毕业外文资料原文与翻译(测绘类)

The measurement of the surveying and mapping in mineSince the seventy s, as the electronic technology and laser technology development, the type of surveying and mapping instruments with electronics (such as range finder, electronic tachometer, gyroscopes) to the traditional surveying and mapping instruments methods produced profound effect. In satellite remote sensing, global positioning system, as a representative of the space on earth observation technology in surveying and mapping application in the science of mature, computer technology, system scientifically based geographic information system and application for the emergence of surveying and mapping information source of access, analyze, management, processing and application fully provide strong technical support, automation and intelligence of surveying and mapping system is already in investigation, therefore we can say, the modern mapping technology is undergoing a profound revolution. Mining of measuring technology of an important application field, in the vast coal, metal mines, nonferrous mine production process played an important role. Mine survey of modern task is: in mine exploration, design, development and production of the different stages of the operation of the ground and underground mining area, the space, resources, (in mineral and land resources and environment are mainly) information acquisition, storage, processing, display and use for reasonable and effective development resources, protecting the resources, protecting the environment, management, industrial and environmental services for the continuous development of the station. In order to realize its modern task, mine measurement must be making full use of modern surveying and mapping instruments and techniques, put the advanced modern technology with mine surveying the actual work, specific characteristics, and the combination of broaden the living space mine survey and business scope, promote the reform and development of mine survey, adapt to the market economy system and mining system reform needs. Electronic tachometer, space information technology, the inertial measurement system and other modern surveying and mapping instruments have been in mine survey technology is used to further development and are constantly.This paper to modern surveying and mapping instruments of the development of the technology and its application in mine.1、Electronic tachometer and its application in mine survey:Electronic tachometer as the most widely used surveying and mapping instruments, is electronic technology and optical technology development of the combination of the photoelectric measuring instrument, is also set range finder, electronic advantages in a wide range of instruments, application prospects, the intelligent electronic tachometer is currently the biggest selling surveying and mapping instruments, is also the main future development direction. Intelligent electronic tachometer is with light, electricity and magnetism, machine of the latest scientific achievements, set the location, measuring Angle for the integration of advanced instrument. The international advanced electronic tachometer are on a memory card, internal memory or electronic hand book way, way of double record data transmission communication function, can receive external computer instruction by the computer input data, also can to outside the computer output data. The international advanced electronic tachometer have Japanese SOKKIA POWERSET series production of electronic tachometer and SET5F, SET6F, SET5W electronic tachometer, Swissproduces the TCA100 and TCA1800 electronic tachometer, Japan NIKON DTM-A series of electronic tachometer, etc. Our country has just south of the surveying and mapping instruments company production NTS-200 series electronic tachometer. Electronic tachometer has set up a file in the engineering survey, mine surveying, cadastral etc a wide range of applications, its development and application is in rapid developing. Electronic tachometer because and has the advantages of transit and range finder, and provide measurement results in digital form, its simple operation, stable performance, data can be through the electronic hand book and the computer to carry on the advantages of communication in the mine in the measurement of a wide range of applications. The ground control survey, topographic, engineering surveying all available is, contact measurement, the measurement work can also be used inunderground i To as a representative of the intelligent, digital instrument is minesurveying instrument one of the development direction in the future. Based on theelectronic tachometer and the modern computer technology can establish a mine 3 d data to be automatic collection, transmission,processing of mine surveying dataprocessing system, instead of traditional hand book records, manual entry,detailed calculation of repetitive work. In addition, electronic tachometer in mine surfacemovement monitoring, land reclamation project implementation, mine construction aspects also have been applied, each big ore measurement organizations are to instead of traditional instruments for routine measure the work, not only improves the efficiency, picked up speed, and reduced the development, and to ensure the accuracy2、Space information technology and its application in the measurement of the mine.The core of spatial information technology and the subject is the "3 S" technology (Remote Sensing:RS)、 (Global Positioning System GPS)、 (Grographic Information System：GIS) Remote sensing including satellite remote sensing and remote sensing, remote sensing data topographic map surveying as the important means in practice has a wide range of applications, satellite remote sensing for mapping is also mine of study and has made some significant results, based on remote sensing data to build digital terrain model (DTM) and then used in surveying and mapping work has won more applications. GPS as a cause of surveying and mapping in the traditional concept of major change technology, has become a main technology of land measurement method, also is the most potential mobile technology, in mine measurement, control survey, project survey, environment monitoring, disaster prevention and reduction of the navigation transport plays a significant role. Because not only have all-weather GPS, high precision and high flexibility, and the advantages of the traditional measuring technology without strict control, compared the level measurement, don't take points between depending on the point, without the need to build standard, there is no error accumulation, the three dimensional positioning etc, and in the field measurement model, error sources and data processing to the traditional concept of surveying and mapping is a revolutionary change. The geographic information system as the geographical distribution of space of therelevant data collecting, processing, management, analysis of computer technology system, and its development and application of surveying and mapping the development of science is of great significance, is the modern mapping technology of important technical support. With "3 S" integration or integrated as the leadingtechnology of space information system has gradually become the surveying and mapping learning or the earth informat ics new technology system and the work pattern, its advanced nature, timeliness obvious. With the space information technology for technical support, modern surveying and mapping instruments, technology is in rapid development in. The measurement of the remote sensing technology in the mines application has experienced a long time, and has accumulated rich experience.For remote sensing, it can be used as remote sensing data mining on the data topographic map surveying data source, like a piece of correction, through visual interpretation, field adjustable draw the work, complete the topographic map surveying and mapping. Compared with the traditional mapping method, using remote sensing data of mapping speed, low cost, high precision, it is a kind of application very extensive mapping method. Remote sensing in mine measurement of the applications of the key theory and technology also is in the investigation. Application of remote sensing data mining area, can obtain real-time, dynamic and comprehensive information source, to the mining area environment monitoring of the mining area environment protection to provide decision support. Remote sensing data mining area for prospecting, geological conditions, roof and floor of coal seam in such aspects as research has been applied, all these, explains the application of remote sensing technique in mining measurement is mine surveying realize its modern task important guarantee. GPS technology in the measurement of the mine is mainly applied to replace traditional ground surveying and mapping work. Using GPS technology such as mining surface movement monitoring, hydrology monitoring, mining area control elevation hole net establishment or measure, reform, GPS receiver with performance to price has been rising, and its application in the measurement of mine work the ground has become a part of the modern mine survey is an important support technology. Used in mining area the geographic information system is for mine geographical information system, or called mine material source environmentalinformation system (MRIES). MREIS has become the important developing direction mine survey. With mining area environment resources information system as a platform to all kinds of measurement techniques for data acquisition approach,can build a collection of data acquisition, processing, management, analysis and output in one of the automation, intelligent technology system, as the sustainable development of mining decision support system. Mine survey MREIS work is to establish the fist work, and to create a MREIS mine surveying is an inevitable trend. Therefore, the GPS in the mining area is first applied used in a mine measurement information system established measurement, and then based on this establish the mining area environment information system resources. Space information technology is mine surveying realize its modern task of important technical support and guarantee, "3 S" technology and other measuring instrument technology on the basis of the organic combination of the mining area environment information system is the spatial data information technology in mine survey of the applications of the comprehensive results.3 .the inertial measurement system and its application in the measurement of the mineThe inertial measurement system (Inertial ISS) is a kind of navigation and positioning technology, have all-w, autonomous, fast can flexible and advantages, the earth measurement, engineering surveying and mining measure the work of automation and versatility provided another kind of new technology. It is to use the principle of inertial navigation, and earn geodetic data (longitude and latitude, elevation, azimuth, gravity anomaly and vertical deflection, etc.) of a kind of technology system.ISS can be divided into two categories: platform utility system and type system in the field of surveying and mapping, ISS main application target includes: (1) control measure, such as the existing control point review, encryption, and aerial control, etc.; (2) pipeline monitoring, orientation, crustal deformation, the surface subsidence observation; (3) underground positioning, all kinds of engineering and construction measure; (4) earthquake, gravity survey, geophysical research; (5) shaft and cans of vertical way beam of monitoring, etc. GPS/ISS combination system is to meet high precision navigation and positioning of the development direction of the request. This combination system can make the GPS and the performance of theISS, can get a lot of complementary to the whole landmeasurement model dataprocessing, and make sure that 3 d coordinate and the positioning and the precision of the navigation unstable, and increased significantly. The inertial measurement system in mine to the measurement of the Lord is applied in application in themeasurement of the application, the activities of the underground measurement, and of course the ground also has been applied in many fields, such as stated above. ISS in mines in China, the application in the measurement of work is to carry out in-depth,continue to develop. With GPS + ISS combination system used in mines measurement is a promising a technologyFour other new technology in the new instrument of surveying and mapping application to the measurement of the mineOther modern surveying and mapping instruments, such as laser point to meter, the gyro th, digital levels and related technology are all mine surveying and mapping measurement is used, and with the instrument technology as the foundation, formed many mining measurement instrument, as mine survey for the application of modern instruments and techniques.Mine survey as a cross subject, the development and the progress and the mining technology and the development of the mining project, measuring instruments and equipment of science and technology and the development of other subjects like mathematical science, computer science, etc, the development are closely related. Modern mapping technology is based on the electronic technology, space technology, optical technology, computer technology based on comprehensive technology, and has the intelligence, automation and so on a series of advantages. Modern science and technology, the rapid development of surveying and mapping can surely promote the further development of mine survey. With modern technology, mining engineering surveying and mapping technology and related science and technology as the foundation, the mine survey will form and collect data acquisition, processing, management, transmission, analysis, expression, application, output for the integration of intelligence, automation technology system for mine resources, environmental information system establishment provide fundamental material, promoting mine sustainable development.测绘在矿山测量中的发展七十年代以来，随着电子技术和激光技术的发展，光电结合型的测绘仪器(如测距仪、全站仪、陀螺仪)对传统的测绘仪器方法产生了深刻的影响。

Geodetic Surveying and Plane SurveyingSurveying has been traditionally defined as the art and science of determining the position of natural and artificial features on, above or below the earth’s surface; and representing this information in analog form as a contoured map, paper plan or chart, or as figures in report tables, or in digital form as a three dimensional mathematical model stored in the computer. As such, the surveyor/geodesist dealt with the physical and mathematical aspect of measurement. The accurate determination and monumentation of points on the surface of the Earth is therefore seen as the major task.Though these surveys are for various purposes, still the basic operations are the same---they involve measurements and computations or, basically, fieldwork and office work. There are many different types of surveys such as land surveys, route surveys, city surveys, construction surveys, hydrographic surveys, etc., but generally speaking, surveying is divided into two major categories: geodetic and plane surveying.Surveys will either take into account the true shape of the Earth（Geodetic surveys）or treat the earth as a flat surface(Plane surveys). Additionally, surveys are conducted for the purpose of positioning features on the ground(Horizontal surveys), determining the elevation or heights of features(Vertical surveys) or a combination of both.Geodetic SurveyingThe type of surveying that takes into account the true shape of the earth is called geodetic surveying.This type of survey is suited for large areas and long lines and is used to find the precise location of basic points needed for establishing control for other surveys. In geodetic surveys, the stations are normally long distances apart, and more precise instruments and surveying methods are required for this type of surveying than for plane surveying.Widely spaced, permanent monuments serve as the basis for computing lengths and distances between relative positions. These basic points with permanent monuments are called geodetic control survey points, which support the production of consistent and compatible data for surveying and mapping projects. In the past, ground-based theodolites, tapes, and electronic devices were the primary geodetic field measurements used. Today, the technological expansion of GPS has made it possible to perform extremely accurate geodetic surveys at a fraction of the cost.A thorough knowledge of the principles of geodesy is an absolute prerequisite for the proper planning and execution of geodetic surveys.In Geodetic Surveys, the shape of the earth is thought of as a spheroid, although in a technical sense, it is not really a spheroid. Therefore, distances measured on or near the surface of the earth are not along straight lines or planes, but on a curved surface. Hence, in the computation of distances in geodetic surveys, allowances are made for the earth’s minor and major diameters from which a spheroid of reference is developed. The position of each geodetic station is related to this spheroid. The positions are expressed as latitudes(angles north or south of the Equator) and longitudes(angles east or west of a prime meridian) or as northings and eastings on a rectangular grid.A geodetic survey establishes the fundamentals for the determination of the surface and gravity field of a country. This is realized by coordinates and gravity values of a sufficiently large number of control points, arranged in geodetic and gravimetric networks. In this fundamental work, curvature and the gravity field of the earth must be considered.The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered a plane, or in which the curvature of the earth can be disregarded without significant error, generally is called plane surveying. The term is used to designate survey work in which the distances or areas involved are of limited extent. With regard to horizontal distances and directions, a level line is considered mathematically straight, the direction of the plumb line is considered to be the same at all points within the limits of the survey, and all angles are considered to be plane angles. To make computations in plane surveying, you will use formulas of plane trigonometry, algebra, and analytical geometry. For small areas, precise results may be obtained with plane surveying methods, but the accuracy and precision of such results will decrease as the area surveyed increases in size. For example, the length of an arc 18.5 km long lying in the earth’s surface is only 7mm greater than the subtended chord and, further, the difference between the sum of the angles in a plane triangle and the sum of those in a spherical triangle is only 0.51 second for a triangle at the earth’s surface having an area of 100km2 . It will be appreciated that the curvature of the earth must be taken into consideration only in precise surveys of large areas.A great number of surveys are of the plane surveying type.Surveys for the location and construction of highways, railroads, canals, and in general, the surveys necessary for the works of human beings are plane surveys, as are the surveys made to establish boundaries, except state and national. However, with the increasing size and sophistication of engineering and other scientific projects, surveyors who restrict their practice to plane surveying are severely limited in the types of surveys in which they can be engaged. The operation of determining elevation usually is considered a division of plane surveying. Elevations are referred to the geoid. The geoid is theoretical only.It is the natural extension of the mean sea level surface under the landmass. We could illustrate this idea by digging an imaginary trench across the country linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.If we allowed the trench to fill with seawater, the surface of the water in the trench would represent he geoid. So for all intents and purposes, the geoid is the same as mean sea level. Mean sea level is the average level of the ocean surface halfway between the highest and lowest levels recorded. We use mean sea level as a datum or, curiously and incorrectly, a datum plane upon which we can reference or describe the heights of features on, above or below the ground. Imagine a true plane tangent to the surface of mean sea level at a given point. At horizontal distances of 1km from the point of tangency, the vertical distances(or elevations) of the plane above the surface represented by mean sea level are 7.8cm. Obviously, curvature of the earth’s surface is a factor that cannot be neglected in obtaining even rough values of elevations. The ordinary procedure in determining elevations, such as balancing backsight and foresight distance in differential leveling, automatically takes into account the curvature of the earth and compensates for earth curvature and refraction, and elevations referred to the curved surface of reference are secured without extra effort by the surveyor.There is close cooperation between geodetic surveying and plane surveying. The geodetic survey adopts the parameters determined by measurements of the earth, and its own results are available to those who measure the earth. The plane surveys, in turn, are generally tied to the control points of the geodetic surveys and serve particularly in the development of national map series and in the formation of real estate cadastres.Below we are about measure distance, Angle and Direction Measurement and Traversing. Distance MeasurementOne of the fundamentals of surveying is the need to measure distance. Distances are not necessarily linear, especially if they occur on the spherical earth. In this subject we will deal with distances in Euclidean space, which we can consider a straight line from one point or feature to another. Distance between two points can be horizontal, slope, or vertical. Horizontal and slope distances can be measured with lots of techniques of measurement depending on the desired quality of the result. If the points are at different elevations, then the distance is the horizontal length between plumb lines at the points. Here gives a brief summary of relevant techniques and their respective accuracies:Pacing and OdometerPacing is a very useful form of measurement though it is not precise, especially when surveyors are looking for survey marks in the field. Pacing can be performed at an accuracy level of 1/100~1/500 when performed on horizontal land, while the accuracy of pacing can’t be relied upon when pacing up or down steep hills. The odometer is a simple device that can be attached to any vehicle and directly registers the number of revolutions of a wheel. With the circumference of the wheel known, the relation between revolutions and distance is fixed.Ordinary Taping and Precise TapingTaping is a very common technique for measuring horizontal distance between two points. Ordinary taping refers to the very common tapes that we can buy them in stores, such as the plastic tapes or poly tapes. Such tapes have low precision in distance measurements with about 1/3000~1/5000. The precise taping refers to the steel tapes and which are much more expensive than the plastic tape and have higher precision of 1/10000~1/30000. Invar tapes are composed 35% nickel and 65% steel. This alloy has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, making the tapes useful in precise distance measurement. Many tapes are now graduated with foot units on one side and metric units on the reverse side. Metric units are in meters, centimeter and minimeter with the total length of 20 m, 30 m, 50 m and 100 m.If we want to measure the horizontal distance between the two points A and B, we can do like this: With zero of the tape to the higher point B and tape going along the point A, we can measure the horizontal distance by using the plumb bob with pump line entering to the point A. To judge the exact horizontal line, we should move the tape up and down along the pump line and we will find the changes of reading in the tape. The shortest reading of the tape is the horizontal distance.If the distance is longer than the length of tape, then we can divide the long distance into several segments and get the total distance by plus each segment together. Since different tapes have different starts of zero of the tapes, it is very important to judge where the zero of the tape begins. Tacheometry and StadiaTacheometry is an optical solution to the measurement of distance. The word is derived from the Greek Tacns, meaning “swift”, and metrot, meaning “a measure”. Tacheometry involves the measurement of a related distance parameter either by means of a fixed-angle intercept. Theodolite tacheometry is an example of stadia system.The theodolite is directed at the level staff where the staff is held vertically and the line of sight of the telescope is horizontal.By reading the top and bottom stadia hairs on the telescope view and then the horizontal distance from center of instrument to rod can be obtained by multiplying the stadia interval factor K by the stadia interval and plus the distance C which is from the center of instrument to principal focus, i.e. D=Ks + C. Usually the nominal stadia interval factor K equals 100 which is a constant for a particular instrument as long as conditions remain unchanged, but it may be determined by observation in practice. The value of C is determined by the manufacturer and stated on the inside of the instrument box. For external-focusing telescopes, under ordinary condition, C may be considered as 1 ft without error of consequence. Internal-focusing telescopes are so constructed that C is 0 or nearly so; this is an advantage of internal-focus telescopes for stadia work. Most instruments now used for stadia are equipped with internal-focusing telescopes.Applications of tacheometry include traversing and leveling for the topographic surveys, location of detail surveys, leveling and field completion surveys for the topographic mapping, and hydrographic mapping. The relative precision is 1:1000 to 1:5000.Stadia is a form of tacheometry that uses a telescopic cross-hair configuration to assist in determining distances.A series of rod readings is taken with a theodolite and the resultant intervals are used to determine distances.Electronic Distance Measurement(EDM)The Electronic Distance Measurement(EDM) was first introduced in 1950s by the founders of Geodimeter Inc. The advent of EDM instrument has completely revolutionized all surveyingprocedures, resulting in a change of emphasis and techniques. Distance can now be measured easily, quickly and with great accuracy, regardless of terrain conditions.EDM instruments refer to the distance measurement equipments using light and radio waves. Both light waves and radio waves are electromagnetic. They have identical velocities in a vacuum (or space) to 299,792.458±0.001km/sec.These velocities, which are affected by the air’s density, are reduced and need to be recalculated in the atmosphere. The basic principle of EDM instruments is that distance equals time multiplied by velocity.Thus if the velocity of a radio or light wave and time required for it to go from one point to another are known, the distance between the two points can be calculated.The EDM instruments may be classified according to the type and wavelength of the electromagnetic energy generated or according to their operational range. EDM instruments use three different wavelength bands: (1)Microwave systems with range up to 150km, wave length 3 cm, not limited to line of sight and unaffected by visibility; (2)Light wave systems with range up to 5 km (for small machines), visible light, lasers and distance reduced by visibility; (3)Infrared systems with range up to 3 km, limited to line of sight and limited by rain, fog, other airborne particles. Although there is a wide variety of EDM instruments available with different wavelengths, there are basically only two methods of measurement employed which may divide the instruments into two classification as electro-optical (light waves) and microwaves (radio waves) instruments. These two basic methods are namely the pulse method and more popular phase different method. They function by sending light waves or microwaves along the path to be measured and measuring the time differences between transmitted and received signals, or in measuring the phase differences between transmitted and received signals in returning the reflecting light wave to source. Modern EDM instruments are fully automatic to such an extent that, after the instruments, set up on one station, emits a modulated light beam to a passive reflector set up on the other end of the line to be measured. The operator need only depress a button, and the slope distance is automatically displayed. More complete EDM instruments also have the capability of measuring horizontal and vertical or zenith angles as well as the slope distance. These instruments referred to as total station instruments.Angle and Direction MeasurementHorizontal and vertical angles are fundamental measurements in surveying. It is necessary to be familiar with the meanings of certain basic terms before describing angle and direction measurement. The terms discussed here have reference to the actual figure of the earth.Basic TermsA vertical line at any point on the earth’s surface is the line that follows the direction of gravity at that point.It is the direction that a string will assume if a weight is attached at that point and the string is suspended freely at the point.At a given point there is only one vertical line.A horizontal line at a point is any line that is perpendicular to the vertical line at the point.At any point there are an unlimited number of horizontal lines.A horizontal plane at a point is the plane that is perpendicular to the vertical line at the point. There is only one horizontal plane through a given point.A vertical plane at a point is any plane that contains the vertical line at the point.There are an unlimited number of vertical planes at a given point.Horizontal Angle and Vertical AngleA horizontal angle is the angle formed in a horizontal plane by two intersecting vertical planes, or a horizontal angle between two lines is the angle between the projections of the lines onto a horizontal plane. For example, observations to different elevation pointsB andC from A will give the horizontal angle ∠bac which is the angle between the projections of two lines (AB and AC) onto the horizontal plane. It follows that, although the points observed are at different elevations, it is always the horizontal angle and not the space angle that is measured (Figure 1). The horizontal angle is used primarily to obtain relative direction to a survey control point, or topographic detail points, or to points to be set out.A vertical angle is an angle measured in a vertical plane which is referenced to a horizontal line by plus (up) or minus (down) angles, or to a vertical line from the zenith direction. Plus and minus vertical angles are sometimes referred to as elevation or depression angles, respectively. A vertical angle thus lies between 0°and ±90°. Zenith is the term describing points on a celestial sphere that is a sphere of infinitely large radius with its center at the center of the earth. The zenith is anangle measured in a vertical plane downward from an upward directed vertical line through the instrument. It is thus between 0°and 180°. Obviously the zenith angle is equal to 90°minus the vertical angles. Vertical angles or zeniths are used in the correction of slope distance to the horizontal or in height determined. For the most part, the instrument used in the measurement of angles is called a transit or theodolite, although angles can be measured with clinometers, sextants (hydrographic surveys), or compasses.The theodolite contains a horizontal and vertical circles of either glass or silver.The horizontal and vertical circles of theodolite can be linked to circular protractors graduated from 0°to 360°in a clockwise manner set in horizontal and vertical plane. The horizontal circle is used when measuring or laying off horizontal angles and the vertical circle is used to measure or lay off vertical angles or zenith angles. Usually the units of angular measurement employed in practice are degrees, minutes, and seconds, the sexagesimal system.Angle MeasurementA horizontal angle in surveying has a direction or sense; that is, it is measured or designed to the right or to the left, or it is considered clockwise or counterclockwise. In the above figure, the angle at A fromB toC is clockwise and the angle from C to B is counterclockwise. With the theodolite set up, centered, and leveled over at station A, then a simple horizontal angle measurement between surveying point B, A and C would be taken as follows:⑴Commencing on, say, “face left”, the target set at survey point B is carefully bisected and the reading on horizontal scale is 25°. ⑵The upper plate clamp is released and telescope is turned clockwise to survey point C. The reading on horizontal circle is 75°⑶The horizontal angle is then the difference of the two directions, i.e. (75°-25°) =50°（⑷Change face and observe point C on “face right”, and note the reading=255°⑸Release upper plate and swing counterclockwise to point B and note the reading =205°⑹The reading or the direction must be subtracted in the same order as 255°-205°=50°⑺The mean of two values would be accepted if they are in acceptable agreement. Modern electronic digital theodolites contain circular encoders that sense the rotations of the spindles and the telescope, convert these rotations into horizontal and vertical (or zenith) angles electronically, and display the value of the angles on liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or light-emitting diode displays (LEDs). These readouts can be recorded in a conventional field book or can be stored in a data collector for future printout orcomputation. The instrument contains a pendulum compensator or some other provision for indexing the vertical circle readings to an absolute vertical direction.The circle can be set to zero readings by a simple press of a button or initialized to any value on the instrument.Azimuth is the horizontal angle measured in a clockwise direction from the plane of the meridian, which is a line on the mean surface of the earth joining the north and south poles. Azimuth ranges in magnitude from 0°to 360°, values in excess of 360°, which are sometimes encountered in computations, are simply reduced by 360°before final listing.Bearing is the traditional way of stating the orientation of the line. It is actually the angle measured from the north or south.The bearing, which can be measured clockwise or counterclockwise from the north or south end of the meridian, is always accompanied by letters that locate the quadrant in which the line falls. For example, bearing N32W indicates a line trending 32°west of the north. It is equal to an azimuth of 328°.Bearing S12W indicates a line trending 12°west of the south. It is equal to an azimuth of 192°. It is important to state that the bearing and azimuth are respect to true north..TraversingThe purpose of the surveying is to locate the positions of points on or near the surface of the earth. To determine horizontal positions of arbitrary points on the earth’s surface and elevation of points above or below a reference surface are known as a control survey.The positions and elevations of the points make up a control network.There are different types of control networks depending on where and why they are established.A control network may have very accurate positions but no elevations (called a Horizontal Control Network) or very accurate elevations but no positions (called a Vertical Control Network).Some points in a control network have both accurate positions and elevations.Control networks range from small, simple and inexpensive to large and complex and very expensive to establish.A control network may cover a small area by using a “local” coordinate system that allows you to position the features in relation to the control network but doesn’t tell you where the features areon the surface of the earth, or cover a large area by consisting of a few well-placed and precise-established control points, which is sometimes called the primary control.The horizontal positions of points in a network can be obtained in a number of different ways.（The generally used methods are triangulation, trilateration, traversing, intersection, resection and GPS.The main topic of this text refers to the traversing.TriangulationThe method of surveying called triangulation is based on the trigonometric proposition that if one side and three angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be computed by the law of sines.Furthermore, if the direction of one side is known, the direction of the remaining sides can be determined.And then coordinates of unknown points can be computed by application of trigonometry.TrilaterationSince the advent of long-range EDM instrument, a method of surveying called trilateration was adopted to combine with triangulation.The trilateration is based on the trigonometric proposition that if the three sides of a triangle are known, the three angles can be computed by the law of cosines.Trilateration possesses some advantages over triangulation because the measurement of the distances with EDM instrument is so quick, precise and economical while the measurement of the angles needed for triangulation may be more difficult and expensive. For some precise projects, the combination of triangulation and trilateration which is called triangulateration is applied.TraversingA survey traverse is a sequence of lengths and directions of lines between points on the earth, obtained by or from field angle and distance measurements and used in determining positions of the point. The angles are measured using transits, theodolites, or total stations, whereas the distances can be measured using steel tapes or EDM instruments. A survey traverse may determine the relative positions of the points that if connects in series, and if tied to control stations based on some coordinate system, the positions may be referred to that system. From these computed relative positions, additional data can be measured for layout of new features, such as buildings and roads. Since the advent of EDM equipment, traversing has emerged as the most popular method to establish control networks such as basic area control, mapping, control of hydrographic surveys and construction projects.In engineering surveying, it is ideal way to surveys and dimensional control of route-type projects such as highway, railroad, and pipeline construction. In general, a traverse is always classified as either an open traverse or a closed traverse. An open traverse originates either at a point of known horizontal position with respect to a horizontal datum or at an assumed horizontal position, and terminates at a station whose relative position is not previously known..The open traverse provides no check against mistakes and large errors for its termination at anunknown horizontal position and lack of geometric closure. This lack of geometric closure means that there is no geometric verification possible with respect to the actual positioning of the traverse stations. Thus, the measuring technique must be refined to provide for field verification. At a minimum, distances are measured twice and angles are doubled. Open traverses are often used for preliminary survey for a road or railroad.A closed traverse can be described in any one of the following two ways: ⑴A closed loop traverse, as the name implies, forms a continuous loop, enclosing an area.This type of closed traverse starts at assumed horizontal position or at a known horizontal position with respect to a horizontal datum and ends at the same point. ⑵A connecting traverse starts and ends at separate points, whose relative positions have been determined by a survey of equal or higher order accuracy. A known horizontal position is defined by its geographic latitude and longitude, or by its X and Y coordinates on a grid system.Closed traverses, whether they return to the starting point or not, provide checks on the measured angles and distances.In both cases, the angles can be closed geometrically, and the position closure can be determined mathematically. Therefore they are more desirable and used extensively in control, construction, property, and topographic surveys.As we mentioned above, a closed traverse provides checks on the measured angles and distances. For example, the geometric sum of the interior angles in an n-side closed figure should be (n-2)×180°, but due to systematic and random errors of the measurements, when all the interior angles of a closed traverse are summed, they may or may not total the number of degrees required for geometric closure. The difference between the geometric sum and actual field sum of the interior angles is called angular closure. The total error of angular closure should be distributed evenly to each angle (if all angles were measured with the same precision) before mathematical analysis of the traverse. The important point before doing this is that the overall angular closure can’t be beyond the survey specifications.Closed traverses provide also checks on the measured distances, and the position closure can be determined mathematically, which means that an indication of the consistency of measuring distances as well as angles should be given to a traverse that closes on itself. Theoretically this position closure from the origin back to itself should be zero. But the Errors in the measured distances and angles of the traverses, however, will tend to alter the shape of the traverse, therefore we should compute the algebraic sum of the latitudes and algebraic sum of the departures, and compare them with the fixed latitude and departure of a straight line from the origin to the closing point. By definition, latitude here is the north/south rectangular component of a line and departure is the east/west rectangular component of a line. To differentiate direction, north is considered plus, whereas south is considered minus.Similarly, east is considered plus, whereas west is considered minus.Then the discrepancy should be adjusted by apportioning the closure both in latitudes and in departures on a reasonable basis. The adjusted position of each traverse point is determined with respect to some origin.This position is defined by its Y coordinates and its X coordinates with respect to a plane rectangular coordinate system in which the Y axis is assumed north-south whereas the X axis east-west.。

Unit14 Datums, Coordinates and Conversions（已知坐标转换）A datum is the mathematical model of the Earth we use to calculate the coordinates and elevations on any map , chart, or survey system . Geodetic datum s define the size and shape of the Earth and the origin and orientation of the coordinate systems used to map the Earth . Hundreds of different datum s have been used to frame position descriptions since the first estimates of the Earth’s size were made by Aristotle . But all coordinates reference some particular set of numbers for the size and shape of the Earth . For example, the Global Positioning System (GPS) is based on the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84) . Many countries use their own datums when they make their maps and surveys—what we call local datums .（基准是我们用来计算任何地图、海图或测量系统的坐标和海拔的地球的数学模型。

Unit15 Map Projection(投影地图)Map projections are attempts to portray the surface of the Earth or a portion of the Earth on a flat surface . Some distortions of conformality , distance , direction , scale, and area always result from this process . Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at the expense of maximizing errors in others . So m e projections are attempts to only mode rately distort all of these properties . No projection can be simultaneously conformal and area-preserving .(地图投影是在平面上描绘地球或部分地球表面的投影。

保形、距离、方向、规模和地区总是有些扭曲，结果F 只读此过程。

一些预测最大限度地减少这些属性的扭曲，牺牲最大限度地在别人的错误。

所以我的预测是试图模式地歪曲一切这些属性。

没有投影可以同时保形和保面积。

)Conformality: When the scale of a map at any point on the map is the same in any direction, the projection is conformal . Meridians (lines of longitude) and parallels (lines of latitude) intersect at right angles . Shape is preserved locally on conformal maps .(协调：当规模的地图，在地图上的任何一点在任何方向上的投影是一样的，形。

附录一：英文原文A GIS WEB –APPLICATION FOR POWER SYSTEM OF CRETEJ。

Syllignakis，C。

Adamakis, T.M。

PapazoglouThe Technological Educational Institute of Crete （TEIC)，Greece ABSTRACTGeographical Information System （GIS）applications are very helpful tools for displaying and analyzing informationfor several technological fields. The research group of Electrical Power System Lab (EPSL) of TEIC is developing aGIS software application for displaying the operational conditions of the power system of Crete，presenting alsocritical information and statistical data for system’s characteristics。

This tool is intended to help training of engineersin the Electrical Department of TEIC to simulate and visualize power system operation and characteristics。

Besides,this tool is very helpful for a power system engineer in observing the whole system operations and system's data。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)基于活动熔岩流可见光和热感影像的倾斜摄影测量手持相机数码图像越来越多地被用于科学目的，特别是在非接触式测量是必需的地方。

然而，他们往往由显著的相机到对象的深度的变化和闭塞的斜视组成，复杂化定量分析。

在这里，我们报告通过斜摄影技术来确定基于地面的热感照相机方位（位置并指出方向），并产生在西西里岛火山的熔岩流场景信息。

从基于大众使用的消费级单反数码相机的多个图像来构造一个基于地面热图像的地形模型和参考。

我们展示在2004-2005年火山爆发期间收集的数据和对于基于像素的热感图像，使用派生曲面模型来查看距离改正（考虑大气衰减）。

对于查看约为100至400米的距离，更正导致在辐射强度系统的变化就值方面高达±3％，其是假设在一个统一的平均图像的观看距离计算而得。

关键词：近景摄影测量，埃特纳（Etna）火山，熔岩流，热感图像引言：为了提高我们了解了熔岩如何流动并最终停止，需要更先进的测量（熔岩）流动的发生和冷却的技术技术（Hidaka，等。

2005年）。

卫星数据经常用于监测活火山，但为获取准确的温度信息，可行的空间分辨率为30 m左右的中红外或近红外区域（陆地卫星TM和ASTER数据）或更大的热红外波段（60m的陆地卫星ETM +和ASTER的90米; Donegan和Flynn 2004; Pieri 和 Abrams 2004）。

这些尺寸都大大高于在熔岩流表面热性结构的空间变异，限制冷却模型从而限制卫星数据的使用。

最近手持式热成像仪的使用提供了一个潜在的解决方案，即通过实现1-103m的距离观看，增加空间分辨率10的一因子（1毫米左右）。

因此，手持式热成像仪获取的图像有潜力提供了丰富达到5的（熔岩）流动模型信息，并提供地面实况'信息用于卫星数据的解释（例如Calvari 等。

2005年）。

不过，关键的缺点，存在于大多数近距离数据集（强烈的斜视角，未知的成像几何关系与传感器的空间位置）通常阻碍地理参考和目前制约定量分析。

Uuit1 What is Geomatics? （什么是测绘学）Geomatics Defined（测绘学定义）Where does the word Geomatics come from?（Geomatics－测绘或地球空间信息学，这个名词是怎么来的呢？）GEODESY+GEOINFORMATICS=GEOMA TICS or GEO- for earth and –MA TICS for mathematical or GEO- for Geoscience and -MATICS for informatics. （大地测量学＋地理信息学＝GEOMATICS 测绘学或者geo 代表地球，matics 代表数学，或者geo 代表地球科学，matics 代表信息学）It has been said that geomatics is many things to many people.（据说测绘学这个词对不同的人有不同的理解）The term geomatics emerged first in Canada and as an academic discipline; it has been introducedworldwide in a number of institutes of higher education during the past few years, mostly by renamingwhat was previously called “geodesy”or “surveying”, and by adding a number of computer science-and/or GIS-oriented courses.（这个术语【term 术语】作为一个学科【academic discipline 学科】第一次形成【emerge】于加拿大；在过去的几年里被全世界的许多高等教育研究机构所熟知，通常是以前的“大地测量学”或“测量学”在引入了许多计算机科学和GIS 方向【或“基于GIS”】的课程后重新命名的。

外文资料：Construction of Digital Mine and Key TechnologiesABSTRACTIn China,the mine is facing a stern challenge over its environmental protection, the limitation on its structure and function within its subsystem,optimization of its limited manpower,financial and material resources and its sustainable development.Digital mine is come up with to deal with all these problems.The Digital Mine can be liken to“a logistics supply chain”,the basic characteristic is the high-speed network,with broadband and two-way communication system,used as“path map”,which shall make sure the fast delivery of all the date within all the relevant enterprises in the country;It consists of vehicles, which refers to the technics of Mine CAD,virtual reality,mine simulation, scientific calculation,artificial intelligence,visualization and office automation;goods,which refers to mine data and mind application model;package, which refers to3DGM(3-Dimensional Geographical Model)and data mining;security system,which refers to the collection and renewal system of mine data;and dispatching system,which refers to MGIS(Mine Geographical Information System),the common carrier of the entire information and office decisions,controlling the use and operation of all vehicles as well as all of the goods production and the package system.The basic structure of the Digital Mine is composed of two parts:digital ground and digital mine.The digital ground is a management information system based on the EPR(Enterprise Resource Planning)and spatial information infrastructure and information system based on3S technology and computer network.The digital mine regards the mine geology and surveying data as basic information data for spatial positioning,furthermore,inputting other relevant information if necessary,such as mining working-face,excavating working-face,underground chamber,mechanical and electronic equipments,ventilation and safety device,underground pipeline and communication and others,forming a spatial database.Thus,the entire mine’sinformation system of management and service and decision support system is established.The Digital Mine is a huge systematic project,involving3S(GIS,GPS,RS),IT (Information technology),mine science,virtual reality technology and visualization technology.Based on computers and network communication,the Digital mine realizes the digitization of storing,transporting,expressing and applying of all the relevant spatial data and ttribute data,including mine construction, exploration,development,mining,environmental protection and control.In addition, it is also a huge artificial intellectual system that integrates digital construction,digital exploration,digital mining,digital environmental protection and digital forecasting based on data dictionary technology,data warehouse technology,WebGIS,virtual reality technology,multimedia technology, CASE technology and artificial intelligence technology.Key words:digital mine;data dictionary;data warehouse;WebGIS;virtual reality; multimedia;artificial intelligenceINTRODUCTIONThe digital mine is integration understanding and digitized reconstruction of real mine&relevant phenomenon,it aims high-efficient,safe and green mining for mineral resource,which guarantee sustainable growth mine economic,also guarantee ecological stability of mine natural environment,and then realize the sustainability,stability,harmonious of the whole mine system,it is a part of digital mining area,digital earth.Constructing digital mine is a complicated system engineering,which need use these disciplines such as information, geography,mine,computer,mathematics,mechanics,surveying and mapping, geomatics.etc.at present,the study on digital mine is on the primary stage,its target is particular application,till now,digital mine has set up some regional,single-function technological system,for instance,mine geology& surveying information system.With the development of modern science and technology, constructing digital mine,realizing informationization and digitization of mine enterprises become basic strategy of mine enterprise's sustainable development.Till now,regarding research of digital mine,each scholar has studied the function intension of digital mine from ifferent sides.I think digital mine should possess these following functions:①overall digitized for data related to mine(hereafter referred to as mine data).Function includes mine data acquisition,mine data memory, mine ata retrieval,mine data transform,mine data transmission and alternate visit etc.;②using“3S”technology,multimedia,artificial intelligence technology, WebGIS technology,virtual reality technology to realize3D display of ore body and mine and monitor duly mining work,realize artificial intelligence,check and assess mineral stack impact on environment etc.;③with the help of computer technology, network technology.etc.Digital mine should be capable of realizing mine data release,updating,share and exchange between different departments,mine data of the same trade in time;④Digital mine should have functions of predicting, appraising,analyzing etc.,which can offer policymaking and optimization scheme for macroscopic strategy of the government department,drawing up the selling prices of enterprises,etc.1.CONCEPT OF DIGITAL MINEDigital mine regards mine system as prototype,regards geographical coordinate as reference system,regards mine science and technology,information science, artificial intelligence and calculation science as theoretical foundation,regards high-new mine observation technology and network technology as technological support,establishing a series of different levels prototype,system field,material model,mechanics model,mathematical model,information model and computer model,using multimedia and simulation&virtual reality technology to express multidimensional information,at the same time,it is a technological system possessing high resolution,magnanimity data,various data fusion and with the characteristic of space,digitization,internalization,intelligence and visualization.It is virtual mine of informationization,digitization,using the method of informationization&digitalization to research and reconstruct mine, after accomplishment of digital mine,the information involving in the whole mine system can be understood fully at a glance,especially regarding informationconnection between multiple bodies and law of interaction.The concept of digital mine can be grasped from two aspects.on one hand,inherent information of digital mine is digitized(namely,fixed information related to spatial position directly,such as topography on the ground,geology under the shaft, mine scheme,completed engineering under the shaft,and so on),and build digital mine according to three-dimensional coordinate,which portray mine and ore body overall;on the other hand，all relevant information is imbedded to make up a multidimensional digital mine in more extensive meaning.(i.e.relative change information related to spatial position indirectly,such as management of reserves, electromechanical management,personnel management,production management, technical management,etc.),Fig.1shows its structure and interaction:According to the above-mentioned analysis,digital mine should include4layers.(1)Data administration layer:it lies in the first layer in the system,also in lowest layer of the whole system，which is responsible for the collection,memory, preprocessing，transform，inquiry，retrieval，transmission，cross visit of the data and data output,providing the support of the data for other layers.So it is foundation and data source of the whole system.(2)Model layer:it lies in the second layer in the system,which includes designed new model and application of various given geological model,mathematical model, appraising and predicting model,etc.for instance,the tonnage and grade model of mineral deposit,reserves calculation model,and so on.And some models need be designed and set up in the course of practical application,for example,the three-dimensional geological body has fracture,because there is no ready-made model, the users must design and build model again.This layer offers modeling method and data support for constructing new model and applying given model.(3)Technologies and methods layer:the third layer in the system.It refers to applying various new and high technologies to realize the three-dimension display of the mine and ore body,real time supervision on mining work,artificial intelligence and examination and assessment of ore pileup and impact on environment on the basis of model layer(4)Management and application layer:in outermost layer of the system.it includes MIS and office automation,the long-range renewal,share and exchange of data;In addition,relevant analysis and prediction can be carried out depending on various information and processed data derived from other layer,which offer the decision support of each level for policymaker2.ESSENTIAL FEATURES ANDBASIC STRUCTURE OF DIGITAL MINEEssential features of digital mine include:①digital mine regards high-speed enterprise network as“the route chart”.And broadband,high-speed,two-way communication network is gradual set up to guarantee the fast transmission of mine data in the network of mining industry between enterprises and provinces;②it regards high and new technologies,such as mining CAD,virtual reality,mining stimulation,scientific calculation,artificial intelligence,visualization and office automation,as“the vehicle”,which integrates many varieties of data and information;③digital mine regards mining industry data and mining industry application model as“goods”,and the core of digital mine is the data warehouse;④it regards3DGM(three-dimension geography science model)and the data mining as“package”,and regards the acquisition&renewal system of mining industry data as“security”,and regards MGIS as“deployment”.digital mine is public carrier for the whole mine information and office decision,which deploys and controls the use of all kinds of“vehicles”,the manufacture of all kinds of“goods”.The basic structure of digital mine can be roughly divided into two major parts:“digital ground”and“digital shaft”.Digital MineInherent information digitalization Relative change information digitalization round topographic map Underground Geology Mining program Others Reserves Management Mechatronics Management Personnel Management Production Management Others The former is composed of two systems:one is management information system of person,property,matter and process(such as the financial affairs,goods and materials,marketing)based on ERP(Enterprise Resource Planning);the other is spatial information infrastructure and information system based on“3S”technology and computer network technology.“digital shaft”regards geology of coal mine and surveying data as basic information data for spatial positioning,which can form spatial database after these parameters andinformation, such as coalface,leading face of excavation,room in the pit,electromechanical facility of shaft,ventilation safety devices,pipeline in the pit,communication and other information related to shaft,are input into the system.On this basis, management,service and decision-making information system of the whole mine is set up.Fig.3shows the basic structures and interrelation of igital mine.3.KEY TECHNOLOGIES TO DIGITAL MINEThe realization of digital mine involves numerous disciplines and knowledge, they mainly include:the data’dynamic acquisition and real time updating technology,data processing and information extraction technology,spatial data warehouse technology,spatial data modeling technology,virtual reality and stimulation technology,network technology,etc.as shown in Fig4,the research on these technology systems and their integration mode is the key to the realization of digital mine.obviously,data acquisition is the data source of digital mine system,data management is the foundationof digital mine system,data modeling and spatial analysis are the core of digital mine system,visualization release of distributed network is important expression of digital mine.3.1three-dimensional spatial data acquisitionData acquisition is the most basic work for establishing digital mine system, and accuracy of the data determines directly the accuracy of data model and spatial analysis.Mine data acquisition focuses on geological exploitation data,mine surveying data,mining engineering data,etc.due to the characteristic of multiple sources,so effectivecombination and superposition should be conducted according to data model and structure,which guarantees quality and quantity of the data to reach optimum.Except for traditional surveying,electronic surveying,geological drilling,etc.,the three-dimensional spatial data acquisition of mine includes new methods in the following.3.2distributed spatial database and network GIS technologyDistributed database and distributed processing is the development trend.Every specialized department of mine may establish professional database in order to bring the special skill in data acquisition,updating,processing into full play and avoid management difficulty and the network.Jam caused by the centralized type system. These dispersive computers are linked into a multiple computer system through interconnection network,which adopt the distributed computing technology and interoperation technology to realize the resource-sharing.Hypermedia network GIS (WebGIS)and interoperation norm(OpenGIS)are the tools to realize distributed calculation and interoperation between homogenous system(the same software platform)and heterogeneous system(the different software platform)respectively.3.3data model and data structureDigital mine is a typical multidimensional dynamic system.For the sake of abstracting and expressing real mine,spatial-temporal database must be developed to describe complex geographical phenomenon which is dynamic and real-time.The spatial data structure develops on the basis of spatial data model,which is the conventional connotation of a software system,and it indicates“the set of data elements of certain structure”.in order to build spatial-temporaldata model of“digital mine”,the spatial-temporal data structure should be adopted to express it accurately.In this respect of data model of three-dimensional space,till now,numerous researches have been carried out both at home and abroad, and many kinds of three-dimensional data model have been proposed.Generally speaking,data model can divided into plane model,body model and mixed model.The spatial object of mine has the following haracteristics:①great complexity of the geometry and spatial relationship;②uncertainty of geometry characteristic and internal attribute change.When three-dimensional data model and data structure of geology-oriented mine is researched,at first,these characteristics must been enough understood,thus,the most suitable expression mode and modeling method can been achieved.3.4dynamic analog and artificial intelligence technologyThe function of digital mine is not merely information management,the more important one is to possess commanding and decision making functions.Digital mine regards the data warehouse and high-speed network as support,and use artificial intelligence technologies such as data mining and knowledge discovery,expert system to realize decision support function including production deployment command, resource forecasting,environmental protection countermeasure,security warning and emergency processing,the effectiveness is the sign of the successful application of digital mine.4.CONCLUSIONSDigital mine regards computer and network as the key means to realize acquisition，memory,transmission,expression,deep processing of mine information and the application in production,management and policy making,which is huge system composed of many interrelated software and hardware sub-system.The construction of digital mine is a long-term task,which involves many new and high technologies, so unremitting efforts need be made.At present,taking the complexity of the system into consideration,enterprises of mine generally adopt the principle of“design of top layer,gradual division,planning stage by stage,realization subsystem by subsystem”.In the construction of digital mine,due to interrelation between subsystems,some subsystems need other systems to act as the foundation or accessory,for example,the automatic deployment system of opencut mine is best assisted by corresponding model system,relevant optimization systems and auxiliary design system.if the construction is independent,use efficiency and benefit will influenced greatly.In general,the system located in low layer and relative independent system shouldhave priority to be built,such as database and administration system,model system, auxiliary design system and administration system.Now,some software needed in the construction of digital mine may buy ready-made products at the domestic and abroad, but the majority software of the digital mining system need be developed.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThis work was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China(Item: 40771143)and Natural 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Definitions of GIS“GIS” is an acronym meaning of Geographic Information System. In order to provide a good understanding of GIS, the following two definitions given by R hind (1989) and the UnitedStates Geological Survey (USGS, 1997) respectively are presented first.1 “a system of hard w are, software, a n d procedures designed to support the capture, management, manipulation , analysis, modeling, and display of spatially referenced data for solving complex planning an d management problems .”2 “a co mputer system capable of assembling , storing, manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced information , i.e., data identified according to their location .”GIS books generally adopt the ideas expressed by these two definitions. These two characteristics distinguish GIS from other types of information systems: The word “Geographic” in GIS explains “spatially” where things are such as the location of nations, states, counties, cities, schools, roads, rivers, lakes, and the list can go on and on. Spatially means where on the earth’s surface an object or feature is located. T his can be as simple as the latitude and longitude of a feature. T he geographic feature or object can be anything of interest.“ Information” in GIS is the “data” or “attribute” information about specific features that we are interested in. The name of the feature, what the feature is, the location of the feature, and any other information that is important. An example could be the name of a city , w here it is located , ho w big it is in square feet ( area) , its population , its population in the past, and any other information that is important . “System” in GIS is the computer software that is written to help people analyze the data, look at the data and combineit in various ways to show relationships or to create geographic models .A GIS can be made up of a variety of software and hardware tools, as long as they are integrated to provide a functional geographic data processing tool.As mentioned above, GIS is a computer system that links geographic information (where things are) with descriptive information (what things are) . Unlike a flat paper map, w here“What you see is w hat you get”, a GIS can present m any layers of different information. To use a paper map, all you do is unfold it. Spreadout before you is a representation of cities and roads, mountains and rivers, railroads, and political boundaries. T he cities are represented by little dots or circles, the roads by black lines, the mountain peaks by tiny triangles, and the lakes by s m all blue areas similar to the real lakes . A digital map is not muchmore difficult to use than a paper map. As on the paper map, there are dots or points that represent features on the map such as cities, lines that represent features such as roads, and small areas that represent features such as lakes . All this information—where the point is located , how long the road is, and even how many square miles a lake occupies—is stored as layers in digital for m at as a pattern of ones and zeros in a computer . Think of this geographic data as layers of information underneath the computer screen. Each layer represents a particular the m e or feature of the map. O ne the m e could be made up of all the roads in an area. Another me could represent all the lakes in the same area. Yet another could represent all the cities. These themes can be laid on top of one another, creating a stack of information about the same geographic area. E ach layer can be turned off and on, as if you were peeling a layer off the stack or placing it back on. You control the amount of information about an area that you want to see, at anytime, on any specific map. The technology components of a GIS can be explained interims of hard ware, software and human resources. GIS hard ware includes: computers, computer configuration/ net works, input devices, printers, and storage systems. Computers for GIS usage can be P Cs or supercomputers. These computers can be stand-alone units or can be hooked into a network environment. Input devices include digitizers and scanners. Printers and plotters are used to produce a hardcopy map. GIS storage systems include: optical disks, magnetic disks (such as a hard drive), floppy disks or magnetic tapes.GIS software includes both GIS program and special application packages, such as digital Terrain modeling and network analysis. The main difference between GIS software programs and desktop mapping programs is the ability of GIS programs to perform spatial analysis. ARC/ INFO by Environ mental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Inc. is one of typical examples of GIS software packages. Desktop mapping programs offer m any of the same features, as a GIS, but their ability to support spatial analyses are limited. They are developed to satisfy individual user needs for mapping presentations. MapInfo developed by MapInfo Corp is an example of popular desktop mapping programs. Human resources used to operate a GIS typically include: operational staff, technicalprofessional staff, and management personnel Operational staffers people such as (1) cartographers, who monitor the design of map displays, thestandards for map symbols and standard map series, (2) data capturers, who converts map into digital form and (3) potential usersof a GIS . Technical professional staff include (1) information analysts w ho solve particular user problems and satisfy their information needs, (2) system administrators, who are responsible for keeping the system (hardware/ software) operational , (3) programmers, who translate the application specifications prepared by the analyst into programs and (4) the database administrator, w ho assists the analysts, programmers and users to organize geographic features into layers, identify sources of data , develop coding structures for no graphics data, and document information about the contents of the databases . Management personnel include (1 ) the manager, who monitors the daily performance of the GIS project Implementation team and manages the output production as required by the organization and (2) the Quality Assurance Coordinator w ho manages the output of the final product to ensure that it meets the conversion specification and data acceptance plan. H o w a GIS Works:A GIS works by providing a way to capture or input data , store , retrieve and manage the data , manipulate and analyze the data , and finally a w ay of displaying that data as a map or as a document or both . Let’s take a closer look as each of these aspects of GIS.Data Input: All GIS data ha s to be in a digital form at so whether it’s a report, a photo, a map, or information gathered in the field , it has to be made digital . Obtaining geographic data to insert into a GIS is a large subject in which includes a number of different approaches. One of the most common ways to collect spatial geographic data is to perform a physical survey. This includes surveying the land, underwater areas, and underground features of the earth (which are referred to as field survey, hydrographic survey and mining survey respectively) .Basic forms of data input include: (1) Typing: Reports, survey documents,population statistics, etc., all have to be entered into the computer preferably in a data base for m at or as tabular data . (2) Scanning: Paper maps such as topographic maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed images if not already in a digital for m at need to be scanned and then georeferenced or georectified. When a picture or a map or an aerial photo is georeferenced it will open in a GIS program in the right place on a map in relation to other map objects being viewed. They will be in the proper place spatially. (3) Digitizing: currently digitizing is the most common method for converting existing maps and images into digital form. Digitizingis basically tracing points, lines, or areas fro m a paper map , or aerial photo so that instead of a photograph or a raster image , there is no w a digital line graphic or vector file .(4) GPS data capture: Data can also be placed in a GIS as points, lines, and polygons from a GPS unit if it has the capability of recording such information. (5) Aerial photography/remote sensing: T his is an increasingly popular way to gather spatial data. Aerial photographs are taken fro m an aircraft, after which they are measured and interpreted. Similarly, satellite re mote sensing can be interpreted for physical features and attributes. (6)Censuses: Censuses conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau gather a variety of demographic data such as population , age structure , sex ratio, race co m position , employment rates . (7) Statistics: Statistics are a set of mathematical methods used to collect and analyze data .These methods include the collection and study of data at different time intervals and at a fixed location, providing information for yearbooks, weather station reports, etc. This information often has a spatial component and can thus be incorporated into a GIS. (8) Tracking: Tracking is a process of collecting attribute data on changes that occur at a location over a period of time. Examples of tracking include: monitoring the change of an ecosystem, and real-time monitoring of a moving objects such as vehicles.Data Storage, Retrieval, and Management: Different types of information required for a GIS require storage which allows the information to be updated and queried for analysis by the user. There are two types of information to be stored; spatial data and attribute data, which is the topic of next text. Data Manipulation and Analysis: A good system and/ or software package allows the user to define and execute spatial and attribute procedures. T his is commonly thought of as the heart of the GIS. Overlaying, buffering, modeling, and analysis are so m e of the methods used in building a coverage or project. It also takes the users knowledge to recognize what is seen in the resulting map and data. The power of GIS is in the analysis of data.Data Output: Usually this is a map or graphic, which the user has generated after analyzing the data. School districts can use GIS to help the m in decisions like school boundaries and then create a map to distribute to the community. Tabular data and reports can be generated as w ell to help explain the details seen in the map or graphic and ho w the conclusions w ere derived.地理信息系统基础GIS定义GIS是一个只取首字母的地理信息系统意义的缩写词。

测绘专业英语作文English:Geomatics, also known as surveying and mapping, plays a vital role in modern society. It encompasses the science, technology, and art of acquiring, managing, analyzing, and presenting geospatial data. In today's digital age, the applications of geomatics are diverse and far-reaching, ranging from creating detailed maps for urban planning to precise measurements for construction projects. Geomatics professionals utilize advanced tools such as GPS, GIS, and remote sensing to collect and process data, providing valuable insights into various fields like environmental monitoring, disaster management, and infrastructure development. Their work not only aids in accurate land surveying but also contributes significantly to scientific research, resource management, and decision-making processes at local, national, and global scales.中文翻译:测绘学，也被称为测绘和制图，对现代社会起着至关重要的作用。