语言学概论-课后参考答案--杨信彰

语言学概论-课后参考答案--杨信彰Charpter11.1.11. a. This sentence may have three interpretations: 1) He rolled from side to side in his grave. 2) He returned his grave. 3) He handed in his grave.b. There are two interpretations to this sentence: 1) They gave preference to both young men and young women. 2) They gave preference to women and young men.2. Units that have reference: I, saw, Mary, went, the library.Units that indicate structure: when, to.3. a. This sentence is grammatical, but is nonsensical.b. This sentence is ungrammatical and nonsensical.c. This is a good sentence.d. This is a good sentence.1.1.21. a. This sign is a symbol. It means we will have good luck. I know it from my cultural background, because the Chinese character "福" means "luck" and the color red symbolizes "goodness". The Chinese meaning of "upside down" is "倒", which has the similar pronunciation of "到(arrive)". Thus, when the character "福" is put upside down, it means that luck arrives.b. This sign is an icon. It means no smoking, and I know it from the picture.c. This sign is a mixture of a symbol and a icon. It means that "parking" is only allowed for disabled people.2. I think the house is on fire because smoke is a index of fire.3. To the physician, it means that the man has got a fever.4. I think so, but not exactly, because the difference of the consonants does not mean the bird in different places cries differently.1.1.31. according to the arbitrariness theory, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention. Thus, the name Xiao Long is just a label for the son. However, in Chinese culture dragon was the symbol for the emperor. Thus, the name may have certain associative meanings.2. No. The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts. In people's mind, "pig" stands for foolishness and laziness. If I name it Pig Hair Shampoo, no one will buy it.3. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.1.1.41. I prefer to use the spoken language. In a supermarket, the spoken language is much more convenient for people to communicate with each other. People do not have the time and necessity to use written language in communication.2. I think listening and speaking should come first. The primary medium of language is sound, and language is primarily vocal. What's more, children can learn to listen and speak a foreign language more quickly than they read and write.1.1.51. No, I don't agree with this point of view. Language is human specific, so humans and dogs can not communicate with each other.2. A parrot only can say what it is taught. It can not form an infinite set of utterances from a finite use of units. So, a parrot talking can not be equated with human language.3. That is only the result of the stimulus-response training.4. Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.1.1.61. The advanced technology such as telephones and the Internet makes human communication become much more convenient and frequent. People can communicate with others in remote places freely.2. There may exist several causes:1) The sender can not express himself or herself clearly.2) The receiver can not understand what the sender said.3) The receiver is unwilling to communicate with the sender.4) There exists misunderstanding because of the different cultural background of the sender and the receiver.3. We must pay key attention to learning the knowledge of the ways of thinking, acting and speaking of a language, for differences in this kind of knowledge may cause trouble in intercultural communication.1.2.11. a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. Informative function2. People like poetry because people can enjoy the rhythm and the melody of certain combinations of sounds in the poetry. And most creative uses of language in the poetry can provide people considerable pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes, ambiguities and metaphors.3. I may not say anything, but move the desk away.1.2.21. General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language whilst metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.2. No. According to Halliday, every sentence in a text is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.3. Halliday's functional theory emphasizes the relationship between language structure and the language functions in social life, while the traditional grammar emphasizes the forms of the sentence.1.3.11. I agree to the evolutionary theory which tends to believe that man evolved from lower forms of life, and so did language. This is a scientific approach to the origin of language as it is based on a wide range of studies over years by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, neurologists, primatologists and linguists. With many significant changes since its early introduction, the evolutionary theory shows us the origin of language from various aspects, such as the organic evolution, environmental factors.2. 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪3. Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.1.3.21. Usually, there are two main ways of classifying languages: the genetic (or genealogical) and the typological. The historical classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor. This criteria is to research into the history and relatedness of languages. On the other hand, the typological classification is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages.。

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Keys to Linguistics of Xiamen UniversityCharpter 33.1.11. A word is characterized with the following four features: (1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal organs. (2) A word is symbolic, i.e. it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings or ideas. (3) A word is part of the large communication system we call language. (4) Words help human beings to interact culturally with one another.2. The relation between the sound or sound combination of a word and its meaning is almost always arbitrary. There is no logical relationship between the sound or the combination of sounds which stands for an entity (including a thing, a happening or an idea) and the entity itself. On the one hand, the same sound may stand for different entities in different languages. On the other hand, the same meaning can be represented by different sound of combination of sounds.3. Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning),a word normally has various associated meanings, including the connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As for its various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context of culture.3.1.21. In (prep.) practice (n.), writers (n.) on (prep.) style (n.) have (primary v.) differed (full v.) a (det.) great (adj.) deal (n.) in (prep.) their (pron.) understanding (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) subject (n.), and (conj.) one (num.) source (n.) of (prep.) disagreement (n.) has (primary v.) been (full v.) the (det.) question (n.) "To (prep.) what (pron.) or whom (pron.) do (primary v.) we (pron.) attribute (full v.) style (n.)? In (prep.) the (det.) broadest (adj.) sense (n.), STYLE (n.) can (modal v.) be (primary v.) applied (full v.) to (prep.) both (adv.) spoken (adj.) and (conj.) written (adj.), both (adv.) literary (adj.) and (conj.) non-literary (adj.) varieties (n.) of (prep.) language (n.); but (conj.) by (prep.) tradition (n.), it (pron.) is (full v.) particularly (adv.) associated (full v.) with (prep.) written (adj.) literary (adj.) texts (n.), and (conj.) this (pron.) is (full v.) the (det.) sense (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) term (n.) which (pron.) will (modal v.) concern (full v.) us (pron.).2. No. These two categories of words have different distribution in speech and writing. Lexical words denote objects, happenings, ideas and their attributes, features, and/or manners, thus relating the words with entities existing outside the text. Grammatical words, instead, denote certain grammatical meanings, thus relating one element within the text with another. In speech there are more grammatical words, while in writing there are more lexical words. Moreover, the more formal the style is, the more lexical words there are.3. Open-class words refer to those classes of words to which we can add new words. In English, nouns, notional verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category. Such words normally convey certain semantic contents and thus are also called "content words". Closed-class words refer to those classes to which new words can hardly be added. In English, closed-class words include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, relatives, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and the linking verb"to be". Their roles in the linguistic system are partly or wholly grammatical and thus are also called "grammatical words".3.2.11. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + exception + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship2. 1) 3: geo- + -graph + -y 2) 4: inter- +nation + -al + -ly 3) 2: forget + -(t)en4) 1: Washington 5) 2: inform + -ation 6) 4: industry (i) + -al +-iz(e) + -ation7) 3: pre- + dominat(e) + -ant 8) 2: pre- + conscious3. The plural s has 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in "cats", "matches"; (2) -(r)en: as in "oxen", "children"; (3) -e-: as in "men", "women"; (4) -ee-, as in "feet", "teeth"; and (5) zero, as in "sheep", "deer".3.2.21. 1) inspire: into 2) intransigent: not 3) insufficient: not 4) insert: into5) insoluble: not 6) intact: not 7) impenetrable: not 8) immutable: not9) illicit: not 10) irretrievable: not2. 1) prince - princess 2) emperor - empress 3) waiter - waitress 4) Paul –Paula 5) fiancé - fiancée 6) hero - heroine 7) king - queen8) ox - cow9) wolf - she-wolf 10) doctor- woman doctor3. 1) operation - operations 2) responsibility - responsibilities3) proposal - proposals 4) modernize - modernization5) beautify - beautifies 6) activate - activates7) funny - funnier 8) friendly - friendlier3.3.11. Inflection refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the grammatical rules of the language. English inflections are used to express certain grammatical meanings: the plural morpheme {s} to change the noun into the plural-number form, the generative-case morpheme {'s} to indicate the relation of possession, the feminine-gender morpheme {ess} to change the masculine noun into its corresponding feminine-gender form, the third-person singular {s} to change the verb into the third-person singular form, the -ing participle {ing} to change the verb into the -ing participle, the past-form morpheme {ed} to change the verb into the past-tense form, the past-participle morpheme {ed} to change the verb into the -ing participle, the comparative {er} to change an adjective into the comparative-degree form, and the superlative {est} to change an adjective into the superlative-degree form.2. No, inflection is not universal. Different languages have different morphology. There are languages, like Latin and Sanskrit, which abound in inflectional morphemes. There are also languages, like Chinese, which have no inflectional morphemes. Between these two extremes are some intermediate languages, like English, which have comparatively few inflectional morphemes than languages of the first category.3. Omitted.3.3.21. 1) password: word to be passed 2) housewife: wife in charge of a household3) sunshine: shine of the sun 4) milkman: man who sells or delivers milk5) sunflower: plant whose flower faces the sun6) apple pie: pie consisting of a filling of apples7) mosquito net: net to prevent mosquitoes 8) daydream: dream in the daytime9) freezing-point: point at which a liquid freezes 10) flashlight: light of a flash2. Abbreviation refers to the way in which a longer word or expression is abbreviated or shortened. In both English and Chinese, longer words can be abbreviated via clipping, blending, and initials and acronyms. However, differences exist. While English words are made up of letters which can be pronounced into syllables, Chinese words are made up of characters each of which is normally pronounced as a separate syllable. While the English language differentiates blending, initials and acronyms, the Chinese language makes no such differentiation. In Chinese, the major approach to abbreviating a longer expression is usually to combine the first character of each of the constituent words into a shortened expression, in which the constituent characters are pronounced individually. Another commonly-used way of abbreviation in Chinese is to combine a numeral and the head word of a series of parallel constructions, as in "四化".3. The English language normally adds new words to its vocabulary through coinage, compounding, derivation, abbreviation, imitation, and borrowing.3.4.11. 1) 11：他/在/学校/表现/很/好/，是/个/优秀/学生/干部/。

《语言学概论》习题与答案（解答仅供参考）一、名词解释1. 语言符号：语言符号是语言的基本单位，由能指和所指两部分组成，能指是符号的语音形式，所指是符号的意义。

2. 语素：语素是语言中最小的有意义的语言单位，不能再进一步分解为更小的有意义的单位。

3. 句法结构：句法结构是指语言中词语按照一定的规则组合起来的形式，包括短语结构和句子结构。

4. 语境：语境是指语言使用的环境，包括语言交际的情景、说话人的身份、听者的期待等因素，对语言的理解和使用有重要影响。

5. 社会语言学：社会语言学是研究语言与社会之间关系的学科，包括语言的社会变异、语言与社会阶级、性别、族群等因素的关系等。

二、填空题1. 语言的三大基本功能是交际功能、思维功能和______功能。

（文化功能）2. 语言的音位系统包括音素和______两个层次。

（音节）3. 语言的语法范畴主要包括时态、体、人称、数和______等。

（性）4. 语言的演变主要表现为词汇的增减、语法结构的变化和______的变化。

（语音）5. 语言的交际过程包括编码、发送、传递、接收和______五个环节。

（解码）三、单项选择题1. 下列哪个选项不是语言的特征？（D）A. 社会性B. 符号性D. 固定性2. 下列哪个选项不属于语言的音位特征？（C）A. 对立性B. 相关性C. 模仿性D. 系统性3. 下列哪个选项不是语言的变体？（B）A. 地域方言B. 书面语C. 社会方言D. 个人语言4. 下列哪个选项不属于语言的内部结构？（D）A. 词汇B. 语法C. 语义D. 语用5. 下列哪个选项不是语言接触的结果？（A）A. 语言分化B. 语言融合C. 语言借用D. 语言干扰四、多项选择题1. 下列哪些选项是语言的音位特征？（ABCD）B. 相关性C. 系统性D. 情景性2. 下列哪些选项是语言的社会功能？（ABCD）A. 交际功能B. 思维功能C. 文化功能D. 认知功能3. 下列哪些选项是语言的变异现象？（ABCD）A. 语音变异B. 词汇变异C. 语法变异D. 语用变异4. 下列哪些选项是语言的类型学分类依据？（ABC）A. 词序B. 虚词C. 形态D. 语调5. 下列哪些选项是语言的交际原则？（ABCD）A. 合作原则B. 礼貌原则C. 关联原则D. 方式原则五、判断题1. 语言是一种自然现象。

《语言学概论》参考答案一、填空1、研究语言的规律2、首先学习语言文字是掌握科学技术、提高文化水平的基础。

其次语言文字是我国的社会主义革命和建设中的交际工具。

第三像聋哑人的学话、口吃的矫正、失语症的治疗等实际工作，也需要运用语言研究的成果。

3、任意性、线条性4、第一级是语素，第二级是词，第三级是句子5、音高、音重、音长、质6、同化、异化、弱化、脱落7、性、数、格、时、体、态、人称8、孤立语、粘着语、屈折语、复综语9、理性意义、带有主观态度的意义10、社会的发展、语言中各种因素的相互影响11、渐变性、不平衡性12、社会方言、地域方言13、汉藏语系、印欧语系、乌拉尔语系、阿尔泰语系、闪-含语系、高加索语系、达罗毘荼语系、马来-玻利尼西亚语系、南亚语系等14、亚洲东南部，西起克什米尔，东至我国东部边界15、不同民族的接触或融合，语言系统的排挤和替代16、社会历史条件17、自愿融合、被迫融合18、双重语言现象，排挤、替代19、根本区别20、阶级性21、语言、辅助22、左半球二、名词解释1、语言学：是研究语言的科学。

语言是语言学的研究对象。

语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。

2、传统语文学：语言处于从属地位，还没有发展为独立的学科的阶段。

3、说话：通常是把几个词按照一定的顺序组合起来，造出一句句的话。

这种话的长度在理论上说是无限的。

4、语言：是一种社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和进行思维的工具。

语言是符号系统。

5、思维：是认识现实世界时的动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。

6、符号：包含形式和意义两个方面。

符号和自己所代表的事物是两回事，相互之间没有必然的联系。

7、语言符号：形式和意义的结合完全由社会“约定俗成”，而不是它们之间有什么必然的、本质的联系。

8、征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。

9、组合关系：符号和符号组合起来的关系。

课后习题思考题1.答：人们在各个领域的活动中都离不开语言，语言活动深入到人类生活的一切领域，这种情况必然使语言学和其他学科发生密切的联系，因此说，语言学在现代科学体系中处于领先和关键的重要地位。

⑴语言学的特定研究对象，即人类的语言几乎牵涉到现代科学的每个学科。

现代许多学科的发展最后都与语言问题、思维问题等有关，语言学的突破必将为这些学科的发展起到促进作用。

⑵语言学与社会科学、自然科学有着密切的联系，围绕着语言学，已经形成了众多的边缘学科。

2.答：语言的应用研究统称为应用语言学，它着重解决现实中与语言有关的各种实际问题，把语言学的基础研究成果转化为社会效益。

根据研究范围的不同，应用语言学有狭义和广义之分。

狭义应用语言学主要以语言教学问题为研究对象, 基本可以看作是语言教学的理论与方法的科学。

语言教学包括第一语言教学即本族语的教学和第二语言教学即外族语的教学。

第一语言的学习非常重要，因为它是学习各门知识的基础和手段，也是进行各种交际活动的工具。

第二语言教学包括本族人学习外族语及教外族人学习本族语。

广义应用语言学是把语言学的研究成果同有关学科的某些实用研究结合起来，着重解决有关学科及语言学本身所涉及的应用方面的问题。

它主要包括语言统计、信息传递、自动控制、情报检索、机器翻译、人机对话、人工智能、自然语言理解、语言文字信息处理等。

此外，还涉及到语言规划、语言的使用等问题。

3.答：转换生成语言学的创始人是美国语言学家诺姆-乔姆斯基。

转换生成语言学的研究对象是语言能力而不是语言行为。

1957年，乔姆斯基出版《句法结构》一书，标志着转换生成语言学的诞生。

转换生成语法理论是欧美语言学理论中最有影响的一种，因此，它的诞生被称为“乔姆斯基革命”。

乔姆斯基的生成语法学理论使我们在一定程度上摆脫了行为主义言语获得理论的束缚，认识到婴儿言语获得过程中神经系统的重要作用，同时也向我们提出了研究言语过程的心理机制的问题，这是很有理论意义和借鉴价值的。

Keys to LinguisticsCharpter 55.1.11. 1),2) ,3) ,4), 5) .2. 1) Red: The English word red has the associative meaning of "inciting or endorsing radical social or political change, especially by force".2) Dragon: In Western culture, the word dragon denotes a mythical animal usually represented as a monstrous winged and scaly head and enormous claws and thus has the associative meaning of "a violent, combative, or very strict person", or "something or someone formidable or baneful".3) Dog: The English word dog has the following associative meanings: (a) "a worthless person"; (b) "uncharacteristic or affected stylishness or dignity" as in put on the dogs; (c) "an unattractive person, especially a girl or woman".4) Cage: The English word cage has the associative meaning of "prison".3. I think the formation of meaning involves the cognitive patterns of the speech community, the contextual factors, the existing linguistic system, and the social-cultural conventions.5.1.21. 1) The sentence may mean "please pass me the salt". It may also mean "the food is not tasty enough". 2) This is sentence can be regarded as a question, meaning "Will Mir Smith be in his office this morning?"2. Sentence meaning refers to the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence. It is the context-independent meaning. Utterance meaning refers to the meaning of an utterance in the context. In other words, it is the meaning dependent on the context. In some cases, the sentence meaning coincides with the utterance meaning. But in many situations, the utterance meaning differs from the sentence meaning.3. The traditional approach to meaning is only concerned with the lexical meaning of separate words and the structural meaning of sentences. In such an approach the meaning of a sentence is merely the combination of the lexical meanings of the component words and the structural meaning of the sentence. Its disadvantage is that it fails to relate the words and sentences with the context in which the words and sentences are used. In real communication, drastic discrepancy may exist between the lexical meaning and the contextual meaning of a word, between the sentence meaning and the utterance meaning.5.2.11. A. Parts of the body: shoulder, head, neck, leg, hand.B. Stationery: pencil, book, dictionary, pen, notebook.C. Flowers: rose, chrysanthemum, tulip.2. The relationship between things and events in the world are very complicated. Therefore, we cannot expect the thesauri to be capable of representing all the order of things and events in the world. Often a word may share the same semantic features with more than one group of words and thus can be included in different thesauri.3. A thesaurus is a reference book of words and its synonyms. Such a book is really useful for our study of English, especially for the study of writing. But we can never exaggerate its usefulness, for as we all know that in English pure synonyms are rare. We can always identify differences of one kind or another between the synonyms, either in origin, in the shade of meaning, in the affective and/or stylistic meaning, or in the collocation and distribution.5.2.21. True synonyms are rare. The so-called "synonyms" are always different either in their origin, in the shade of meaning, in the affective or stylistic meaning, or in collocation and distribution.2. a) statesman, politician: Roughly speaking, they are synonymous because both denote the meaning "one actively engaged in conducting the business of a government". But the two words differ in the affective meaning: while "statesman" connotes the appreciative meaning "one who exercises political leadership wisely and without narrow partisanship", "politician" connotes the derogatory meaning of "a person primarily interested in political office for selfish or other narrow usually short-sighted reasons". In this sense, they are not "true" synonyms.b) adult, grown-up: Briefly speaking, these two words are synonyms in that they both denote the meaning of "a person who is fully developed and mature". But strictly speaking, they are different in the stylistic meaning. Whereas "adult" can be used in nearly all contexts, "grown-up" is colloquial in style and thus is comparatively restricted in distribution.c) huge, gigantic, colossal, enormous: These words all denote the meaning of "very large or extensive" and thus can be viewed as synonymous. Yet they differ in the shade of meaning and distribution: whereas "huge" means "very large or extensive (as in size or area, in scale or degree, or in scope or character)", "gigantic" means "exceeding the usual or expected (as in size, force, or prominence)", "colossal" means "of a bulk, extent, power, or effect approaching or suggesting the stupendous or incredible", and "enormous" means "marked by extraordinarily great size, number, or degree, especially exceeding usual bounds or accepted notions".3. black, white: complementary antonyms; buy, sell: relational antonyms; big, small: gradable antonyms; parent, child: relational antonyms; polite, rude: complementary antonyms.5.2.31. 1) cat, dog, pet: These three words are in the relation of inclusion. While "pet" is the hypernym (or "superordinate"), "cat" and "dog" are its hyponyms (or "subordinates).2) keyboard, monitor, hard disk, mouse: These words denote parts of a computer and are all the hyponyms (or "subordinates") of the word computer.3) head, oral cavity, tongue: These three words are in the relation of meronymy: tongue is part of oral cavity and oral cavity is part of head.4) cabbage, cauliflower, celery, tomato: These four words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: they are all the hyponyms (or "subordinates") of the hypernym (or "superordinate") of the word vegetable.2. 1) hand, foot: These two words are hyponyms (or "subordinates"), each denoting a part of the human body.2) rose, narcissus: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy; they are both the subordinates of the word flower.3) tree, willow: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: tree is the hypernym (or "superordinate") and willow is the hyponym (or "subordinate). In other words, a willow is a kind of tree.4) bottle, cork: These two words are in the semantic relation of myronymy. "cork" is part of a bottle.5.2.41. These four entries are so separated because although they share the same form, they are not closely related in meanings. Besides, they differ in etymological origins: slug1 develops from Middle English word slugge meaning "a person or thing acting slowly or awkwardly"; slug2is believed to develop from SLUG1but the relations between them is now hard to perceive; slug3is believed to develop from the Danish verb sluge meaning "to swallow"; slug4 develops from the modern English noun slog meaning "a blow" in a Scottish regional dialect, the latter being borrowed from Old Scandinavian slag having the same meaning.2. The word "hale" has different meanings when used as an adjective and as a verb because they are derived from different origins and thus are generally arranged in dictionaries (e.g. Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary) as separate entries: hale1 (adj.) develops partly from Middle English (northern) hale, from Old English häl; partly from Middle English hail, from Old Norse heil, meaning "free from defect, disease, or infirmity; sound; rertaining exceptional health and vigor"; hale2develops from Middle English halen, from Old French haler, meaning "haul, pull; compel to go".3. When a lexeme has a multiplicity of meanings, it is polysemic. Polysemy is the result from the change of meaning and therefore semantic relations of one kind or another can be identified between the various meanings of the lexeme. In contrast, although homonyms share the same phonological form, they have no common semantic features and in many cases have different written forms. They are normally of different etymological origin and are treated in dictionaries as different entries.5.2.51. a) John has stopped smoking. →John had been smoking.b) She regretted having told him the secret.→She had told him the secret.c) The boy opened the door himself. →The door had been closed.d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid. →The paper was dipped into the liquid.2. a) He lost his bike yesterday. →His bike is missing now.b) They went to the Great Wall. →They are not here at present.c) Mary's computer is terrific.→Mary's computer is good.d) We met two of our friends at the party.→Two of our friends were at the party.5.3.11. a) pen, pencil, ruler, cat: While pen, pencil and ruler are all names of stationery, cat denotes a kind of (domestic) animal.b) bathtub, soap, towel, oven: While bathtub, soap and towel denote objects used for bathing, oven is an object used for cooking.c) carpenter, professor, student, president: While professor, student and president denote persons related to the school, carpenter does not.d) walk, stroll, run, sing: While walk, stroll and run each denote a kind of physical movement from one place to another, sing does not.e) company, university, college, school: While university, college and school each denote a kind of educational institution, company denotes a commercial or industrial institution.2. Componential analysis has a number of advantages over traditional approaches to lexical meanings. Firstly, it throws new light on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metaphor. Secondly, componential analysis can better explain the validity of syntagmatic combination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach. Thirdly, componential analysis gives a better account for the formation of the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The componential analysis has three disadvantages. Firstly, it is often difficult to determine what semantic featuresare essential to define a word, and how many are sufficient for the specification. Secondly, when faced with two equally plausible features, it is often difficult to determine which one we should specify. Thirdly, componential analysis seems to be difficult to be apply to function words, such as the, of, and, and ah, for they seem to have no semantic features.5.3.21. a) This sentence has a three-place predicate gave, which governs three arguments, the subject He, the indirect object me and the direct object (the) book.b) This sentence has a no-place predicate (was) snowing, which governs no argument. Note that the subject It here is an empty word and so does not play the role of an argument in the sentence.c) This sentence has a one-place predicate (is) working, which governs one argument (the) computer.d) This sentence has a two-place predicate invented, which governs two arguments, the subject Someone and the object (the) story.2. a) We wish you to come back soon. (No error.)b) He rose the heave box easily. → He raised the heavy box easily. Explanation: The predicate verb rise(rose) is a one-place predicate, but in the sentence it is misused as a two-place predicate. So it should be replaced by its corresponding two-place predicate raise(d).c) Mary laughed me before the students. → Mary laughed at me before the students.The predicate verb laugh(ed)is a one-place predicate, but in the sentence, it is misused as a two-place predicate. Hence it is corrected into its corresponding two-place verb phrase laugh(ed) at.5.3.31. a) Generally, this utterance is tautological. But in a context when the speaker doubts the identity of the addressee and thus wants to check. the use of this utterance is also valid.b) This generally tautological utterance can be used in a context in which the addressee intends to pass the speaker the salt but in the process the addressee's action is somehow interrupted. Then the speaker may use this utterance as a reminding or urging expression.c) This utterance may be used by an annoyed or enraged parent to a naughty or choosy child who is pretending to eat some food but does not swallow them. In this case, the parent is using the utterance as a urging or commanding expression for sake of the child's health or good manners.2. This utterance involves tow tautological expressions ("冰箱是冰箱", "彩电是彩电"). It can be uttered by a complaining wife to her husband to show her desire to keep up with the Joneses on the one hand and on the other hand to urge her husband to make more money so that they can also afford those household appliances.3. Metaphor is common in verbal communication. In the traditional approach, metaphor is generally interpreted as a rhetorical device to add novelty to verbal communication. But according to the cognitive and functional linguistic approach, metaphor is a basic cognitive facility with which human beings organize the world in the system of language. Much of the history of every language, according to Halliday (1994: 348), is a history of demetaphorizing: of expressions which began as metaphors gradually losing their metaphorical character. Metaphorical modes of expression are characteristic of adult discourse. On the other hand, metaphor is also an important stylistic feature. For example, literary works (such as novels and poetry) normally abound in lexical metaphor while scientific and technical registers are characterized with nominalizing metaphors.Charpter 66.1.11. 1) While (a) is an explicit performative containing the performative verb "admit", (b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I admit (or acknowledge, confess, etc.) that I was wrong."2) While (a) is an explicit performative containing the performative verb "order",(b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I order (or command, demand, request, etc.) you to leave the room right now."3) While (a) is an explicit performative containing the perfromative verb "warn",(b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I warn (or tell, caution, etc.) you that the dog is vicious."4) While (a) is an explicit perfromative containing the performative verb "apologize", (b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I declare that I'm sorry.2. 1) This is not a performative, because the subject of the main clause is not in the first-person singular number.2) This is a performative utterance.3) This is not a performative, because the verb "require" is not in the active voice.4) This is not a performative, because the verb "fire" is not in the simple present tense.5) This is not a performative, because this utterance is lacking in any performative.6.1.21. a) As an indirect suggestion, implicitly asking the addressee to stay indoors. This may occur when the speaker and the addressee are in a cozy room when the weather outside is very cold.b) As an indirect request, implicitly demanding the addressee to close the door or the window. This may occur when the speaker is speaking to the addressee in a cold room when the weather outside is rather cold.c) As an indirect exclamation, implicitly expressing the speaker's regret for not being able to have an intended excursion. This may occur when the speaker intended to have an excursion but the weather suddenly turns cold outside.2. a) Would you please sit here and have a rest?b) Do you mind sitting here and having a rest?c) Don't you feel tired?d) How do you like sitting here and having a rest?e) You're quite out of breath now.3. 1) Literally, B's reply is irrelevant to A's utterance and this dialogue is thus lacking in coherence. But in effect, it is a coherent conversation. The coherence hereis achieved by the conversational implicatures. When A utters "That's telephone", A conveys to B the illocutionary force that B is wanted on the phone. When B replies "I'm in the bathroom", B conveys the illocutionary force "I'm engaged in the bathroom and so I can't answer the phone now." This conversational implicature is grasped by A, who thus responds with "Okay".2) At first sight, this dialogue is lacking in coherence. When the son utters the statement "I need a ten-speed bicycle", his illocutionary force is to ask his mother to buy a ten-speed bicycle for him. This implicit request is, however, tacitly declined when the mother responds to its literal meaning ("I'm sure you do need a ten-speed bicycle") rather than to its conversational implicature (e.g. "I'll buy a ten-speed bicycle for you" or "I'll talk your dad into buying a ten-speed bicycle for you").6.2.11) In this dialogue, B has flouted the maxim of Manner. Here B uses an obscure expression and fails to give a brief and direct answer to A's question. The implicature of B's utterance is probably "I don't know the exact place. What I can tell you is that Miss Rosebery lives somewhere in the suburbs of the city."2) In this dialogue, B has flouted the maxim of Relevance. B's answer is not relevant to A's statement. The implicature of B's utterance is probably "There is a garage round the corner, so you can have your car refilled there."3) In this dialogue, B has flouted the maxim of Quantity. B's reply is more informative than is required for the current purposes of the exchange. The conversational implicature of B's utterance is that "I don't think too much of Cathy's singing."4) In this dialogue, the student is more informative than is required for the current purposes of the exchange and has thus flouted the maxim of Quantity. The implicature of the student's utterance is probably "It's high time you finished the lecture."5) In this dialogue, B fails to give a direct answer to A's question and has flouted the maxim of Relevance. The conversational implicature of B's utterance is probably "I don't want any coffee because coffee would make me awake."6.2.21. 1) In this dialogue, the woman politely refuses the man's request to go upstairs to the woman's flat by flouting the maxim of Relevance. Instead of directly refusing the man's request, she claims that her place is in a terrible mess and thus tacitly implies that it is unsuitable to receive anybody in her flat.2) In this dialogue, the guest tacitly declines the host's suggestion for a drink by claiming that they don't drink. Here the guest has flouted the maxim of Relevance. Instead of directly (and also impolitely) refuses the host's suggestion, the guest says that they have not the ability to drink and thus politely turns down the host's offer of a drink of cocktail.3) In this conversation, Mother has flouted the maxim of Manner. Instead of directly criticizing the son for having eaten the icing off the cake, she uses the obscure expression "someone" so as not to threaten the son's positive face. This conversational implicature is grasped by the son, who immediately declares "It wasn't ME."4) In this dialogue, B at first responds to A's question directly. Then B realizes that it is impolite to talk evil of others behind their backs. So B flouts the maxim of Quantity by gradually softening the comment ("small" ' "smallish" ' "not really small but certainly not very big").2. 1) Generally speaking, the less face-threatening an expression is, the more polite it is. Among the three alternative responses given here, (b) is negative and thus the most face-threatening, (c) is neutral and less face-threatening, and (a) is positive and thus the least face-threatening. Therefore, the increasing order of politeness of the three alternative responses is: (b) < (c) < (a).2) Generally speaking, the more indirect a request is, the more polite it is. Among the three alternative responses given here, (b) is an imperative sentence and expresses the request most directly, (c) is a question inquiring the addressee's response to the intended request and is more indirect than (b), whereas (a) is a question inquiring the addressee's ability to perform the intended request and is the most indirect. Therefore, the three alternative responses can be put in the following increasing order of politeness: (b) < (c) < (a).6.3.11. Among the five utterances, 2), 3) and 4) contain the presupposition "The dog barked at the shadow". These three utterances have one thing in common - they all presuppose that the dog barked at the shadow. In other words, the truth value of the three utterances is dependent on the truth value of the presupposition. If the presupposition is true, then the three utterances are true. If the presupposition is false, then the three utterances are false. In contrast, in 1) and 5), the truth value of the statement "The dog barked at the shadow" is uncertain. In other words, we do not know for sure from the two utterances whether the dog barked at the shadow or not.2. 1) This utterance presupposes that "You have been eaten raw oysters". The presupposition trigger is the verb "stop".2) This utterance presupposes that "Little Franz had not studied French better before". The presupposition trigger is the verb "regretted".3) This utterance presupposes that "Catherine does not know anything about this event". The presupposition trigger is the verb "pretends".4) This utterance presupposes that "Mark Twain found the best setting for most of his best novels in the Mississippi valley". The presupposition trigger is the emphatic construction "It was … that …".5) This utterance presupposes that "You have helped us in the experiment". The presupposition trigger is the verb "appreciate".6.3.21) Here (b) is the preferred response while (a) is the dispreferred. When A invitesB to come and join them in the picnic, he or she normally expects the addressee to accept the invitation rather than decline it.2) Here (a) is the preferred response while (b) is the dispreferred. When A asks B to comment on a certain lady's performance, the positive response is more preferable than the negative (though modulated for the sake of politeness) one.3) Here (a) is the preferred response while (b) is the dispreferred. When A requestsB to do him or her a favor, he or she normally expects a positive response rather thana negative (though indirect for the sake of politeness) one.6.4.11) In this utterance, 6 reference items are used in the second sentence to contribute to the coherence of the text. Firstly, the possessive determiner their and the possessive pronoun theirs, and the personal pronouns them and they are used to refer anaphorically to "the children next door". Secondly, the definite article the is used together with the noun toy to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase "a toy". Thirdly, the personal pronoun it is used to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase "a toy" and "the toy".2) In this utterance, 1 reference item is used in the first clause to contribute to the coherence of the text. Namely, the personal pronoun he is used to refer cataphorically to the proper name "Alex".3) In this utterance, the personal pronoun it is used in the fourth clause to refer anaphorically to the previous sentence "If it rained day and night for two weeks, the basement flooded and everything was under water". This clausal reference contributes to the coherence of the text by connecting the second sentence with the first one.4) In this utterance, the pronoun one is used in the second clause to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase "a stamp" in the first clause. This helps to connect the second clause with the first and thus contributes to the coherence of the text.5) In this utterance, the comparative Adjunct otherwise is used to make a contrast between Daddy's having a bit of cold and other aspects of his health. This helps to connect the two clauses into a coherent text.6.4.21. 1) In this utterance, the pronoun one is used in the second sentence to substitute the noun "book". This establishes a comparison between the two sentences and connect them into a cohesive text.2) In this dialogue, B uses the pro-verb "(have) done" to substitute the verb phrase "(have) succeeded in his ambitions". This helps to connect B's utterances with A's intoa cohesive text.3) In this dialogue, B uses the pronoun so to substitute the previous clause "The Chicago Bulls will win the game". This (together the ellipsis in the next clause, i.e. they will [win the game]) helps to connect the two utterances into a cohesive text.4) In this dialogue, B uses the clausal substitute not to replace the previous clause(i.e. We will probably join in your excursion this weekend) to avoid unnecessary repetition. This helps to connect the two utterances into a cohesive text.2. 1) In this dialogue, two clausal ellipses can be identified in B's utterance (i.e. I don't know how long I will be in here. You could ask matron how long I will be in here.). They help to connect B's utterance with A's into a cohesive text.2) In this dialogue, a verbal ellipsis can be identified in B's utterance (i.e. but Bob didn't care to take the course). This, together with the verbal substitution of did for the verb phrase "take the course", connects B's utterance with A's into a cohesive text.6.4.31) In this passage, there is one conjunctive expression, namely, moreover at the beginning of the second sentence. This conjunctive expression contributes to the cohesion of the passage by adding more information to the first sentence concerning the role of the media in shaping the social and moral norms in the American society.2) Three sequences of conjunctive expressions are used in this passage. The first sequence is the conjunctive expressions of listing, i.e. to begin in sentence 2 - following (the recording) in sentence 3 - finally in sentence (12). The second sequence is the repetition of some of the questions in sentence 6 - some of the questions in sentence 8 - some of them in sentence 10. The third sequence includes two expressions of exemplification, i.e. for example in sentence 7 and for instance in sentence 11. Together they contribute to make the passage a cohesive text.6.4.41) In this passage, the author uses many expressions to describe his miserable life as a member of the working class. Such expressions include beneath the point at which I had started in sentence 1, down in the cellar of society and down in the subterranean depths of misery in sentence 3, the pit, the abyss, the human cesspool, the shambles and charnel-house of our civilization in sentence 3, the part of the edifice of society in sentence 4. Besides, the author also repeats the infinitive phrase "to ignore" in sentences 4 and 5. With these lexical cohesive ties, the author makes the passage a cohesive text.2) In this passage, the author uses the following lexical cohesive ties: (a) the repetition of the adjectives "clean", "noble" and "clean" and their derivatives, including "(men who were) clean, noble, and alive" and "(whose ideas were) clean, noble, and alive in sentence 2, "(many that were) clean and noble" and "not alive" in。

《语言学概论》习题答案选择题第一章总论□ 言语是×. 言论与语言×. 音义结合的符号系统√. 说话和所说的话□ 语言是一种×. 形式和内容相统一的视觉符号√. 音义结合的听觉符号系统×. 用来交际的触觉符号系统□ 抽象思维的一般特性是×. 概括性、民族性×. 概念、判断、推理×. 固定、再现、改造√. 概括性、社会性□ 语言是思维的工具指的是×. 一切思维必须由语言完成√. 主要指抽象思维和直观动作思维、形象思维的高级阶段离不开语言×. 指直观动作思维和表象思维离不开语言□思维的三种类型是√. 直观动作思维、表象思维、抽象思维×. 概念、判断、推理×. 固定、再现、改造□ 语言符号的任意性是×. 语言符号的创造和使用总是任意的2×. 我们可以任意理解语言的符号√. 语言符号音义之间没有本质的联系□ 语言符号的线条性×. 语言符号的排列没有阶级性，象一根线条排列在一起×. 语言符号一个跟一个依次出现，随时间推移不分层次逐渐延伸√. 语言符号在时间的线条上逐个出现，同时不排除层次性□ "他肯定不会来了！" 这句话强调了说者的×. 说话行为√. 施事行为×. 取效行为×. 言语行为□ 汉语声调从中古到现代的"平分阴阳，入派三声"的规律是√. 个别语言的发展规律×. 一般语言的发展规律×. 汉民族各种方言的发展规律□ 一个民族内部共同使用的语言称为√. 民族共同语×. 民族交际语×. 国际交际语□ 克里奥尔语是语言的√. 混合×. 融合×. 分化×. 整化□ 语言融合的"底层"现象是×. 语言装置的最下面一层，即语音部分√. 被融合的语言的某些遗留下来的因素×. 被压迫的阶层第二章语音□ 声调决定于√. 音高×. 音强×. 音长×. 音质□ [p、t?、b、k]在发音方法上的共同特点是×. 清音×. 不送气√. 塞音×. 擦音□ 舌尖后浊擦音是×. [x] ×. [b]√. [?] ×. [z]□ [tA]（大）是√. 开音节×. 闭音节×. 元音首音节√. 辅音首音节□ []（血）中的[?]是×. 起音√. 领音×. 收音□ [kai51]（盖）中的[i]是×. 起音×. 领音√. 收音×. 辅音□ 普通话[?in55k?u214]（辛苦）快读是[?i? 55k?u214]这种现象是×. 顺同化√. 逆同化×. 顺异化×. 逆异化×. 弱化×. 脱落□ 普通话[f?n214pi214]快读是[f?m35pi214]这种现象是×. 顺同化√. 逆同化×. 顺异化√. 逆异化课后答案网阳光大学生网4×. 弱化×. 脱落□ 普通话[tou51fu214]（豆腐）快读是[tou51f]这种现象是×. 同化×. 异化×. 弱化√. 脱落×. 增音第三章语义□ ________是指语言单位的意义在一定的语境的作用下，内部变得具体、丰富或增加一些附加意义。

语言学概论语言学概论杨信彰中文版阅读材料：语言学流派历史比较语言学历史比较语言学的产生有两个不可或缺的条件，一是广泛收集世界各种语言材料，二是认识到梵语在语言比较中的地位和作用。

在初始阶段，丹麦的R·Rask、德国的J·Grimm和F·Bopp被称为历史比较语言学的奠基者。

Rask在他的《古代北欧语或冰岛语起源研究》一书中第一个对基本语汇中的词进行系统的比较，找出其中的语音对应规律，由此确定语言的亲缘关系。

Grimm在其书的启发下，在他的《日耳曼语语法》里确定了希腊语、峨特语和高地德语之间的语音对应关系，即所谓的“格里木定律”（Grimm?s Law）。

Bopp的主要著作是《梵语、禅德语、亚美尼亚语、希腊语、拉丁语、立陶宛语、古斯拉夫语、峨特语和德语比较语法》，旨在把梵语和欧洲、亚洲的几种其他语言相比较，找出它们在形态上的共同。

历史比较语言学发展到第二阶段，最有代表性的人物是德国的施莱歇尔（August Schleicher），其代表作是《印度日耳曼语系语言比较语法纲要》。

他受到生物学物种分类的启发，为有亲属关系的语言的历史演变过程设计了一种树形谱系图，使语言之间的亲属关系以直观的形式呈现在人们的面前。

这是历史比较语言学的一大进展。

19世纪的最后25年是历史比较语言学的“新语法学派”时期。

这个学派的代表人物是奥斯特霍夫（H·Osthoff）和布鲁克曼（K·Brugmann），他们在自己创办的刊物《形态学研究》上正式宣布：语音演变规律不允许任何例外。

他们在坚持这个原则时，以语言材料为依据，借鉴生理学和心理学的研究成果，强调“类推”在语言演变中的作用。

这个学派的代表著作有布鲁克曼和德尔布吕克合著的《印度日耳曼语比较语法纲要》和保罗的《语言史原理》。

19世纪历史比较语言学家为语言学的发展做出了重要贡献。

他们收集了丰富的语言材料，进行了广泛深入的调查和比较，不仅提出了人类语言演变过程的假设，画出了世界语言的谱系，而且还创造出比较科学的研究方法，提出了有关语言起源、语言本质的新理论，为后来结构主义和描写语言学的产生和发展创造了有利条件。

《语言学概论》练习（一）参考答案一、填空1、中国、印度、希腊—罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。

2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐渐发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。

3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。

4、一个符号，如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有形式，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。

5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义，完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。

6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。

7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是词，第三级是句子。

8、语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这种关系是组合关系和聚合关系。

9、组合关系是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合关系是指符号在性质上的归类。

二、判断正误1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。

（错）2、地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。

（错）3、在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。

（错）4、现代社会，沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性日渐削弱。

（错）5、语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维。

（对）6、语言和思维互相依存，共同发展。

（对）7、任何一种符号，都是由内容和意义两个方面构成的。

（错）8、从本质上看，语言其实是一种符号系统。

（对）9、人类选择语音而不是色彩、手势作为语言符号的形式，是因为语音比较好听。

（错）10、语言符号的约定俗成是指语音形式和意义内容的结合是社会成员共同约定认同的。

（对）三、问答题：1、语言的作用是什么，举例说明。

为什么说语言是最重要的交际工具？答：它是人类社会的交际工具。

每个社会，无论它是经济发达的社会，还是经济十分落后的社会，都必须有属于自己的语言，都离不开语言这个交际工具，语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物区别的重要特征之一。

感谢同学们的帮助，2023年10月自考00541语言学概论真题及答案（回忆版）新鲜出炉。

如果有同学记得部分真题的话，也可以提供给乐昇学教育。

乐昇学教育会核对同学们给的2023年10月自考回忆版的真题，找到对应的答案，优先提供给对应的同学。

众人拾材火焰高，早估分，早做打算。

未雨绸缪我们可能不行，但是笨鸟先飞还是可以的哈。

因为时间仓促，如有遗漏或者错误的地方，欢迎同学们指正在此谢过了。

以下是“2023年10月自考00541语言学概论真题及答案（回忆版）”的具体内容。

2023年10月自考00541语言学概论真题及答案（回忆版）一、单项选择题：本大题共20 小题，每小题 1 分，共20分。

1.下列哪种语言是黏着语_维吾尔语2.从周代称“翁婿”为“舅甥”来看，反映出远古就存在族外婚制度。

3.语言符号具有任意性。

4.她站在暗处不动，满身是耳朵，满身是嘴巴。

使用了夸张的修辞手法。

5.亲属语言之间存在语音对应关系。

6.下列使用了双关修辞的是春蚕到死丝方尽7.“模仿说”所依赖的理论基础是行为主义。

8.下列属于通用词的是书9.“红案、码洋、教案”都属于社会方言中的行话。

10.《说文解字》将汉字归入540个部首。

11.“横眉冷对千夫指，俯首甘为孺子牛”属于对偶中的反对。

12.汉语的官话是指北方方言。

13.中国古代第一部语言学专著是《尔雅》。

14.下列借自蒙古语的是胡同15.意大利文豪但丁使用的意大利方言是多斯岗方言。

16.下列属于施为句的是请把门关上。

17.打碎了碗碟，取谐音“岁岁（碎碎）平安”，是为了“讨口彩”。

18.最先区分语言研究的“共时研究”和“历时研究”的是索绪尔。

19.下列属于圆唇音的是[0]20.第二语言学习者建构起来的介于母语和目的语之间的过渡性语言系统叫做中介语。

二、名词解释题：本大题共4小题，每小题4分，共16分。

21、语言符号的所指（乐昇学教育2023年10月自考00541语言学概论考前密训班考点4）乐昇学教育建议答案：语言符号的所指是语言符号中特定声音表示的意义。

语言学概论一、单项选择题1. 由单纯字符组合而成的字符，被叫做（）。

A. 声符B. 单纯字符C. 复合字符D. 意符【正确答案】 C2. 语言是个层级体系，底层是语音单位层，凡是跟底层语言单位联系的文字就叫（）。

A. 楔形文字B. 象形文字C. 表意文字D. 表音文字【正确答案】 D3. 语言是个层级体系，上层是音义结合的符号层，凡是跟上层语言单位联系的文字就叫（）。

A. 楔形文字B. 象形文字C. 表意文字D. 表音文字【正确答案】 C4. “楔形文字” 也叫（）。

A. 丁头字B. 大头字C. 丁形字D. 图文字【正确答案】 A5. 刻在雕像座、庙宇和金字塔墓室石头和祭器上的（），是一种象形程度很高的符号。

A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 模形体【正确答案】 A6. 跟碑铭体并行的有一种僧侶阶层平时使用的已经线条化的近乎草书的字体，称为（）。

A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 圣书字【正确答案】 B7. 公元前7世纪还出现了一种在僧侣体基础上加以简化供老百姓使用的字体，称为（）。

A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 圣书字【正确答案】 C8. 腓尼基文字被称做（）。

A. 元音音素文字B. 表意文字C. 辅音音素文字D. 意音文字【正确答案】 C9.希腊人在借用腓尼基文字来书写希腊语时增添了（）。

A. 元音字母B. 辅音字母C. 多音节语素D. 单音节语素【正确答案】 A10. 把两个或两个以上象形字或指事字拼合在一起且把它们的意义结合成一个新的意义的造字方法叫做（）。

A. 象形B. 形声C. 会意D. 指事【正确答案】 C11. 炼字的基本功是（）。

A. 精心挑选关键词语B. 恰当使用修饰词语C. 合理使用修辞手法D. 注意词语的巧妙配合【正确答案】 A12. 一般来说，（）的特点是信息量大、逻辑严谨、细致准确。

A. 长句B. 短句C. 陈述句D. 反问句【正确答案】 A13. 我国古典诗文中常用的修辞方式是（）。

P7 3. Discuss the relation of arbitrariness and rules?Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.P12 3.Please explain the primacy of human language over animalcommunication.Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may beimpossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances,but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animalcommunication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animalcommunication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages areopen-ended.P18 1. Identify the functions of the following sentences.a)I like your house very much. b)I now declare the meeting closed.c)Nice to meet you d)I met Mary in the library this morning.a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. InformativefunctionP24 2.Please list five Chinese onomatopoetic words轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪3.What are the functions of onomatopoetic words?Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.P28 3.What is the real object of linguistics?The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world. We need to look into the common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.P58 1. What is a phoneme? And what is an allophone?Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme is a block thatcannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.P62 1. What does the word 'distinctive' mean in the term 'distinctive features'?Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, "distinctive" means serving to identify, distinguishing.P65 1. What does complementary distribution mean?When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. That is to say,complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more soundsoccur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which theother sound(s) never occur(s).P69 2. What is the importance of stress in English?Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.P75 3. How can you identify the meaning of a word?Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning), a word normally has various associated meanings, including theconnotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, andcollocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As forits various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context,including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context ofculture.P821. Divide the following words into morphemes by placing a "+" between each morpheme and the next.1) unbearable 2) watchful 3) personification 4) unexceptionally5) uneducated 6) inspiring 7) soft-hearted 8) horsemanship1. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + except+tion + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship3. How many allomorphs does the plural form s have?The plural s has 3 phonologically-conditioned allomorphs... and 5morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in "cats", "matches"; (2) -(r)en:as in "oxen", "children"; (3) -e-: as in "men", "women"; (4) -ee-, as in "feet", "teeth";and (5) zero, as in "sheep", "deer".P93 2. What is the difference between lexeme and word?A lexeme refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that canbe distinguished from other smaller units whereas a word refers to the smallest formof a language that can occur by itself. A lexeme may be or may not be identical with aword. For example, the definite article "the" is both a lexeme and a word. However,the lexeme "put up with" has three different words.P100 1. Is immediate constituent analysis effective to explain discontinuousconstituents?No. Immediate constituent analysis is solely concerned with the surface structures of language, which only shows the physical manifestation of the language, for example, linear order of a sentence. One approach to explain sentences with discontinuous constituents is to represent them by two phrase markers, which will be structurally related.One phrase marker is derived from another. By transformational grammar, the discontinuous constituents can be accounted for effectively. Transformational rules are responsible for the generation of infinitely many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrase-structure rules.2. Diagram the constituent structure of each of the following.(a) a very old wooden house down the lane(b) His old friend arrived yesterday.P103 2. Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a tree diagram of constituent structure for each of the following sentences:(a) A smart boy fooled the class.(b) The pavilion on the hill collapsed in the wind.(c) Everybody knew that the president would win the election.P110 1. Draw the tree diagrams for the following sentences:(1) She found a book on Madison Street.(2) Jack advised Henry to see the dentist.(3) Jack promised Henry to see the doctor.P115Exercises:What is the relationship between surface structure and deep structure?Surface structure can be derived from deep structure. A surface structure may be represented by more than one phrase marker, which in sense is the same to a single phrase marker. This one single phrase marker is said to be the deep structure. In the operation from deep structure to surface structure, phrase structure rules and modifications are needed to add, delete, or permute constituents. The relations between deep and surface structures are to be revealed through transformational rules. In this process, the order or hierarchic relationship of the constituents is to be changed. The actual pronunciation is based on the surface structureP120 1. The formation of many sentences involves the operation of syntactic movement. Show the deep structures for each of following sentences.(a) The boss of the bus company was severely criticized by the public.(b) The woman threw the rake away in the yard.(c) Will the new school master hire her?(a) The relevant parts for the passive transformational rule of the above sentence are thesubject NP (here the public), the object NP (here the boss, which will change positions with the public), the V (criticize) and AUX, and then a be + en auxiliary will be inserted. The deep structure should be its corresponding active variant, which is The public criticized the boss of the bus company severely.(b) In the derivation of The woman threw the rake away in the yard., the underlying structure,The woman threw away the rake in the yard. is also the deep structure. It is generated by the phrase-structure rules, including the rule which states that a V (verb) consists of a Vprt (verbsthat can combine with verbal particles) and a Prt (verbal particles). In the surface structure, a new phrase marker is produced in which the particle is moved to the right of the NP.(c) The question rule formulates that in order to form a yes-no question from the declarativesentence, move the first auxiliary verb of the main sentence (in this case, will) immediately before the first NP of that sentence (here, the new school master). So, the deep structure of the question should be its declarative variant, which is The new school master will hire her.2. Please display the transformational rules involved in the followingsentences.(a) What can the computer program do for us?A wh interrogative sentence is derived by a movement rule from a deep structure similarto that of the declarative counterpart. So, the sentence like What can the computer program do for us? would derive from a deep structure in the form of The computer program can do "what" for us?. The wh-element occurs initially and is followed by tense and an auxiliary. In this sentence, the object is fronted. First, the interrogative transformation which switches round the auxiliary verb can and the subject the computer program - known as 'I' (inflexion) movement, and in the second step, a 'wh' transformation - known as 'wh' movement - that moves the noun phrase what- "the content", to the front of the sentence, see the following diagram.(b) The window was broken by Jack.This sentence is traditionally called the "passive" sentence, and its variant is "active".This pair is broadly speaking the same in meaning. The formulations of the passive rules must capture the fact that the active sentence and the passive sentence have their NP's (here the window and Jack) in reverse order, and that both a be + en auxiliary and the preposition by occur in the passive sentences and not in the active ones. AUX refers to past tense in this sentence.(c) They gave the door a gentle push.A corresponding sentence to the sentence is They gave a gentle push to the door. Both ofwhich have the same basic meaning, and differ in the order of NP's in the VP. In the corresponding sentence we find NP1 + to + NP2, in the above given sentence. Yet, in the sentence They gave the door a gentle push., we have reversed NP's. Transformational rules capture these facts by viewing the sentence, They gave the door a gentle push. as derived from the sentence, They gave a gentle push to the door., by deleting to and reverses the order of (i.e., permutes) the two NP's. A phrase marker is changed into a new one.P133 Exercise 2:2. What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning?Sentence meaning refers to the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence. It is the context-independent meaning. Utterance meaning refers to the meaning of an utterance in the context. In other words, it is the meaning dependent on the context. In some cases, the sentence meaning coincides with the utterance meaning. But in many situations, the utterance meaning differs from the sentence meaning.P140 Exercise 1&3：1、Please explain why there are not true synonyms.True synonyms are rare. The so-called "synonyms" are always different either in their origin, in the shade of meaning, in the affective or stylistic meaning, or in collocation and distribution.3、What category of antonym does each of the following pair of wordsbelong to?a. black, whiteb. buy, sellc. big, smalld. parent, childe. upstairs,downstairs f. polite, rudea)black, white: complementary antonyms; b)buy, sell: relational antonyms;c）big, small: gradable antonyms; d)parent,child:relational antonyms;f)polite,rude: complementary antonyms.P142 Exercise 2:2. What is the semantic relation between the words in the following pairs.1) hand, foot 2) rose, narcissus 3) tree, willow 4) bottle, cork1) hand, foot: These two words are hyponyms (or "subordinates"), each denoting apart of the human body.2) rose, narcissus: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy;they are both the subordinates of the word flower.3) tree, willow: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: tree isthe hypernym (or "superordinate") and willow is the hyponym (or "subordinate).In other words, a willow is a kind of tree.4) bottle, cork: These two words are in the semantic relation of myronymy. "cork"is part of a bottle.P146 Exercise 3:3. What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy?When a lexeme has a multiplicity of meanings, it is polysemic. Polysemy is the result from the change of meaning and therefore semantic relations of one kind or another can be identified between the various meanings of the lexeme. In contrast, although homonyms share the same phonological form, they have no common semantic features and in many cases have different written forms. They are normally of different etymological origin and are treated in dictionaries as different entries.P150 Exercise 1&2：1. Try to identify the presuppositions that lie behind each of the followingutterances:a) John has stopped smoking. b) She regretted having told him the secret.c) The boy opened the door himself. d) The paper turned red when itwas dipped into the liquid.a) John has stopped smoking. →John had been smoking.b) She regretted having told him the secret.→She had told him the secret.c) The boy opened the door himself. →The door had been closed.d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid. →The paperwas dipped into the liquid2. What does each of the following utterances entail?a) He lost his bike yesterday. b) They went to the Great Wall.c) Mary's computer is terrific. d) We met two of our friends at the party.a) He lost his bike yesterday. →His bike is missing now.b) They went to the Great Wall. →They are not here at present.c) Mary's computer is terrific.→Mary's computer is good.d) We met two of our friends at the party. →Two of our friends were at theparty.P154 Exercise 2:2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?Componential analysis has a number of advantages over traditional approaches to lexical meanings. Firstly, it throws new light on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metaphor. Secondly, componential analysis can better explain the validity of syntagmatic combination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach. Thirdly, componential analysis gives a better account for the formation of the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The componential analysis has three disadvantages. Firstly, it is often difficult to determine what semantic features are essential to define a word, and how many are sufficient for the specification. Secondly, when faced with two equally plausible features, it is often difficult to determine which one we should specify.Thirdly, componential analysis seems to be difficult to be apply to function words, such as the, of, and, and ah, for they seem to have no semantic features.P156 Exercise 1:1. Please identify the types of predicate in each of the verbs in the followingsentences.a) He gave me the book. b) It was snowing hard.c) The computer is working properly. d) Someone invented the story.a) This sentence has a three-place predicate gave, which governs threearguments, the subject He, the indirect object me and the direct object (the)book.b) This sentence has a no-place predicate (was) snowing, which governs noargument. Note that the subject It here is an empty word and so does notplay the role of an argument in the sentence.c) This sentence has a one-place predicate (is) working, which governs oneargument (the) computer.d) This sentence has a two-place predicate invented, which governs twoarguments, the subject Someone and the object (the) story.P159 Exercise 2:2. Please comment on the role of tautology in the following:看看人家，冰箱是冰箱，彩电是彩电。

厦门大学——英语语言文学先介绍一下自己吧，本人本科天津大学，报考的是厦门大学英语语言文学并被成功录取。

得知这个消息的时候，我的心情怎么说呢，已经不能用开心或者兴奋来形容了。

厦大！是我自始至终的梦想学府，想必当你看到这篇帖子的时候，已经下定决心备考厦门大学外文学院了吧。

我就不再过多的介绍厦门大学外文学院了。

作为中国最美大学之一的厦门大学，你考研所付出的努力，一定都是值得的。

考研和高考有些许的不同。

硕士研究生考试分为初试和复试。

初试时间为每年12月份的倒数第二个周末。

考两天，每门科目各考三小时，第一天上午考①101思想政治理论，下午考外语，第二天上午考专业课一，下午考专业课二。

厦门大学外文学院英语语言文学系全日制硕士研究生下分研究方向为：01英美文学；02语言学；03双语与双语词典研究；04笔译；05口译。

初试考试科目均为以下四门：①101思想政治理论；②242俄语（二外）或243日语（二外）或244法语（二外）或245德语（二外）；③708写作与英汉互译；④814阅读及英美文学、语言学基础。

（一）关于①101思想政治理论的备考：政治满分为100分，16题单选，1分一题；17题多选，2分一题；简答题共5题，每题十分，共计50分。

政治复习时间不用开始的太早，很多学长学姐说就九月份开始看政治，但我个人建议，可以在暑假就开始每天看一点，看着考研政治视频，跟着老师先过一遍考纲，考研辅导老师比我们有经验，知道哪些是重点考点，这样的话我们就有的放矢，减少我们的记忆负担，本人自己血的教训！！同学有推荐我看政治视频，我一直以为文科生有一定的政治素养，不需要花太多时间在政治上，事实证明我错了。

前期我完全像只无头苍蝇一样在复习政治，过了两遍课本，却没记住啥。

后来发现老师讲的确实很好，才狂赶进度，导致自己后期政治复习很被动。

我当时是看的李凡老师的视频，用的课本是肖秀荣命题人知识点精讲精练.做题用的是李凡政治新时器，反复刷单选。

语言学概论杨信彰杨信彰是中国著名语言学家，被誉为当代语言学界的奠基人之一。

他对语言学的贡献和影响深远，对语言学概念的阐释和理论的建立都具有重要意义。

本文将介绍杨信彰的学术生涯和他对语言学的贡献。

学术生涯杨信彰于1950年出生在中国江苏省南通市。

在上海交通大学完成了本科学业后，他赴英国留学，在剑桥大学攻读语言学硕士和博士学位。

在英国留学期间，他广泛研究了世界各地的语言，并深入探讨了语言的结构和演化规律。

1980年，杨信彰完成博士学位后回国，并先后在多所大学任教，如上海外国语大学和北京大学。

他还曾担任中国语言学会的主席，并多次组织和参与国际学术交流活动。

主要贡献语言演化理论杨信彰的主要贡献之一是对语言演化理论的研究。

他认为人类语言是一个动态的系统，不断演化和变化。

他的研究成果使我们更好地理解了语言的起源和发展过程。

语言联系理论杨信彰提出了一种独特的语言联系理论，即语言间的相互影响和联系是不可避免的。

他认为语言并不是孤立存在的，而是受到周围语言的影响和借鉴。

他的理论深入剖析了不同语言之间的联系和相互作用。

语言描述方法杨信彰还对语言的描述方法进行了深入研究。

他提出了一种系统的方法来描述语言的语音、语法和词汇等方面。

他的工作不仅为语言学研究提供了重要的工具，还有助于我们更好地学习和理解各种不同的语言。

杨信彰的影响杨信彰的学术成果对语言学领域的发展产生了重要影响。

他的理论和方法被广泛应用于语言学的研究和教学中。

他的学术观点也激发了更多学者的兴趣和研究动力。

此外，杨信彰还积极推动语言学的国际交流和合作。

他致力于促进中国语言学与国际学术界的对话和交流，为中西方语言学的融合做出了重要贡献。

总结杨信彰是当代语言学界的重要人物，他的学术贡献和影响不容忽视。

通过对语言演化理论、语言联系理论和语言描述方法的研究，他为语言学的发展和进步做出了重要贡献。

同时，他的跨国合作和国际交流活动也为促进语言学领域的发展起到了积极作用。

英语词汇学教程参考答案杨信彰英语词汇学教程参考答案杨信彰集团文件发布号：（9816-UATWW-MWUB-WUNN-INNUL-DQQTY-《英语词汇学教程》参考答案Chapter 11. The three definitions agree that lexicology studies words. Yet, they have different focuses. Definition 1 focuses on the meaning and uses of words, while definition 2 on the overall structure and history. Definition 3 regards lexicology as a branch of linguistics and focuses on the semantic structure of the lexicon. It is interesting to note that the three definitions use different names for the object of study. For Definition 1, it is words, for Definition 2 the vocabulary of a language, and for Definition 3 the lexicon.2. (1) They can go into the room, and if they like, shut the door.(2) You boys are required to give in your homework before 10 o’clock.(3) I watch the football match happily and find it very interesting.3. (1) W hen it follows ‘-t’ and ‘-d’, it is pronounced as [id];(2) When it follows voiceless consonants, it is pronounced as [t];(3) When it follows voiced consonants and vowels, it is pronounced as [d].4. (1) They are words that can be included in a semantic fieldof “tree”.(2) They represent the forms of the verb “fly” and have a common meaning.(3) They belong to a lexical field of “telephone communication”.(4) They are synonyms, related to human visual perception.Specifically, they denote various kinds of “looking”.5. (a) 'blackboard: a board with a dark smooth surface, used in schools for writing with chalk (the primary stress in on black);'blackbird: a particular kind of bird, which may not necessarily be black in color (the primary stress in on black);'greyhound: a slender, swift dog with keen sight (the primary stress in on black);'White House: the residence of the US President in Washington (the primary stress in on black).(b) 'black 'board: any board which is black in color (both words receive primary stress);'black 'bird: any bird which is black in color (both words receive primary stress);'grey 'hound: any hound that is grey in color (both words receive primary stress);'white 'house: any house that is painted white (both words receive primary stress).6. There are 44 orthographic words, i.e. sequences of letters bounded by space. There are 24 open class words and 20 closed class words.7. (a) The ‘bull’ is literal, referring to a male bovine animal.(b) ‘Take the bull by the horn’ is an idiom, meaning(having the courage to) deal with someone or somethingdirectly.(c) ‘Like a bull in a china shop’ is an idiom, meaningdoing something with too much enthusiasm or too quickly or carelessly in a way that may damage things or upset someone.(d) A ‘bull market’ is one where prices rise fast becausethere is a lot of buying of shares in anticipation ofprofits.8. drinking vessels: cup, mug, glass, tumbler, tankard, goblet, bowl, beaker, wineglass, beer glass, sherry glassThey can be organized in a number of ways, for example, by the drinks the vessel is used for.Non-alcoholic: glass, tumbler, cup, mug, beaker, bowlBeer: beer glass, tankardWine: wineglass, gobletSpirits: sherry glassChapter 21.Lexeme is an abstract linguistic unit with different variants,for example, sing as against sang, sung.Morpheme is the ultimate grammatical constituent, thesmallest meaningful unit of language. For example, moralizers is an English word composed of four morphemes: moral+lize+er+s.Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph, such as cat, chair, -ing, -s, etc.Allomorphs are the alternate phonetic forms of the samemorpheme, for example, [t], [d] and [id] are allomorphs ofthe past tense morpheme in English.2. quick-ly, down-stair-s, four-th, poison-ous, weak-en,world-wide, inter-nation-al-ly, in-ject, pro-trude3. island, surname, disclose, duckling, cranberry,reading, poets, flavourfulness, famous, subvert4. (a) [?](b) [-ai]5. (1) -’s, -s(2) -est, -s(3) -ing(4) -ed6. The connotations are as follows:(1) slang, carrying the connotation of reluctance,(2)informal, carrying the connotation that the speaker is speaking to a child, (3) beastie is used to a small animal in Scotland, carrying the connotation of disgust, (4) carrying the connotation of formalness, (5) carrying the connotation of light-heartedness.7. { -?m; ～- n; ～- n; ～-i: ～-s; ～-z; ～-iz}8. court: polysemy dart: polysemyfleet: homonymy jam: homonymypad: homonymy steep: homonymystem: homonymy stuff: polysemywatch: polysemy9. (1)—(f), (2)—(g), (3)—(c), (4)—(e), (5)—(a), (6)—(d), (7)—(b)10. (1) unpractical(2) break(3) impractical(4) rout(5) pedals(6) Route(7) razeChapter 31.The history of English can be divided into four periods: theOld, Middle, Early middle and Modern English periods.In Old English period, there is a frequent use of coinages known as ‘kennings’, which refers to vivid figurative descriptions often involving compounds. The absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords force people to rely more on word-formation processes based on native elements.The latter period of Old English was characterized by the introduction of a number of ‘loan translations’.Grammatical relationships in Old English were expressed by the use of inflectional endings. And Old English is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items.In Middle English period, English grammar and vocabulary changed greatly. In grammar, English changed from a highly inflected language to an analytic language. In vocabularyEnglish was characterized by the loss of a large part of the Old English word-stock and the addition of thousands of words from French and Latin.In Early Modern English period, English vocabulary grew very fast through extensive borrowing and expansion of word- formation patterns. And there was a great many semanticchanges, as old words acquire new meanings.Modern English is characterized with three main features of unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary, the assertion of American English as a dominant variety of the language, and the emergence of other varieties known as ‘NewE nglishes’.2.“appeareth” in (a) becomes “appeared” in (b), and“dreame” becomes “dream”. The passive “were departed”becomes the active “had gone”. With the change of wordforms, (b) looks simple morphologically.3.barf: American slang kerchief: French mutton:Frenchcadaver: Latin goober: Kongo leviathan: Latinginseng: Chinese taffy: North American kimono:Japanesewhisky: Irish caddy: Malay sphere: Latin algebra: Arabic giraffe: African4.t rain: meaning changed from the trailing part of a gown to awide range of extended meanings.deer: meaning narrowed from ‘beast’ or ‘animal’ to ‘a particular kind of animal’knight: meaning ameliorated from ‘boy, manservant’ to ‘a man in the UK who has been given an honor of knighthood’meat: meaning narrowed down f rom ‘food’ to ‘the edibleflesh of animals and the edible part of fruit’.hose: meaning extended from ‘leg covering’ to ‘a long tube for carrying water’.5.sell: specialized hound: specializedstarve: specialized wife: specializedloaf: specialized6.Chapter 41. read+-i+-ness dis-+courage+-ing kind+heart+-edun-+doubt+-ed+-ly stock+room+-s pre-+pack+-age+-ed2.book: books(n.); books(v.), booking, bookedforget: forgets, forgot, forgottenshort: shortter, shortestsnap: snaps, snapping, snappedtake: takes, taking, took, takengoose: geeseheavy: heavier, heaviest3.-ish: meaning ‘having the nature of , like’de-: meaning ‘the opposite of’-ify: meaning ‘make, become’-dom: means ‘the state of ’il-(im-/in-): meaning ‘the opposite of, not’-able: meani ng ‘that can or must be’mis-: meaning ‘wrongly or badly’-sion(-tion):meaning ‘the state/process of’pre-: meaning ‘prior to’-ment: meaning ‘the action of’re-: meaning ‘again’under-: meaning ‘not enough’-al: meaning ‘the process or state of’4. a. The y are endocentric compounds. They have the “Adj + N”structure, in which adjectives are used to modify nouns‘line, line, neck, room’. Hotline means ‘a telephonenumber that people can call for information’. Mainlinemeans ‘an important railway line between two cities’. Redneck means ‘a person from the southern US’. Darkroom means ‘a room with very little in it, used for developingphotographs’.b. They are endocentric compounds. They have the “N + N’structure. Bookshelf means ‘a shelf for keeping books’.Breadbasket means ‘a container for serving bread’. Mailbox means ‘a box for putting letters in when they delivered to a house’. Wineglass means ‘a glass for drinking wine’.c. They are endocentric compounds. They have the “N + N’structure. Letterhead mean s ‘the head of a letter (i.e. the name and address of an organization printed at the top of a letter)’. Roadside means ‘the area at the side of a road’.Keyhole means ‘the hole in a lock for putting the key in’.Hilltop means ‘the top of a hill’.d. They a re exocentric compounds. Dropout means ‘a personwho leaves school before they have finished their studies.Go-between means ‘a person who takes messages betweenpeople’. Turnout means ‘the number of people who come to an event’. Standby means ‘a person or thing that can always be used if needed’.e. They are endocentric compounds. They have the “Adj + N-ed” structure, in which adjectives are used to modify the N-ed.f. They are endocentric compounds. They have the “N + Adj”structure, meaning As Adj As N.5.in-: not, the opposite ofen-: to put into the condition ofdis-: not, the opposite ofun-: not, the opposite ofinter-: between, amongmis-: wrongly or badlyover-: too muchre-: againpost-: after6. a. a young dog; pigletb. a female editor; hostessc. a place for booking tickets; refineryd. one who is kicked; traineee. the state of being put up; output7. unbelievable: un- (prefix), -able (suffix)inexhaustible: in- (prefix), -ible(suffix)multinational: multi (prefix)-, -al(suffix)teleshopping: tele- (prefix), -ing (suffix)8. a. initialismb. blendingc. compoundingd. conversion9. a. compounding, affixationb. compounding, affixationc. compounding, shorteningd. compounding, affixation10.a. consumable, comprehensible, exchangeable, permissibleb. absorbent, assistant, different, participantc. constructor, liar, beggar, editor, developerd. elementary, stationary, brewery, mockeryChapter 51. (a) connotation (b) formality(c) dialect (d) connotation2. waterrainwater, brine, tap water, mineral water, spring water,purified water, aerated water, ……..3. (a) keeping(b) feeling of admiration or respect4. (a) hyponymy(b) meronymy5. (a) light beer, strong beer(b) heavy coffee, strong coffee, weak coffee6. amateur—dabbler, funny—ridiculous, occupation—profession,small—little, famous—renowned, fiction—fable, smell—scent7. These words refer to different kinds of pictures or diagrams. Drawing: picture or diagram made with a pen, pencil, or crayon. Cartoon refers to ‘an amusing drawing in a new spaper or magazine’. Diagram refers to a simple drawing using lines to explain where something is, how something works, etc.Illustration refers to a drawing or picture in a book, magazine etc. to explain something. Sketch refers to a simple picture that is drawn quickly and does not have many details.8. (a) gradable (b) non-gradable, reversive (c) gradable(d) non-gradable, reversive (e) gradable (f) non-gradable9. (a) antonym (b) hyponymy (c) antonym(d) synonymy (e) meronymyChapter 61. 1) literal expression 2) idiom3) literal expression 4) idiom5) idiom 6) literal expression2. 1) die2) something that makes a place less attractive3) suddenly realize or understand something4) make one’s friends disappoint5) continue to argue something that has already been decided and is not important6) react quickly so as to get an advantage3. 1) gradually reduce the amount of time, money, etc.2) give support and encouragement to someone in a game,competition, etc3) give something to the person it belongs to4) annoy5) fail because a part is weak or incorrect6) try to find out the facts about something7) live under the rule of someone8) talk to someone in order to find out his opinions, ideas,feelings etc.9) give someone a warning or secret information aboutsomethingChapter 71.General dictionaries include all of the elements of a lexicon,including meanings, pronunciations, usages, and histories of the words of their language. Specialized dictionaries are restricted to one variety or to one type of entryword.2.They are different in that different media are used. Printdictionaries do not use electric power and can be used in all kinds of light. Electronic dictionaries are easy to carry. .3.Open to discussion.4.Open to discussion.5.(a) symbolise(b) symbol of sth is a person, an object, an event, etc. thatrepresents a more general quality or situation; symbol forsth is a sign, number, letter, etc. that has a fixed meaning, especially in science, mathematics and music(a)/sim’b?lik/ and /sim’ba:lik/(b)represent(c)2(d)Yes. We know that form the label [VN] and the examples. Chapter 81.vertically challenged—shortsanitation engineer—garbage collectorethnic cleansing--genocideladies’ cloak room—women’s toilet2.(1)They differ in connotation. Politician impliesdisapproval while statesman implies approval.(2)They differ in connotation. Inexpensive sounds indirect.(3) They differ in connotation. flatter implies disapproval,while praise implies approval.(4) They differ in connotation. pedant implies disapproval,scholar is neutral.3.(1) buttocks — buns (2) nonsense —bullshit(3) prison — can (4) cocaine — coke4.(a).Turn off the lights, please.(b) Would you please turn off the lights5. Answers vary from person to person.6. (1) on a formal occasion.(2) when the speaker is seeing a friend off(3) when the speaker is angry and wants the addressee toleave(4) when the speaker is talking with a close friend.7. gateway, firewall, virus, bookmark, address, DOS, cyberspace, profiler, browser, login8. They differ in the terms they used, as they are different jargons.Chapter 91. knife: an object with a sharp blade for cutting thingsclothes: things we wear to keep our bodies warm;building: a structure made of a strong material, having roof, walls, windows, and doors2. She attacked every weak point in my argument.He withdrew his offensive remarks.I hit back at his criticism.She produced several illustrations to buttress her argument.I braced myself for the onslaught.。