化学家的故事——约翰·道尔顿约翰·道尔顿(John Doton)是英国化学家、物理学家。
他于1766年9⽉6⽇出⽣在英格兰北部的伊格尔菲尔德。
⽗亲是兼种⼀点薄地的织布⼯⼈，家庭经济状况相当拮据，6岁起，道尔顿在村⾥教会办的⼩学读书。
在学习中他有⼀种坚忍不拔的精神，遇到难题⾮把他解出来不可，经常是同学们都放学回家了，他还在教室⾥埋头解题。
刚读完⼩学，他因家境困难便辍学了。
12岁时，他办起私塾教书，并⼲些农活以帮助家庭渡过难关，空闲时间则坚持⾃学。
他酷爱读书，勤奋好学的精神感动了对⽓象和仪器制造颇有研究的亲戚鲁宾逊，鲁宾逊利⽤晚上的时间教他学数学、物理，并指导她观测⽓象。
15岁时，他离家来到附近的肯达尔镇，在他表兄任校长的⼀个教会学校⾥任助理教师。
他⼀边⼯作⼀边读书，努⼒⾃学拉丁⽂、希腊⽂、数学及⾃然科学知识。
在这所学校⾥的12年任教⽣涯，为他⼀⽣坚持⾛边教课、边⾃学、边科研、边写作的道路打下了良好的基础。
在可达尔镇上有位名叫约翰·豪夫的盲⼈学者，他凭着坚强的毅⼒和出众的才智，掌握了数学、天⽂、医学、植物学等⽅⾯的⼤量知识，并精通拉丁⽂、希腊⽂和法⽂。
道尔顿对他⾮常崇拜，主动登门拜师，向他学习各⽅⾯的知识，并在他的指导下收集各种标本，进⾏⽓象纪录。
从21岁起，道尔顿开始写⽓象⽇记，整整57年，全部记录超过20万款⽬。
⽓象学研究在18世纪后期还较为薄弱，很少有⼈在这⽅⾯下功夫。
1793年到尔顿总结了⾃⼰的研究成果，出版了第⼀部科学著作《⽓象观测论⽂集》，引起了科学界的关注。
1793年，经豪富推荐，加上⾃⼰已经有⼀定的名⽓，道尔顿来到曼切斯特，受聘于⼀所专科学校，讲授数学课和物理课，后来⼜开设了化学科。
为了教好者们⾃⼰原不熟悉的课程，他坚持⾃学，系统地掌握了化学知识，这对他以后⾛上化学科研的道路并取得重⼤成就起了重要作⽤。
曼切斯特是18世纪英国的纺织业中⼼，交通便利，⽂化发达。
修辞格解释及例子1. alliterationDefinition: the repetition of the same sounds or of the same kinds of sounds at the beginning of words or in stressed syllables of an English language phrase.Examples: "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the c olor of their skin but by the c ontent of their c haracter". -Martin Luther King, Jr."We, the people, declare today that the most evident of truths — that all of us are created equal —is the s tar that guides us s till; just as it guided our forebears through S eneca Falls, and S elma, and S tonewall; just as it guided all those men and women, s ung and un s ung, who left footprints along this great Mall, to hear a preacher say that we cannot walk alone; to hear a King proclaim that our individual freedom is inextricably bound to the freedom of every soul on Earth". -Barack Obama2. assonanceDefinition: The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds in neighboring words to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences, and together with alliteration and consonance serves as one of the building blocks of verse.Examples:"Soft language issued from their spitless lips as they swished in low circles round and round the field, winding hither and thither through the weeds, dragging their long tails amid the rattling canisters."(James Joyce, Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, 1916)"The spider skins lie on their sides, translucent and ragged,their legs drying in knots."(Annie Dillard, Holy the Firm, 1977)3. consonanceDefinition:Broadly, the repetition of consonant sounds; more specifically, the repetition of the final consonant sounds of accented syllables or important words.Examples:‘T was later when the summer wentThan when the cricket came,And yet we knew that gentle clockMeant nought but going home.‘T w as sooner when the cricket wentThan when the winter came,Yet that pathetic pendulumKeeps esoteric time.(Emily Dickinson, "‘T was later when the summer went")4. onomatopoeiaDefinition:Onomatopoeia is defined as a word, which imitates the natural sounds of a thing, which itdescribes. It creates a sound effect that makes the thing described, making the idea more expressive and interesting.Examples:The buzzing bee flew away.The sack fell into the river with a splash.The books fell on the table with a loud thump.He looked at the roaring sky.The rustling leaves kept me awake.a group of words reflecting different sounds of water are; bloop, splash, gush, sprinkle, drizzle, drip etc.Similarly, words like growl, giggle, grunt, murmur, blurt, chatter etc. denote different kinds of human voices.Moreover, we can identify a group of words related to different sounds of wind, such as; swish, swoosh, whiff, whoosh, whizz, whisper etc.5. simileDefinition: A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two different things. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of words ―like‖ or ―as‖. Therefore, it is direct comparison.Examples:1. Written by Joseph Conrad,―I would have given anything for the power to soothe her frail soul, tormenting itself in its invincible ignorance like a small bird beating about the cr u el wires of a cage.‖2. In her novel ―To the Lighthouse‖, Virginia Woolf compares the velocity of her thoughts about the two men with that of spoken words.―. . . impressions poured in upon her of those two men, and to follow her thought was like followin g a voice which speaks too quickly to be taken down by one‘s pencil . . .‖3. Robert Burns uses a simile to describe beauty of his beloved.―O my Luve‘s like a red, red roseThat‘s newly sprung in June;O my Luve‘s like the melodieThat‘s sweetly played in tune.‖6. metaphorDefinition:Metaphor is a figure of speech makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things or objectsthat are poles apart from each other but have some characteristics common between them. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made on a single or some common characteristics.Examples:1. ―She is all states, and all princes, I.‖John Donne , a metaphysical poet, was well-known for his abundant use of metaphorsthroughout his poetical works. In his well-known work ―The Sun Rising,‖ the speaker scolds the sun for waking him and his beloved. Among the most evocative metaphors in literature, he explains ―she is all states, and all princes, I.‖ This line demonstrates the speaker‘s belief that he and his beloved are richer than all states, kingdoms, and rulers in the entire world because of the love that they share.2. ―Shall I Compare Thee to a summer‘s Day‖,William Shakespeare was the best exponent of the use of metaphors. His poetical works and dramas all make wide-ranging use of metaphors.―Sonnet 18,‖also known as ―Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer‘s Day,‖ is an extended metaphor between the love of the speaker and the fairness of the summer season. He writes that ―thy eternal summer,‖ here taken to mean the love of the subject, ―shall not fade.‖3. ―Before high-pil‘d books, in charact‘ry / Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain,‖The great Romantic poet John Keats suffered great losses in his life – the death of his father in an accident, and of his mother and brother with the tuberculosis.When he began displaying signs of tuberculosis himself atthe age of 22, he wrote ―When I Have Fears,‖ a poem rich with metaphors concerning life and death. In the line ―before high-pil‘d books, in charact‘ry / Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain‖, he employs a double-metaphor. Writing poetry is implicitly compared with reaping and sowing, and both these acts represent the emptiness of a life unfulfilled creatively.7. metonymyDefinition:It is a figure of speech that takes the place of the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associatedExamples:England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to the government.)The suits were at meeting. (The suits stand for businesspersons.)Pen is mightier than sword. (Pen refers to written words and sword to military force.)The Oval Office was busy in work. (―The Oval Office‖ is metonymy as it stands for people at work in the office.) Let me give you a hand. (Hand means help.)1. The given lines are from Shakespeare‘s ―Julies Caesar‖ A ct I.―Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.‖Mark Anthony uses ―ears‖ to say that he wants the people present there to listen to him attentively. It is metonymy because the word ―ears‖ replaces the concept of attention.2. This line is from Marg aret Mitchell‘s novel ―Gone with the Wind‖.―I‘m mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it secedes or it would have ruined the Christmas parties.‖Scarlett uses ―Georgia‖ to point out everything that makes up the state: citizens, politician, government etc. It is a metonymy extremely common in the modern world, where a name of a country or state refers to a whole nation and its government. Thus, it renders brevity to the ideas.3. These lines are taken from ―Out, Out‖ by Robert Frost.―As he swung toward them holding up the handHalf in appeal, but half as if to keepThe life from spilling‖In these lines, the expression ―The life from spilling‖ is a metonymy that refers to spilling of blood. It develops a link between life and blood. The loss of too much blood means loss of life.4. These lines are from the poem ―Yet Do I Marvel‖.―The little buried mole continues blind,Why flesh that mirror Him must someday die,‖Countee Cullen uses ―flesh‖ to represent human and questions God why we have t o die when we are created in His likeness.8.synaesthesiaDefinition:a technique adopted by writers to present ideas, characters or places in such a manner that they appeal to more than one senses like hearing, seeing, smell etc. at the same. Examples:1. Dante makes use of synesthesia in his poem ―The Devine Comedy‖. In the first canto, the poet tells us about ―Inferno‖ where he was sent. He says, ―Back to the reg ion where the sun is silent.‖ Here, poet binds the sense of sight with the sense of hearing. By using the phrase ―the sun is silent‖, he declares that the sun is there but it does not provide any warmth or comfort.This description gives us an idea that the place he is driven to is dreadfully frightening.2. We notice synesthetic imageries in Jo hn Keats ―Ode to a Nightingale‖:―Tasting of Flora and the country green,Dance, and Provencal song, and sun burnt mirth!‖In the above, Keats associates visual sensations with the sense of taste. In the same poem, he further states:―In some melodious plot,Of beechen green,Singest of summer in full throated ease.‖Keats associates the act of melodious singing with a plot covered with green beechen trees and thus associates visuals with the sense of hearing.3. We see Shakespeare employing synesthetic device in play ―King Lear‖ Act 2, Scene 2:―Thou art a lady: if only to go warm were gorgeous,Why nature needs not what thou gorgeous wear‘st,Which scarcely keeps th ee warm.‖In the above extract, L ear makes fun of his daughter ―Goneril‖ for wearing revealing attire. He associates the word ―warm‖ with ―gorgeous‖ which is an attempt to blend the sense of touch with the sense of sight.9. antonomasiaDefinition:a substitution of any epithet or phrase for a proper name, such as "the little corporal" for Napoleon I. The reverse process is also sometimes called antonomasia.Examples:（1）biblical or mythological figuresSolomon—a wise manDaniel—a wise and fair judgeJudas—a traitorHercules—a hero of strength and bravery（2）historical figuresthe Rubicon--an irrevocable stepNero—a tyrantJohn Wayne—a modern figure of a tough man（3）literary figuresUncle T om—a Negro who compromises and conforms with the Whites10. synecdocheDefinition:a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole or it may use a whole to represent a part. Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material, it is made of or it may refer to a thing in a container or packing by the name of that container or packing.Examples:1. Coleridge employs synecdoche in his poem ―The Rime of the Ancient Mariner‖:―The western wave was all a-flame.The day was well was nigh done!Almost upon the western waveRested the broad bright Sun‖Th e ―western wave‖ is a synecdoche as it refers to the see by the name of its part i.e. wave.2. Look at the use of synecdoche in the lines taken from Shakespeare‘s Sonnet 116:―O no! It is an ever-fixed markThat looks on tempests and is never shaken.‖The phrase ―ever-fixed mark‖ refers to a lighthouse.3. Look how Shelly uses synecdoche in his poem ―Ozymandias‖:―Tell that its sculptor well those passions readWhich yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,The hand that mocked them.‖―The hand‖ in the above lines refers to the sculptor who carved the ―lifeless things‖ into a grand statue.4. Observe the use of synecdoche in the following lines from ―The Secret Sharer‖ by Jo seph Conrad:―At midnight I went on deck, and to my mate‘s great surprise put t he ship round on the other tack. His terrible whiskers flitted round me in silent criticism.‖The word ―whiskers‖ mentioned in the above lines refers to the whole face of the n arrator‘s mate.5. Jonathon Swift in ―The description of the Morning‖ uses synec doche:―Prepar‘d to scrub the entry and the stairs.The youth with broomy stumps began to trace.‖In the above lines the phrase ―broomy stumps‖ refers to the whole broom.6. N ote the use of synecdoche in ―The Lady or the Tiger?‖ by Frank R. Stockton:―His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious faces about her.‖―Faces‖ refers to the whole persons.11. personificationDefinition:a figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or ananimal is given human attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings.Examples:1. Taken from L. M. Montgomery‘s ―The Green Gables Letters‖,―I hied me away to the woods—away back into the sun-washed alleys carpeted with fallen gold and glades where the moss is green and vivid yet. The woods are getting ready to sleep—they are not yet asleep but they are disrobing and are having all sorts of little bed-time conferences and whisperings and good-nights.‖The lack of activity in the forest has been beautifully personified as forest getting ready to sleep, busy in bed-time chatting and wishing good-nights, all of which relate typically to human customs.2. Taken from Act I, Scene II of ― Romeo and Juliet‖,―When we ll-appareled April on the heelOf limping winter treads.‖April cannot put on a dress, and winter does not limp and it does not have heel on which a month can walk. Shakespeare personifies month of April and winter season by giving them two distinct human qualities.3. A.H. Houseman in his poem ―Loveliest of Trees the Cherry Now‖ personifies the cherry tree,―Loveliest of trees, the cherry nowIs hung with bloom along the bough,And stands about the woodland rideWearing white for Eastertide.‖He sees a cherry tree covered with beautiful white flowers inthe forest and says that cherry tree wears white clothes to celebrate Easter. He gives human attributes to a tree in order to describe it in human terms.12. apostropheDefinition:a figure of speech someti me represented by exclamation ―O‖. A writer or a speaker, using an apostrophe, detaches himself from the reality and addresses an imaginary character in his speech.Examples:1. William Shakespeare makes use of an apostrophe in his play ―Macbeth‖:―Is this a dagger which I see before me,The handle toward my hand?Come, let me clutch thee!I have thee not, and yet I see thee still.‖In his mental conflict before murdering king Duncan, Macbeth has a strange vision of a daggerand talks to it as if it were another person.2. Jane Taylor uses apostrophe in well-known nursery rhyme ―The Star‖:―Twinkle, twinkle, little star,How I wonder what you are.Up above the world so high,Like a diamond in the sky.‖In the above nursery rhyme, a child addresses a star which is an imaginary idea and hence is a classical example of apostrophe.13. ironyDefinition:a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning ofthe words. It may also be a situation that may end up in quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between the appearance and the reality Examples:1. We come across the following lines in Shakespeare‘s ―Romeo and Juliet‖, Act I, Scene V.―Go ask his name: if he be married.My grave is like to be my wedding bed.‖Juliet commands her nurse to find out who Romeo was and says if he were married, then her wedding bed would be her grave. It is a verbal irony because the audience knows that she is going to die on her wedding bed.2. Shakespeare employs this verbal irony in ―Julius Caesar‖ Act I, Scene II,―?tis true this god did shake‖When a character Cassius, despite knowing the mortal flaws of Caesar, calls him ―this god‖.3. In the Greek drama ―Oedipus Rex‖ written by ―Sophocles‖,―Upon the murderer I invoke this curse- whether he is one man and all unknown,Or one of many- may he wear out his life in misery to mise rable doom!‖The above lines are an illustration of verbal and dramatic irony. It was predicted that a man guilty of killing his father and marrying his own mother has brought curse on the city and its people. In the above-mentioned lines, Oedipus curses the man who is the cause of curse on his city. He is ignorant of the fact that he himself is that man and he is cursing himself. Audience, on the other hand, knows the situation.4. In his poem ―The Rime of the Ancient Mariner‖, Coleridgewrote,―Water, wat er, everywhere,And all the boards did shrink;Water, water, everywhere,Nor any drop to drink.‖In the above stated lines, the ship, blown by the south wind, is stranded in the uncharted sea. Ironically, there is water everywhere but they do not have a single drop of water to drink.。
