外交贸易壁垒【外文翻译】

中文3100字，2000单词，1.1万英文字符出处：Kuppusamy M, Gharleghi B. Green Barriers and China's Agricultural Product Export: Is There Any Relationship?[J]. Asian Social Science, 2014, 10(16):34-41.原文Green Barriers and China's Agricultural Product Export: IsThere Any Relationship?Kuppusamy, Mudiarasan; Gharleghi, BehroozAbstractAs an agricultural country, the export of China's agricultural products are often suffered the restrictions from the green barriers. The positive green barriers can regulate the agricultural production in China, and promote the agricultural development and international trade; on the other hand, the negative green barriers would increase the cost of trade, trade friction, and prevent the development of international trade. So the research of influence of green barriers on China's agricultural products is very realistic. According to the influence of green barriers on China's agricultural exports, the corresponding countermeasures can be made to deal with the green barriers and improvement of China's competitiveness in the international competition. This study examines the causes, influences and methods of green barriers on China's agricultural products export based on the questionnaires of 200 staffs of agricultural trade companies in Xi'an of Shaanxi province in China. To address this issue, Partial Least Square method is applied and the empirical result shows that there is a positive and significant effect from causes, influences, and methods towards the China's agricultural products export.Keywords: green barriers, agricultural product, export, China1. IntroductionThe green barrier is one of the most frequent measures in developed countries from the 1990's (Feng, 2007). As an agricultural country, the export of China's agricultural products are often suffered the restrictions from the green barriers. The positive green barriers can regulate the agricultural production in China, and promote the agricultural development and international trade; on the other hand, the negative green barriers would increase the cost of trading, even cause trade friction, and prevent the development of international trade.Green barriers are also called environmental barriers and green protectionism, which is a new trade barrier since 1990s. Buyers will impose green barriers on sellers' export when the buyers want to protect their own limited resources, human, animal, plant health and ecological environment in the modern international trade. Green barriers take place when importers have strict environmental protection laws and regulations to manage their own environment and technology standards.The green barriers are becoming not only the serious challenges faced by China's agricultural export products but also the biggest obstacle for China's agricultural exports (Yu, 2010). To deal with the green barriers, it is important to identify the causes of green barriers on China's agricultural products export, which are from both import and export countries. The limited agricultural technology of China is one significant cause. Due to the limited agricultural technology of China, the agricultural export products can't meet the highenvironmental standards mentioned in "green barriers" of the import countries. In the process of export, the quarantine system, import standards and complex inspection process that are regulated by the import countries are also the main causes. The complex process built by import countries is the biggest obstacle for China's agricultural products export.As agricultural trade plays a key role in China's foreign trade, how to break restrictions of green barriers impacted on agricultural export products and how to effectively regulate China's agricultural production with the correct use of the green barriers are the big problems for China's future development (Wang &Liu, 2007). By changing the negative influence and making use of the positive in influences of green barriers in China, the sustainable development of China's agricultural trade can also be promoted in the future.In most previous researches, the authors focus on the negative influences of green barriers. But the green barriers also have positive influences on the agricultural products export. The most significant issue for further exploration in the study is to effectively take use of the positive influences to improve China's agricultural products export. This study will make an empirical analysis of the positive influences of green barriers with questionnaires. Therefore, examining the relationship between green barriers and China's agricultural products export is the general objective of this study. More specifically the examination of the relationship between the causes, influences, and methods of green barriers with China's agricultural product export is taken into account in this paper.The focus of geographic location is Xi'an of Shaanxi province in China. One of the core industries in Xi'an is agricultural products export, and recently the agricultural products export in Xi'an is developing increasingly. So Xi'an is chosen to be the geographic location for this research. The unit of analysis focus of the study is 200 staffs of agricultural trade companies in Xi'an of Shaanxi province in China. The agricultural trade companies have comprehensive views about the green barriers. The research methods in this paper are questionnaire survey. SPSS and PLS will be used to analyze the data collecting from the survey.The organization of this paper is as follow: section 2 reviews the literature, section 3 describes the methods used, section 4 presents the empirical results and section 5 concludes.2. LiteratureReview Green barriers are also called environment barriers, and green protectionism. Because the importers of products want to protect their own limited resources, human, animal, plant health and ecological environment in the modern international trade, through the formulation and implementation, they issued strict environmental protection laws and regulations to achieve environment protection and technology standards. The green barriers prevent foreign products enter into the domestic markets.Their aim is to protect domestic products and one of the new type non-tariff barriers (Feng, 2007).2.1 Causes of Green BarriersAfter China entered into WTO, most of the developed countries set up green restrictions to the export products of China. This leads the dramatic dropping of China's commodities, especially the agricultural products. The domestic and foreign experts have done a lot of research about the green barriers in China.As mentioned by Zhu, Guo and Lan (2008), the environmental standards of developed countries are generally much higher than those of the developing countries. Especially a fewdeveloped countries make different standards for the imported products and domestic products, which makes the products of developing countries have more difficult to enter into the developed markets.The comparative advantage of price in developing countries is an indirect cause of green barriers (Ren, 2010). Developing countries are often rich in resources, especially China. The rich natural resources make the lower price of exported products from developing countries. With the comparative advantage of price, the developing and developed countries will have an enormous trade surplus. The developed countries due to the protection of their domestic market, will work out a policy with strict technical standards (Zhao, 2004).2.2 Influence of Green BarriersSong (2009) analyses the formation and the new characteristics of green barriers in the global economic crisis. The author also points out that the new developing dynamic of each country's green barriers in the global economic crisis, and mainly from the laws and regulations puts forward the measures of green barriers for China. ChenXu (2009), points out that green barriers has the duality, on the one hand, they are used by some developed countries as a limit or hinder of foreign products or services to enter into the international market and the developed countries, and have certain "legitimate" status; On the other hand, they objectively protect the global natural environment, original resources and human health. In view of this situation, on the one hand China can strengthen the propaganda of education and legislation to solve the green barriers in the international trade (Huang, 2007); On the other hand, China should reasonably use the green barriers in the international trade to improve the agricultural products' quality, and improve the technology innovation of China's agricultural products.At present many areas of China have make corresponding measures for the green barriers. For example, the implementation of "Definite List System" in Japan has affected the exports of eel and tea in Jiang Xi province. In order to solve the problem, the Inspection and Quarantine Institutions of Jiang Xi province add a technology group to deal with the "Definite List System" and the new European Food Hygiene Regulations. This technology group specially analyses the influence and measures for Jiang Xi export commodities to deal with "Definite List System", and report information to the relevant departments and enterprises, give consultation, and solve problems (Green, 2012). To some degree, the technology group has made great progress. The Chinese products that are most seriously affected by "green barriers" in global trade include agricultural products, textiles and clothing, leather products, electronic products and so on (Chen, 2009).The WTO accession has significantly lowered the tariff level to an average of 3.8% in developed countries and 14% for developing countries (Huang, 2007).The drop in tariff should presumably increase the market share of Chinese tea in importing countries, but that unfortunately did not happen. China's tea export, with its major markets in EU and Japan, has been substantially affected by the increasingly stringent pesticide residue control standards promulgated by China's trading partners (Zheng, 2003).2.3 Methods to Deal with Green BarriersYu (2010) mentioned that many global experts have done quite a lot research about the negative influence of the green barriers on China agricultural products export and made deeply detailed analysis of the countermeasures, but proposed less ideas on the positiveimpact. Only through analyzing both the positive and negative influences, China can put forward the corresponding measures for the green barriers in the light of these influences.Yin (2009) argued that developing green industries and enhancing China's international image are the necessary methods to deal with green barriers. At present, China's trade dependence has been higher than the U.S., Japan, India and Brazil. If China only focuses on improving openness, due to the deteriorating terms of trade, it will result in an outflow of resources. Therefore China should improve the quality of trade and optimize trade structure, which make China's products achieve the environmental standards and improve the quality of export products. There are three important factors.As a developing country, China has little environmental and security standards and even no standards for majority products.So an effective measurement to deal with green barriers is to improve the domestic environmental and safety standards. Efforts to integrate the standards of international and developed country are still a beginning and continue to advance slowly. The Measures on the Management of Environmental Standards, promulgated by SEPA, reflect a growing awareness and recognition of international or developed-country environmental standards (Seffens, 2011). It provides that the Chinese monitoring organization may use current international standards and standards in developed countries when verbalizing new environmental standards.Therefore, based on the literature above quoted and also the objectives of the paper, following hypotheses will be tested:Hypothesis 1: There is a significant relationship between the causes of green barriers and China's agricultural product export.Hypothesis 2: The impact of green barriers influencers toward China's agricultural product export is significant.Hypothesis 3: The impact of effective solutions of green barriers toward China's agricultural product export is significant.2.4 Research ModelIn this paper, the relationship between green barriers and China's agricultural products export (dependent variable) is investigated. In order to vividly show the green barriers in China, this study will identify three aspects of green barriers, which are causes, influences and methods (independent variables). The three aspects are also the three steps to analyse green barriers in China. To analyse green barriers, the causes are the first step. Then identifying the influences is the second step. The last step is the suitable methods based on causes and influences.3. Research MethodQuantitative research is chosen to be the main approach of this research. The data collection of this study will use survey, which is a non-experimental method. In survey research, respondents answer questions through interviews or questionnaires. In order to ensure the reliability of the survey, it is important that the questions are made appropriately. This research will use cross-sectional surveys. Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather information on a population at a single point in time. The sampling technique used in this paper is Cluster Sampling. This research focuses on the agricultural trade companies in China. All the samples are collected in Xi'an of Shaanxi province since the core industry of Xi'an is agriculture.译文绿色贸易壁垒与中国的农产品出口:他们的关系是什么?摘要：农业大国,中国农业产品的出口往往受到绿色壁垒的限制。

不完全替代和贸易成本与技术性贸易壁垒的关税等值外文翻译外文翻译原文Tariff Equivalent of Technical Barriers to Trade with Imperfect Substitution and Trade CostsMaterial Source: American Journal of Agricultural EconomicsAuthor: CHENGYAN YUE, JOHN BEGHIN, AND HELEN H. JENSENArticle 20 of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GATT permits governments to set their own standards and regulations on trade in order to protect human, animal, or plant life or health, provided they do not discriminate among countries or use this motive as concealed protectionism. In addition, two specific World Trade Organization WTO agreements deal with food safety and animal and plant health, and with product standards: the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement SPSA and the Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement TBTA. The SPSA allows countries to set their own standards, but it requires that the standards should not arbitrarily discriminate between countries with similar conditions. The TBTA was generated to minimize unnecessary obstacles in regulations, standards, and testing and certification procedures. Inpractice, however, some governments use stricter health and safety regulations than necessary to isolate domestic producers from international competition. The stricter regulations may lead to questionable impediments to imports that compete with domestic products in addition to the existing tariff barriers. When the possibility of a disease or pest transmission is very low or threat to food safety is small, these trade impediments often cause welfare losses for importing countries and mercantilist losses for exporting countries due to reduced exports These issues have of course attracted the attention of economists Anderson, McRae, and Wilson 2001; Bureau, Marette, and Schiavina 1998; Josling, Roberts, and Orden 2004; Roberts and Krissoff 2003. The growing literature on sanitary and phytosanitary SPS regulations and other technical barriers to trade TBT often uses a price-wedge approach1 to quantify the impact of a barrier on market equilibrium and trade, e.g., Calvin and Krissoff 1998; Campbell and Gossette 1994. Although not unique or sophisticated, the method has been legitimized in the economics literature with some prescriptions and qualifiers to account for transportation cost and quality differences Baldwin 1991; Deardorff and Stern 1998. The use of a price-wedge approach often abstracts from quality differences or simply addresses the difference by choosing “close” substitutes. Transportation costs may be reduced to the differential between cost-insurance-freight andfree-onboard CIF-FOB prices and abstract from the internal transportation cost once imports are landed. All price-wedge estimates of which we are aware rely on the assumption of homogeneous commodities and a price arbitrage condition. By assuming that domestic and imported goods are perfect substitutes, the gap between their prices reflects trade impediments from various policies and natural protection. Border tariffs and transportation and transaction costs prevent full arbitrage between the two prices Head and Mayer2002. Hence, in principle, the price gap can yield an estimate of the tariff equivalent of the TBT once transportation and trade costs and other impediments have been taken into account.In this article we derive a revamped tariff equivalent estimate of a TBT. We extend the price-wedge framework by first relaxing the homogeneous commodity assumption, straightforward but instrumental step overlooked in the literature on TBT measurement. We account explicitly for commodity heterogeneity and perceived quality of substitutes. Next, we incorporate recent developments and findings on large and costly border effects arising from transportation, linguistic differences, and poor infrastructure and law enforcement Anderson and van Wincoop 2004; Head and Mayer 2002; Hummels and Skiba 2004. Two major findings of this new literature are particularly relevant to our work. First, trading costs are very large and often greater than policy impediments, and cannot be ignored. While CIF-FOB ratios have fallen over time, other transportationand trade costs have remained high and have been underestimated. Second, these costs are structured on a per-unit basis rather than following the so-called iceberg method;2 they act as a specific tariff rather than an ad valorem tax Hummels and Skiba 2004. These per-unit costs shift supply in a parallel manner rather than proportionally, which influences the estimate of the TBT. We provide a consistent approach to apportion the internal-border price difference between potential sources of the difference quality and heterogeneity of goods, border tariff, TBT, transportation and other transaction costs. This approach allows us to elucidate the respective role of each source leading to a credible estimate of the tariff equivalent of the TBT.We systematically explore the robustness of the tariff-equivalent estimate to underlying assumptions on commodity heterogeneity, home-good preference, trading costs, and the chosen reference data. We show the importance of selecting best values of these key determinants substitution elasticity, home-good preference, and trade cost on which the policy analysis can be centered. We then analyze the sensitivity of the TBT estimate around these central values of the determinants and associated welfare implications. The analysis shows the value of narrowing the set of possible estimates of the TBT using available dataand knowledge on the quality and heterogeneity of the domestic and competing imported goods.Our article bridges two methods often used to estimate the trade effects of TBTs: the tariff-equivalent?price-wedge approach mentioned previously and the gravity-equation approach.3 Recent conceptual developments have provided theoretical foundations to the gravity-equation approach and account explicitly for relative prices of traded and domestic substitutes and for trading costs. In addition, they attempt to better measure and decompose “border effects” of trade barriers and transportation costs between trade partners. These new approaches have been applied to aggregate trade data but not to individual commodities Anderson and vanWincoop2004; Head and Mayer 2002.Calvin and Krissoff 1998 provide a tariff equivalent of phytosanitary barriers in the Japanese apple market regarding the risk of contamination by fire blight that has been the origin of a long WTO dispute between United States and Japan WTO 2002, 2003a?e, 2004a?d, 2005. The dispute has attracted much attention. Calvin and Krissoff 1998 use the law of one price under a homogeneous commodity assumption arbitrage condition to calculate the tariff equivalent of SPS barriers affecting apple imports in Japan to avoid damages from fire blight. By assuming that Japan’s dom estic and imported apples are perfect substitutes, the gap between the prices of domestic and imported apples accounts for the bordertariff and other trade impediments that prevent full arbitrage. The latter authors also abstract from other border effects internal transportation and transaction costs, leading to a likely overstatement of the cost of a TBT barrier, other things being equal. They rely on several reference years to mitigate annual variations in the reference data used to calibrate the tariff equivalent to the TBTs. Using recent data and the proposed revamped approach. We provide a new investigation of the Japan?U.S. apple dispute. We compute the tariff equivalent of Japanese TBT regulations affecting apple trade and quantify the impact of removing these policies on welfare and apple trade flows. We also draw policy implications. The apple dispute offers an opportunity to validate our contention that departures from perfect substitution and significant trade costs have a substantial impact on the estimate of SPS/TBT regulation and hence on welfare and policy implications derived from this estimate.The high technical barriers to importing apples into Japan have brought repeated complaints from several exporting countries and have led to a thirty-year dispute Elms 2004. The latest episode of this dispute has taken place within the WTO. Japan-Measures Affecting the Importation of Apples WTO 2002, 2003a?e, 2004a?d, 2005 relates to the United States’ complaint about the Japanese requirements imposed on apples imported from the United States and their inconsistency with WTO principles. Theprohibitions and requirements included, for example, the prohibition of imported apples from states other than designated areas in Oregon and Washington; the prohibition of imported apples from any orchard whether it is free of fire blight or not if fire blight was detected within a 500-meter buffer zone surrounding such orchard; the requirement that export orchards be inspected three times a year at blossom, fruitlet, and harvest stages to check if fire blight is present in order to apply the afore-mentioned prohibitions; the requirement that at the post-harvest stage, apples for export to Japan be separated from fruits for export to other markets; and chlorination of apples for export to Japan. In 1997, the United States requested that Japan modify its import restrictions on apples based on published scientific evidence that mature, symptomless apples are not carriers of fire blight. In 2000, the United States agreed to carry out joint research proposed by Japan to confirm the results of those earlier studies. The USDA’s Agricultural Research Service ARS and Japan’s Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries MAFF conducted the joint research. The research results confirmed that mature, symptomless apples are not carriers of fire blight. This finding provided additional scientific support for the U.S. position. Because the results of this research were released in February 2001, the U.S. government has repeatedly pressured Japan to modify its import restrictions. After extensive bilateral discussions with USDA scientists, Japan refused tomodify its import restrictions in October 2001.In March 2002, the United States requested WTO consultations concerning Jap an’s import restrictions on the U.S. apples. Consultations in April 2002 failed to settle the dispute. In May 2002, the United States requested that the WTO establish a panel to consider the Japanese restrictions. In June 2002, a panel was established by the Dispute Settlement Body DSB of the WTO to consider this issue. Before the Panel, the United States claimed that Japan was acting inconsistently with some articles of the SPSA, certain articles of the Agreement on Agriculture, and the so-called “GATT1994.” In July 2003, the Panel found that Japan’s phytosanitary measures were maintained without sufficient scientific evidence and inconsistent with Japan’s obligation, did not qualify as a provisional measure, and were not based on a risk assessment. In September 2003, Japan appealed the WTO Panel ruling. In addition to Japan’s appeal, the United States cross-appealed the Panel Report. At the same time, third participants, such as Australia, Brazil, the European Union, and New Zealand, filed their submissions. After more investigations, in November 2003, the DSB upheld the findings of July 2003. Therefore, the Appellate Body recommended that the DSB request that Japan bring its inconsistent measures into conformity with SPSA.Half a year later, in July 2004, the United States held that Japan failed to comply with the recommendations and rulings of the DSB by theend of the reasonable period of time. Therefore, the United States requested that the DSB establish a panel and simultaneously requested authorization on suspension of concessions and other obligations in one or more of the following: tariff concessions and related obligations under the GATT 1994 on a list of products; and concessions and other obligations under the SPS Agreement and the Agreement on Agriculture. Because Japan objected to the United States’ suspension request, this matter has been referred to arbitration. The arbitration Panel’s report of June 2005 mostly sided with the U.S. arguments. In August 2005, Japan issued a protocol agreeable to the United States, which removed measures that had been deemed inconsistent with WTO principles WTO 2005.译文不完全替代和贸易成本与技术性贸易壁垒的关税等值资料来源: 美国农业经济学杂志作者:CHENGYAN YUE, JOHN BEGHIN, AND HELEN H. JENSEN《关税及贸易总协定总协议》第20条允许各国政府来制定自己的标准和贸易法规以保护人类、动物或植物的生命或健康,只要他们不歧视国家之间或不使用此动机为贸易隐蔽的保护主义。

stocks 存货,库存量cash sale 现货purchase 购买，进货bulk sale 整批销售，趸售distribution channels 销售渠道wholesale 批发retail trade 零售业hire—purchase 分期付款购买fluctuate in line with market conditions 随行就市unfair competition 不合理竞争dumping 商品倾销dumping profit margin 倾销差价,倾销幅度antidumping 反倾销customs bond 海关担保chain debts 三角债freight forwarder 货运代理trade consultation 贸易磋商mediation of dispute 商业纠纷调解partial shipment 分批装运restraint of trade 贸易管制RTA (Regional Trade Arrangements）区域贸易安排favorable balance of trade 贸易顺差unfavorable balance of trade 贸易逆差special preferences 优惠关税bonded warehouse 保税仓库transit trade 转口贸易tariff barrier 关税壁垒tax rebate 出口退税TBT (Technical Barriers to Trade) 技术性贸易壁垒贸易伙伴术语trade partner 贸易伙伴manufacturer 制造商，制造厂middleman 中间商，经纪人dealer 经销商wholesaler 批发商retailer, tradesman 零售商merchant 商人，批发商，零售商concessionaire, licensed dealer 受让人,特许权获得者consumer 消费者,用户client，customer 顾客，客户buyer 买主,买方carrier 承运人consignee 收货人进出口贸易词汇commerce, trade, trading 贸易inland trade，home trade, domestic trade 国内贸易international trade 国际贸易foreign trade, external trade 对外贸易，外贸import，importation 进口importer 进口商export, exportation 出口exporter 出口商import licence 进口许口证export licence 出口许口证commercial transaction 买卖，交易inquiry 询盘delivery 交货order 订货make a complete entry 正式/完整申报bad account 坏帐Bill of Lading 提单marine bills of lading 海运提单shipping order 托运单blank endorsed 空白背书endorsed 背书cargo receipt 承运货物收据condemned goods 有问题的货物catalogue 商品目录customs liquidation 清关customs clearance 结关国际贸易英语词汇集锦一贸易价格术语trade term / price term 价格术语world / international market price 国际市场价格FOB (free on board）离岸价C&F (cost and freight）成本加运费价CIF （cost, insurance and freight) 到岸价freight 运费wharfage 码头费landing charges 卸货费customs duty 关税port dues 港口税import surcharge 进口附加税import variable duties 进口差价税commission 佣金return commission 回佣，回扣price including commission 含佣价net price 净价wholesale price 批发价discount / allowance 折扣retail price 零售价spot price 现货价格current price 现行价格/ 时价indicative price 参考价格customs valuation 海关估价price list 价目表total value 总值贸易保险术语All Risks 一切险F.P.A. (Free from Particular Average）平安险W。

外文文献翻译- 碳排放贸易壁垒及其对中
国对外贸易的影响
碳排放贸易壁垒是指一种措施，旨在通过对那些排放较高的产
品或国家实施额外的贸易壁垒来减少全球碳排放量。

这种贸易壁垒
对中国对外贸易产生了深远的影响。

首先，碳排放贸易壁垒可能导致中国出口商品受到限制。

一些
国家可能会施加碳关税，对从中国出口的高碳排放产品征收额外费用。

这样一来，中国的出口商品可能在国际市场上失去竞争力，从
而对中国对外贸易造成不利影响。

其次，碳排放贸易壁垒可能导致中国加大减排力度。

为了避免
受到贸易壁垒的限制，中国可能会加大减排力度，减少国内产品的
碳排放量。

这将推动中国加快向低碳经济转型，促进可持续发展，
但也可能增加中国企业的成本压力。

此外，碳排放贸易壁垒还可能给中国提供发展低碳技术的机遇。

为了适应贸易壁垒的要求，中国企业可能会加大对低碳技术的研发
投入，提高产品的能源效率和环境友好性。

这将促进中国在低碳技术领域的创新能力，并推动中国成为全球低碳经济的领先者。

综上所述，碳排放贸易壁垒对中国对外贸易的影响是复杂而多元的。

它可能限制中国的出口商品，但也可能推动中国加大减排力度和发展低碳技术。

因此，中国应加强减排措施，加快低碳经济转型，以适应全球碳排放贸易壁垒的挑战。

贸易壁垒英文短篇演讲稿HONG KONG —China’s notorious online controls have long been criticized as censorship by human rights groups, businesses, Chinese Internet users and others.Now they have earned a new label from the American government: trade barrier.United States trade officials have for the first time added China’s system of Internet filters and blocks — broadly known as the Great Firewall —to an annual list of trade impediments. The entry says that over the last decade, the limits have “posed a significant burden to foreign suppliers, hurting both Internet sites themselves, and users who often depend on them for business.”The report from the Office of the United States Trade Representative said that over the last year, the “outright blocking of websites a ppears to have worsened,” noting that eight of the top 25 most popular global sites are blocked in China.“Much of the blocking appears arbitrary; for example, a major home improvement site in the United States, which would appearwholly innocuous, is typical of sites likely swept up by the Great Firewall,” the report said.China blocks some of the biggest corporate names on the Internet, including services offered by Google, Facebook and Twitter. That can hobble the ability of foreign companies to do business in China, whether through blocked websites or workplaces that cannot reach Gmail, Google’s email service. China also blocks a growing number of foreign news outlets, including the website of The New York Times.Officials at China’s commerce and foreign affairs ministries, as well as at its top Internet regulatory agency, did not respond to requests for comment.In recent years, China and the United States have clashed over trade in the technology industry. Last year, the Obama administration responded to lobbying from American companies against a number of Chinese laws that the companies said were devised to push them out of China. Beijing toned down language in an anti terrorism law, and it scrapped a regulation restricting what foreign hardware could be sold to Chinese banks.Still, any effort by the United States to persuade China to reduce its Internet censorship would most likely be a nonstarter. The Chinese government considers the close control of online discourse a matter of national security, largely out of concerns about the Internet’s power to aid the organization of protests and the spread of dissent. As a result, Beijing has shown little flexibility on issues of censorship in the past, and it tends to block any Internet media it feels it does not have complete control over.Scott Kennedy, who holds the Freeman Chair in China Studies at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, said the move by the United States trade office illustrated the gulf between the attitude represented by Chin a’s heavy regulation of the Internet and the one put forward by the United States through trade agreements like the Trans-Pacific Partnership.“China is far less willing to separate commercial and national security concerns,” he wrote in an email. “This di fference in approach is unlikely to disappear anytime soon, no matter how much the U.S. highlights the issue.”China cites the threat of online espionage, pointing todisclosures by Edward J. Snow den, the former National Security Agency contractor, that showed American intelligence efforts to use American hardware abroad to gather information.Online filters in China create an Internet largely walled off from the rest of the world, violating the fundamental idea of the web as an open channel of communication among people across the globe. Detractors say that the practice is anti competitive, prohibits freedom of expression and ultimately damages Chinese economic growth by limiting access to information. Supporters of China’s policies say that the rules have allowed the country to foster a thriving set of domestic Internet companies.The United States trade office added China’s Internet censorship policies to its annual National Trade Estimate Report, released on March 31. The insertion was reported on April 1 by Inside U.S. Trade, a trade publication.American trade officials have scrutinized the Great Firewall in the past. In 2011, the United States trade office said that China’s filters were a commercial barrier that hurt American small businesses. The statement was among the formal questionssubmitted through the World Trade Organization to China about what laws and regulations dictated the availability of commercial websites in the country.Some of the largest American Internet companies and foreign trade groups have long lobbied the United States to treat censorship as a trade matter. For instance, in 2008, Google’s deputy general counsel testified before a Senate subcommittee that the United States government should make the matter a central issue in trade talks.。

关税壁垒对中国外贸的影响随着全球化的发展，贸易自由化已成为全球经济繁荣的基石。

然而，目前全球贸易形势面临不少的挑战，其中之一便是一些国家采取的关税壁垒政策。

本文旨在探讨关税壁垒对中国外贸的影响。

一、关税壁垒是什么关税壁垒，英文为tariff barriers，是指一国采取的保护主义贸易政策措施，用来限制或阻碍其他国家商品进入本国市场的贸易壁垒。

除了关税壁垒之外，还有非关税壁垒，如配额、禁止进口、反倾销等措施。

二、关税壁垒的危害1. 影响贸易自由化进程关税壁垒的实施违背了贸易自由化的原则，破坏了全球供应链的畅通，制约了全球经济繁荣。

同时，关税壁垒也是一把双刃剑，对实施国自身市场的开放也会有所限制。

2. 损害消费者利益关税壁垒导致市场上进口商品价格上升，使消费者失去选择权，消费者只能选择本国商品，损害了消费者的利益。

3. 带来贸易战关税壁垒容易引起其他国家对此反制，加剧了贸易战的升级。

贸易战降低全球经济增速，给全球经济带来危害。

三、关税壁垒对中国外贸的影响关税壁垒对中国外贸的影响主要表现为以下三个方面。

1. 减少中国的出口量和贸易规模关税壁垒对中国进口的商品加征关税，使得中国商品的价格上升，减少数量和种类，降低本国出口量和贸易规模。

例如，美国对中国进口钢铁和铝制品加征关税，导致中国钢铁贸易受挫，铝制品贸易量下降。

2. 降低中国经济增长速度作为世界第二大经济实体，中国经济的持续增长与对外贸易密不可分。

而关税壁垒给中国经济带来的影响则是双重的，一方面，关税壁垒加剧了贸易战升级带来的不确定性，制约了中国经济的增长速度；另一方面，关税壁垒的实施也对中国企业的负担和成本带来较大的影响，可能使得出口企业面临裁员或倒闭风险。

3. 推动中国转型升级和结构调整关税壁垒也对中国进行转型升级和结构调整产生强制信号和推动作用。

中国出口模式已经过度依赖低成本劳动力和资源加工，随着国际贸易规则和形势的改变，这种模式已经不再可行。

中国对外贸易壁垒及其影响研究中国是世界上最大的出口国和第二大进口国，因此，中国对外贸易的政策和壁垒对全球经济具有重要影响。

本文将研究中国对外贸易的壁垒以及这些壁垒对中国经济和全球经济的影响。

中国对外贸易壁垒主要有两个方面，分别是进口壁垒和出口壁垒。

中国政府通过实施进口壁垒措施来限制部分商品的进口数量或提高进口商品的关税。

这些壁垒措施包括关税、配额、质量检验以及技术标准的要求等。

此外，中国还采取非关税壁垒，如反倾销措施和补贴政策，以限制进口商品的竞争力。

而中国的出口壁垒主要体现在出口商品的质量标准和技术要求上，以确保其出口商品的质量和安全性。

中国的进口壁垒对全球经济产生了一定的影响。

首先，这些壁垒反映了中国政府保护国内产业的意图，通过限制进口商品的数量和提高关税，中国可以保护本国产业免受外国竞争的冲击，提高国内产业在全球市场上的竞争力。

然而，这些措施也导致了中国市场上的商品价格上涨，给中国消费者带来了经济压力。

其次，中国的进口壁垒措施也受到国际贸易伙伴的批评，他们认为中国不遵守国际贸易规则，以不正当的手段限制进口商品。

这可能导致贸易争端升级，对中国和全球经济造成负面影响。

中国的出口壁垒也对全球经济产生了一定的影响。

出口商品的质量标准和技术要求使中国的出口商品在国际市场上更具竞争力，提高了中国制造业的质量水平和技术水平。

然而，这些壁垒也给中国的出口行业带来了一定的负面影响。

一方面，这些壁垒增加了出口商品的成本，降低了中国制造业的利润空间。

另一方面，这些壁垒也可能引发贸易争端，使中国的出口面临贸易制裁和限制。

中国对外贸易壁垒对中国经济的影响是复杂的。

一方面，这些壁垒为中国政府提供了保护国内产业的工具，通过限制和控制进口商品，中国政府可以保护本国产业的发展。

另一方面，中国的贸易壁垒也面临着一些负面效应。

首先，贸易壁垒会导致进口商品价格上涨，给中国消费者带来经济压力。

其次，中国的贸易壁垒可能引发国际贸易争端，并导致其他国家采取报复性措施，对中国出口造成负面影响。

.外交常用英文词汇翻译!Diplomacy 外交常用词汇Ministry of Foreign Affairs 外交部\r Protocol Department 礼宾司\r Information Department 新闻司\r diplomatic mission 外交代表机构embassy 大使馆\rlegation 公使馆\rconsulate-general 总领事馆consulate 领事馆\roffice of the chargé d'affaires, 代办处\r military attaché's office, 武官处\r commercial counsellor's office 商务处\r press section, in formation service 新闻处\rliaison office 联络处diplomat 外交家, 外交官\rdiplomatic rank 外交官衔diplomatic representative 外交代表members of the administrative and technical staff 行政技术人员\r ambassador 大使ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary 特命全权大使nuncio 教廷大使internuncio 教廷公使counsellor withthe rank of minister, minister-counsellor 公使衔参赞\r chargé d'affaires, 代办chargé d'affasiread interim, 临时代办counsellor 参赞first secretary 一等秘书\rsecond secretary 二等秘书third secretary 三等秘书attaché, 随员commercial secretary 商务参赞cultural secretary 文化参赞commercial attaché, 商务专员cultural attaché, 文化专员military attaché, 武官naval attaché, 海军武官air attaché, 空军武官consul-general 总领事\rconsul 领事doyen of the diplomatic corps, dean of the diplomatic corps 外交使团团长roving ambassador 巡回大使ambassador-at-large 无任所大使special envoy 特使accredited to ... 向…派遣的foreign affairs 外交memorandum, aidememoire 备忘录\r persona non-grat 不受欢迎的人. de jure recognition 法律承认commnique 公报announcement 公告, 通告letter of credence, credentials 国书mutual recognition 互相承认establishment of diplomatic relations 建立外交关系letter of introduction 介绍书\rduring one's absence 离任期间identification card 身份证\rstatement 声明de facto recognition 事实上承认\r persona grata 受欢迎的人\rdiplomatic practice 外交惯例diplomatic immunities 外交豁免diplomatic privileges 外交特权diplomatic channels 外交途径diplomatic courier 外交信使diplomatic bag, diplomatic pouch 外交邮袋letter of appointment 委任书\r certificate of appointment 委任证书exequatur 许可证书declaration, manifesto 宣扬letter of recall 召回公文note 照会verbal note 普通照会\rcircular note 通知照会formal note 正式照会normalization 正常化\rbe appointed ambassador to ... 被任命为驻…大使\rto express regret 表示遗憾to sever diplomatic relations 断绝外交关系to resume charge of the office, to return to one's post 返任to proceed to take up one's post 赴任to present one's credentials 递交国书to exchange ambassadors 互派大使to resume diplomatic relations 恢复外交关系to establish diplomatic relations at ambassadorial level 建立大使级外交关系\rto establish consular relations 建立领事关系to assume one's post 就任to take exception to; to object to 提出异议to upgrade diplomatic relations 外交关系升格to make representations to, to take up a (the) matter with 向…交涉\rto lodge a protest with 向…提出抗议\r to request the consent of... 征求…的同.意to suspend diplomatic relations 中断外交关系tea party 茶会an atmosphere of cordiality and friendship 诚挚友好的气氛\rreciprocal banquet 答谢宴会delegation 代表团\rhead of the delegation, leader of the delegation 团长deputy head of the delegation, deputy leader of the delegation 副团长\r member of the delegation 代表团成员\r memorial speech 悼词to develop the relations offriendship and cooperation 发展友好合作关系prosperity and strength 繁荣富强visit 访问friendly visit, goodwill visit 友好访问informal visit 非正式访问official visit 正式访问private visit 私人访问state visit 国事访问obituary 讣告questions of common interest;question of common concern 共同关心的问题\r state banquet 国宴message of greeting, message of congratulation 贺电speech of welcome 欢迎词\r welcoming banquet 欢迎宴会cocktail party 鸡尾酒会good health and a long life 健康长寿profound condolence 深切哀悼\r cordial hospitality 盛情接待the two sides, the two parties 双方luncheon 午宴message of condolence 唁电reception 招待会\rtoast 祝酒词\rmemorial meeting 追悼会\rto convey one's sympathy 表示慰问to meet with 会见to review the guard of honour 检阅仪仗队to exchange views 交换意见to receive 接见to be shocked to learn of 惊悉be of the opinion, to hold, to consider, to maintain 认为to propose a toast to... 提议为…干杯\r on the happy occasion of 欣逢\ron learning with great joy 欣悉to give a banquet in honour of... 宴请…\ron invitation, upon invitation 应邀at the invitation of... 应…邀请\r.in the company of..., accompanied by...在…陪同下to express one's sincerecongratulations and best wishes 致以衷心的祝贺和最好的愿望to wish prosperity to a country andwell-being to its people 祝（某国）国家繁荣人民幸福\rto take note of... 注意到\rHis (Her, Your) Majesty 陛下His (Her, Your) Royal Highness 殿下His (Her, Your) Excellency 阁下His excellency Mr. President andMme... …总统先生阁下和夫人\r。

外文翻译原文Causes and Countermeasures of Green Trade BarrierMaterial Source: Fiji Times Author: Steven W. Popper Abstract: The green trade barriers is the chronic problem of China's export enterprises, to China great economic losses to China in international trade at a very bad position. Its causes are mainly environmental issues of globalization, the rise of new trade protectionism and national technical level, differences in economic strength. The solution to this problem the most effective way is the enterprise of a green marketing strategy.In the process of economic globalization, trade and closer ties between the global environment, and a major impact on world economic development. States have introduced a variety of environmental protection laws, regulatory measures, however, these measures have resulted in a de facto trade barriers in developing countries from developed countries and even the challenges, so that China in international trade at a very bad position. According to statistics, join the WTO, the impact of green barriers by the year 2002 only the loss of China's export trade volume of up to about 170 billion U.S. dollars. Green trade barriers on China’s exports, market size and export trade, export growth, foreign trade and export sectors (agriculture, food, machinery and electronic products, textile and apparel products, medicines, etc.), export volume, export costs, the effectiveness of exports and so on have been produced varying degrees of impact, and even the credibility of China's export enterprises and commodities, etc. are all adversely affected, leading to some of the products of foreign consumer confidence in China's decline on China's exports have long-term adverse effects.First,Analysis of the formation of the green trade barriers(1) The globalization of environmental problems is the external reason for the formation of the green trade barriers. Environmentally sustainable development path chosen by triggered a worldwide environmental movement, it is in environmental issues against the backdrop of globalization, countries of the world throughparticipation in international conventions, international environmental organizations, aimed at protecting the natural resources, ecological environment and human health, environmental systems and standards. These systems and standards embodied in the trade, that is, from other countries, products and services to set up green barriers to restrict imports, thereby creating a de facto barriers.(2) The rise of new trade protectionism is the root cause of the green trade barriers. WTO trade protectionism did not make disappear, but increased competition forced the governments to reduce the level of protection in the tariff means the case, to find more effective non-tariff barriers to protect domestic markets and industries. Green barriers reasonable, legitimate and extensive features make it the preferred means of trade protectionism. Developing countries facing a hard choice: either to withdraw from the developed country markets, or followed by the developed countries, production and national economic strength is not consistent with the high input, high-tech "green products." But in any case, developing countries have to pay a heavy price. From both the developed countries to protect domestic industries, has become a standard setter. This is the "green barrier" as a new form of protectionism in international trade to the rapid development of the fundamental reason.(3) The national technical level, differences in economic strength is green trade barriers objective reasons. Although people have recognized the concept of sustainable development, but they differ on how to achieve. Developed countries due to economic development level and high level of environmental protection technology, its environmental requirements and standards is also high. In developing countries due to financial and technical constraints, simply can not meet the environmental requirements in developed countries. This is the objective, causing the green barriers. As world commodity with a wide range of production processes and standards varied, the development of uniform global environmental standards is extremely difficult Luoguo based on national interest considerations have to set their own environmental standards, resulting in vastly different green certification and implementation of the system and indirectly caused his country's products discrimination, the formation of a new green barriers.Second, in order to respond to green marketing, green trade barrierDeveloping countries should get rid of the dilemma of the situation as described above must be produced that meet environmental standards, and to achieve corporate profitability products. In my opinion, enterprises green marketingstrategy is the most effective approach. Green marketing refers to the promotion of sustainable development as the goal for the realization of economic benefits, consumer demand and environmental benefits of a unified, enterprise based on scientific and normative principles, through purposeful and planned to develop products and with other market players the exchange value of their products to meet market demand as a management process. Enterprises to implement green marketing strategies can not only make our products meet environmental standards, and by implementing green marketing idea can be realized cost reduction or increase value-added products in order to achieve profits. Specifically, companies must grasp the following aspects:(1)A development of green products: By implementing green marketing ideas to reduce business costsGreen marketing should be built on green production basis. Green Product refers to the production, use and disposal of environmentally friendly or endanger small conducive to recycling, and recycling products.Green production related to green product design, green materials, the use and the use of green packaging, and several other elements. In the green design, while ensuring quality of products under the premise firmly grasp the theme of the green, taking full account of products in the manufacture, sale, use and end of life issues such as post-recycling. Designed for use with a reusable, renewable, biodegradable and easy handling characteristics of the green material; attention to minimize the types of materials to increase their likelihood of re-use, and to simplify the follow-up treatment, reduce waste and reduce raw material consumption. This will not only be able to achieve the environmental objectives but can also reduce costs, improve product value, thereby improving economic efficiency; the same time, pay attention to the use of green packaging. Green packaging is conserving resources, reducing waste, recycling after use or recycled easily and do not pollute the environment packaging. Green packaging in the developed countries have been widely popular in China is still in its infancy. This requires the Chinese enterprises in the packaging process, China must strive to reduce packaging costs, but also taking into account packaging waste pollution on the environment, and constantly developed a new type of green packaging materials.(2)Development of green technology: through technological innovation to reduce costsGreen Marketing in China at the present stage of development a key issue ishow to do "both economical and environmental protection", to resolve this problem the most thorough way to great efforts to develop green technology, the implementation of technological innovation. With the knowledge economy era, the rapid development of high-tech world, an eco-friendly, green-oriented large groups of subjects is rising to the ecological and environmental protection as the center of wave shape. This green technology research and development has opened up broad prospects laid a solid foundation. Eco-technology innovation will not only allow rapid popularity of green products, but also prompted a significant decline in production costs, thus providing the rapid diffusion of green marketing might.(3)Establish a corporate brand image of green:The green brand to increase product value-added contentGreen Marketing in the enterprise is required to establish a corporate focus on green brand image, through the corporate brand to increase the green content of value-added products, thereby enhancing the product price. Enterprises can use various media to publicize himself has done in the green fields, and actively participate in various matters relating to environmental protection, with practical actions to strengthen enterprises in the public eye impression. At the same time, companies should vigorously promote green consumption and fashion, warning people to use green products, green marketing support and guide the green consumer demand.(4)To Green Governance: By turning waste into Bora improve enterprise profitabilityGreen governance. Is to take effective measures to tackle pollution. This will require enterprises not only to achieve a useful resource of waste in the use and development of chemical harm into, but also to carry out mutually beneficial cooperation between enterprises, will the other side of the waste as their raw materials or energy, turning waste into treasure, and thus to achieve the purpose of improving profitability of the business.Additionally, businesses should actively seek industry associations, government and business sector to support the diplomatic service. Through organized and exporting countries to negotiate as much as possible to develop practical products that environmentally friendly production standards in order to safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of enterprises.译文绿色贸易壁垒的成因及对策资料来源:斐济时报作者：Steven W. Popper 摘要：绿色贸易壁垒是长期困扰中国出口企业的问题，给中国造成了极大的经济损失，使中国在国际贸易中处于极为不利的地位。

绿色贸易壁垒外文翻译文献绿色贸易壁垒外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Journal of Economic SurveysGreen Barriers Trade and its Influences onChina's Foreign TradeThomas J. SargentABSTRACTIn recent years, green consumption has become a main trend of the consumption in many developed countries and these countries began to make strict standards to restrict the entry of foreign products below their standards of environmental protection.Key words：Green Barriers; products; TradeIn recent years, green consumption has become a main trend of the consumption in many developed countries and these countries began to make strict standards to restrict the entry of foreign products below their standards of environmental protection. These regulations have many unfavorable influences on the export of developing countries and are generally known as "Green Barriers to trade". In accordance with the provisions of the Agreement on Green Barriers to Trade of WTO, "Green Barriers to Trade" is defined as the compulsory and arbitrary Green regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures of the importing countries in the name of the protection of human health and environment that actually form barriers totrade with an aim to protect its home market and domestic products.1. Analysis on the causes of formation of "Green Trade Barriers"Firstly, the worsening of ecology is the major reason for "Green Barriers". With the development of industry and technology, the economy increases very fast and the human life has been improved. But at the same time, the development of economy is at a cost of the destruction of environment. The environmental problems have aroused public attention and the international society has begun to make laws to protect environment. In June, 1972, the United Nations published the Stockholm Declaration and stressed the importance of the protection of environment. From then on, more and more people concern about the environmental problems. The concept of environment has influenced the life of humankinds in every layer and the developed countries began to make very strictenvironmental protection rules under the pressure of public, which forms a barrier to the international trade.Secondly, the differences between countries in technology, environmental standards and investment directly cause the "Green Trade Barriers". As we know, developed countries surpass the developing countries in science and technology. Even if they make very strict environmental standards, their domestic products can reach the requirements of strictenvironmental standards while such standards may constitute barriers to products from developing countries. In fact, these standards may become discriminations against products from the developing countries and constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between country.Thirdly, the rise of protectionism in some developed countries contributes much to the formation of Green barriers. In modern market economy, competition is more severe than before. The domestic industries are directly facing competition from the products of other countries, and they will urge their governments to take effective measures to protect them from the foreign products. While because of the multilateral negotiations of WTO, the tariffs have been greatly cut down and the use of non-tariff measures has also been restricted. Therefore, many developed countries have to resort to some legal restrictions of importation such as Green barriers to protect their home industries, which gives rise to the increase of Green barriers.2. The main forms of Green barriers tradeIn accordance with the related provisions of WTO Agreement on Green Barriers to Trade, the Green barriers are usually in the forms as follows:2.1G reen TariffSome developed countries would impose import surtax on products that may cause pollution or harms to the environment. If such measure is abused,it will constitute a Green barrier to trade.2.2G reen StandardsGreen standards refer to those compulsory Green standards provided through legislation. With their superiority in economy and technology, developed countries tend to make higher Green standards with no consideration on the interests of the developing countries. Such high Green standards will in fact constitute a barrier to the products from developing countries which are inferior in technology.2.3 Package RequirementsCertain developed countries stress too much on the protection of environment and require the products should be packed with materials that will have no harm to the environment. If the products are not packed in this way, they will not be allowed to sell in the developed countries. If such requirements are unnecessarily strict, they will be a barrier to the international trade.2.4 Sanitary and quarantine inspection systemOn the excuse of the protection of the health of human, animals and plants, developed countries tend to use very strict sanitary and quarantine inspection to restrict the importation of the products from the developing countries and protect their domestic industries.3. Influences of Green barriers on China's foreign tradeChina has suffered great loss due to the "Green barriers". In 2002, vegetables from Taizhou were prevented from entering Japan because of Japanese strict inspection and the price was greatly cut down. Also in 2002, the aquatic products from Ningbo were restricted by European Union (EU) because they could not reach the sanitary standards of EU. Due to Green trade barriers, 60 kinds of Chinese agricultural chemists were banned by EU because they could not reach the Green standards of EU. In accordance with the statistics of United Nations, China has suffered a loss of $7.4 billion in 2002 due to "Green barriers trade". China's export to EU, Japan, Korea and other countries decreases notably. Generally speaking, agricultural products and foodstuff, textile products and mechanical and electronic products are the three main industries which suffer great loss because of the strict Green barriers. Since these three products constitute the majority of Chinese exportation, we can easily draw a conclusion: "Green barriers to trade" has become one of the major obstacles in Chinese exportation.4. Countermeasures to the Green barriers of the developed countriesAs mentioned above, it is a fact that the Chinese export products are facing Greenbarriers of the developed countries and has suffered great loss. Therefore Chinese exporters should think carefully about the countermeasures to eliminate the unfavorable influences of such measures. First, we should make full use of the preferential treatment to the developing countries stipulated in the Agreement of Green trade barrier. According to the provisions of the Agreement of Green trade barrier, developed countries should take account of the special development, financial and trade needs of developing country members with a view to ensuring that such Green regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures do not create unnecessary obstacles to exports from developing countries. So, as a developing member of WTO, China is entitled to such preferential treatment. Secondly, China should make use of the Dispute Settlement System of WTO to protect her interests. Different from GATT, WTO has set up a powerful dispute settlement system to solve the disputes between the members of WTO. So, if our interests are harmed by the unfair Green barriers of other WTO members, we can resort to Dispute Settlement Body to settle this dispute and urge other members to change their unfair practices so as to protect our interests. Thirdly, China should stress the protection of environment and take measures to improve the quality and Green level of her export products to meet higher Green standards, which will fundamentally solve the problem of Green barriers.References[1]John, Smith. 2007, Green trade protectionism to Chinese agricultural product export influence Economics ,4,34-56.[2] Anderson, J.L., 2001, The Greening of World Trade Issues, Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 347-356.[3] Gallagher, R., 2003, International Trade in Agricultural Products, Journal of General Management, 3, 1, 43-62.绿色贸易壁垒及其对中国对外贸易的影响萨金特莱斯大学经济管理学院摘要：近年来，绿色消费在许多发达国家中已成为一个主要的消费趋势，这些发达国家开始采取严格的措施来限制一些国家的产品进入其国内市场。