all communication supports second language acquisitionmaking mistakes in the language being learned by using the same grammatical pattern from the first languagewhen a language learner applies a rule from the first language to the second language, first language interferencewhen a learner applies a rule to all situation such as putting -ed at the end of all verbs to for the simple pastself-motivationthe first language, also know as the mother tongue or native languagethe second or additional language that one learnsthe identity people develop in reference to the language they speak the reason or purpose for saying somethinga technique a learner consciously uses when learning or using languagethe way an individual learner naturally prefers to learnteacher comments or questions used to prompt the students to self-correcta systematic plan based on a set of principles used in presenting material for instructiondesire to learn or do somethinga language teaching method based on principles of first language acquisitionbringing a student's focused attention to something such as a grammar or pronunciation pointwhen a learner applies a rule to all situationsnon-word-based communication, such as intonation or stressan exercise based on practicing the same pattern; a drillan area of pragmatics that focuses on expressing in a manner that are correct for the social situationthe appropriate use of grammatical structures to respond to a speakerthe study of how meaning is expressed and understood in interactionsa student's general ability to use a language(v.) when a teacher says an ill-formed or incomplete sentence correctlya learner who tends to think carefully before responding, making a decision, or solving a problemthe tendency to think carefully before making a decision or solving a problemthe level of formality in speaking or writingany one of a number of strategies to keep a conversation going after communication has broken down, for example, because of a misunderstandingin psychology, any behavior that is caused by a stimulus(n) a classroom activity in which students act out roles in a given situationa way of thinking that is based on a particular theorya language one learns other than one's first, or native, language: target languagea collection of theories and principles about how foreign languages are learned(n.) a language mistake that students can correct on their owna school of thought that focuses on the relationship between language and culturethe ability to use and respond to language appropriately with specific topics, people, and situationsthe culturally appropriate use of the social rules of languagein psychology, an agent that directly causes a behavior; stimuli, pl.the ability to accomplish something, such as a request, through languagea school of thought popular in the 1940s and 1950s that focused on structural characteristics of human languagewhen students study the same subject matter throughout the coursea plan that shows students what they will be studying in a particular course or subjectthe way words are arranged to form sentences or phrasesthe language that is being learnedan approach in which the focus is on the completion of meaningful tasks rather than on the languagewhen students study different themes or topics throughout a course a way of teaching in which the teacher presents language items as instructions and the students have to do exactly what the teacher tells themchange in language use at different times and in different situationsa teaching approach without explicit focus on language rules or formsChinese Explanation 中文释义适应另一种文化的过程。