英语语言学名词解释

Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludesresearch into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability touse Ian guage.2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion.3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in aparticular hemisphere of the brain.4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization ofcog nitive fun cti on.5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for theperception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on.8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is callednon-flue nt aphasia.9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results ina type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia.10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte ncauses the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems tohave lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules.12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un ableto recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so undrules.13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words isreversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips.14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ngof letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word.15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used wordstha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.16. lexical decision: ___ an experime nt that let participa nts judge whether a stri ng of letteris a word or not at a certa in time.17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of lettersis a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.18. prim ing effect: Since the men tal represe ntati on is activated through the prime, whe nthe target is prese nted, resp onse time is shorter that it otherwise would have bee n. Thisis called the prim ing effect. (06F)19. bottom-up process ing: an approach that makes use prin cipally of in formati on which isalready prese nt in the data.20. top-dow n process ing: an approach that makes use of previous kno wledge and experie neeof the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received.21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumptio n was in correct, forcing thecomprehe nder to backtrack and rein terpret the sentence.22. slip of the tongue: ____ mistakes in speech which provide psycholi nguistic evide nee for theway we formulate words and phrases.Chapter 11 : Second Lan guage Acquisiti on1. second Ianguage acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquiresa sec ond Ian guage subseque nt to his n ative Ian guage.2. target Ian guage: The Ian guage to be acquired by the sec ond Ian guage lear ner.3. second Ianguage: A second Ianguage is a Ianguage which is not a native Ianguage in a country but which is widely used as a medium of com mun icatio n and which is usually used alon gsideano ther Ian guage or Ian guages.4. foreign lang uage: A foreig n Ian guage is a Ian guage which is taught as a school subjectbut which is not used as a medium of in struct ion in schools nor as a Ian guage of com muni cati on withi n a coun try.5. in terla nguage: A type of Ian guage produced by sec ond and foreig n Ian guage lear ners, whoare in the process of learning a Ianguage, and this type of Ianguage usually contains wrong expressi ons.6. fossilization: In second or foreign Ianguage learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which in correct lin guistic features become a perma nent part of the way a pers onspeaks or writes a Ian guage.7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing Ianguages for instructional purposes wherebya native Ianguage and target Ianguage are compared with a view to establishing points ofdiffere nee likely to cause difficulties for lear ners.8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second Ianguage acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second Ianguages, the learner willacquire sec ond Ian guage structure with ease, where there are differe nces, the lear ner will have difficulty.9. positive tran sfer: It refers to the tran sfer that occur whe n both the n ative Ian guageand the target Ianguage have the same form, thus making learning easier. (06F)10. negative transfer: ___ the mistaken transfer of features of one ' s native Ianguage into asec ond Ian guage.11. error analysis: ___ the study and an alysis of errors made by sec ond and foreig n Ian guagelearners in order to identify causes of errors or commondifficulties in Ianguage learning.12. i nterli ngual error: errors, which mai nly result from cross-li nguistic in terfere nee atdiffere nt levels such as phono logical, lexical, grammatical etc.13. in trali ngual error: ____ Errors, which mai nly result from faulty or partial lear ning of thetarget Ian guage, in depe ndent of the n ative Ian guage. The typical examples areoverge neralizati on and cross-associati on.14. overgeneralization: ___ The use of previously available strategies in new situati ons, inwhich they are un acceptable.15. cross-association: ____ some words are similar in meaning as well as spelli ng andpronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the product ion of in correct forms in speech or writi ng by a non-n ative speakerof a sec ond Ian guage, due to his in complete kno wledge of the rules of that target Ian guage.17. mistake: mistakes, defi ned as either inten ti on ally or uninten ti on ally devia nt forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performa nce.18. in put: Ian guage which a lear ner hears or receives and from which he or she can lear n.19. in take: the in put which is actually helpful for the lear ner.20. In put Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashe n , which states that in sec ond Ian guage learnin g, it ' s n ecessary for the lear ner to un dersta nd in put Ian guage which containslinguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner ' s present linguistic competence.Eventually the ability to produce Ianguage is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisiti on: Acquisiti on is a process similar to the way childre n acquire their firstIanguage. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their lear ning but they are using Ian guage to com muni cate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second Ianguage knowledge by learning therules and talk ing about the rules.23. comprehe nsible in put: In put Ian guage which contains lin guistic items that are slightlybey ond the lear ner ' s prese nt lin guistic compete nee. (06F)24. Ianguage aptitude: the natural ability to learn a Ianguage, not including intelligenee, motivati on, in terest, etc.25. motivation: motivation is defined as the learner ' s attitudes and affective state orlearning drive.26. in strume ntal motivation: ____ t he motivati on that people lear n a foreig n Ian guage forin strume ntal goals such as pass ing exams, or furtheri ng a career etc. (06C)27. in tegrative motivation: _____ t he drive that people lear n a foreig n Ian guage because of thewish to ide ntify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)28. resultative motivati on: the drive that lear ners lear n a sec ond Ian guage for exter nal purposes. (06F)29. intrin sic motivation: ____ the drive that lear ners lear n the sec ond Ian guage for enjoyme ntor pleasure from lear ning.30. learning strategies: _____ learning strategies are learners ' conscious goal -oriented and problem-solvi ng based efforts to achieve lear ning efficie ncy.31. cog nitive strategies: ____ strategies in volved in an alyz ing, syn thesis, and intern aliz ingwhat has bee n learned. (07C/ 06F)32. metacognitive strategies: the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one' s learning.33. affect/ social strategies: ______ the strategies deali ng with the ways lear ners in teract orcom muni cate with other speakers, n ative or non-n ative.Chapter 10: Lan guage Acquisiti on1. language acquisition: ____ It refers to the child ' s acquisition of his mother tongue, . how the child comes to un dersta nd and speak the Ian guage of his com mun ity.2. Ian guage acquisiti on device (LAD): _____ A hypothetical inn ate mecha nism every no rmal huma nchild is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire Ian guage. (03)3. Uni versal Grammar: A theory which claims to acco unt for the grammatical compete nee ofevery adult no matter what la nguage he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slowrate of speed, high pitch, rich inton ati on, shorter and simpler sentence structures 又叫child directed speech , caretaker talk.(05)5. Critical Period Hypothesis: _____ The hypothesis that the time spa n betwee n early childhoodand puberty is the critical period for Ianguage acquisition, during which children can acquire Ian guage without formal in structi on successfully and effortlessly. (07C/ 06F/ 04)6. un der-exte nsion: Use a word with less tha n its usual range of deno tati on.7. over-exte nsion: Exte nsion of the meaning of a word bey ond its usual doma in ofapplicatio n by young childre n.8. telegraphic speech: Children ' s early multiword speech that contains content words andlacks function words and in flect ional morphemes.9. content word: Words referri ng to thin gs, quality, state or acti on, which have lexicalmeaning used alone.10. fun ctio n word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relati on ships in and betwee n senten ces.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some con texts of speech for reas ons ofreligi on, polite ness etc. (07C)12. atypical developme nt: Some acquisiti on of Ian guage may be delayed but follow the samerules of Ian guage developme nt due to trauma or injury.Chapter 9: Lan guage And Culture1. culture : The total way of life of a pers on, in clud ing the patter ns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and Ianguage that characterizes the life of humancom munity.2. discourse commu nity : It refers to the com mon ways that members of some social groupuse Ian guage to meet their n eeds.3. acculturation : A process in which changes on the Ianguage, culture and system of valuesof a group happen through interaction with another group with a different Ianguage, culture and a system of values.4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : The interdependence of Ianguage and thought is now known asSapir-Whorf Hypothesis.5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined whollyor partly by the structure of their native Ianguage——又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)6. lin guistic determinism: ____ It refers to the idea that the Ian guage we use, to some exte nt,determines the way in which we view and think about the world around us. (06C)7. deno tative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dict ion ary.8. conno tative meaning: The associati on of a word, apart from its primary meaning.9. iconic meaning: The image of a word in voked to people.10. metaphors: A figure of speech, in which no function words like like, as are used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared.11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference tocerta in acts or subjects, . powder room for toilet.12. cultural overlap: ____ The situati on betwee n two societies due to some similarities in then atural en viro nment and psychology of huma n being513. cultural diffusion: _____ Through com muni cati on, some eleme nts of culture A en ter culture Band become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusi on. (05/03)14. cultural imperialism: ____ The situati on of in creas ing cultural diffusi on all over theworld.(06C)15. linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgati on of global ideologies through the world-wide expa nsion of one Ian guage. (06C)16. linguistic nationalism: In order to protect the purity of their Ianguage, some countrieshave adopted special language policy. It is called linguistic nationalism.17. in tercultural communication: _____ It is com muni catio n betwee n people whose culturalpercepti ons and symbols are dist inct eno ugh to alter the com muni cati on event.18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national or official Ianguage(s), ways of spreading the use of a Ianguage, spelling reforms, the additionof new words to the Ian guage, and other Ian guage problems.Chapter 8: Lan guage And Society1. sociolinguistics: ____ T he subfield of linguistics that study Ianguage variation and Ianguage use in social con texts.2. speech com mun ity: A group of people who form a com munity and share at least one speechvariety as well as similar lin guistic no rms. (05)3. speech varieties: It refers to any disti nguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers.4. regi onal dialect: ____ A variety of Ian guage used by people livi ng in the same geographicalregi on.5. sociolect: A variety of Ianguage used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of Ianguage which is selected as appropriate to the type ofsituatio n.7. idiolect : A pers on ' s dial ect of an in dividual speaker that comb ines eleme nts, regard ing region al, social, gen der and age variati ons. (04)8. ling uistic reportoire : The totality of lin guistic varieties possessed by an in dividualcon stitutes his lin guistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed thatthree social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourseand mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the com muni cative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relati on ship in the situatio n in questio n: who the participa nts in the com muni cati on groups are and in what relati on ship they sta nd to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the mea ns of com muni cati on and it is concerned with howcom munication is carried out.13. sta ndard dialect: ___ A superposed variety of Ian guage of a com munity or n ati on, usuallybased on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the Ianguage.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects therelati on ship and con versati ons. Accord ing to Marti n Joos, there are five stages of formality,n amely, in timate, casual, con sultative, formal and froze n.15. Pidgi n: A ble nding of several Ian guage, develop ing as a con tact Ian guage of people, who speak differe nt Ian guages, try to com muni cati on with one ano ther on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin Ianguage which has become the native Ianguage of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having adiffere nt role to play, and Ian guage switch ing occurs whe n the situati on cha nges.(07C)18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of Ianguageco-exist in a speech com muni ty, each hav ing a defi nite role to play.19. Lin gua Franca : A variety of Ian guage that serves as a medium of com muni cati on amonggroups of people, who speak differe nt n ative Ian guages or dialects20. code-switch ing: the moveme nt back and forth betwee n two Ian guages or dialects withinthe same sentence or discourse. (04)1. historical li nguistics: _______ A subfield of lin guistics that study Ian guage cha nge.2. coin age: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose. (03)3. ble nding: A ble nd is a word formed by combi ning parts of other words.4. clipp ing: Clipp ing refers to the abbreviati on of Ion ger words or phrases.5. borrow ing: When differe nt culture come into con tact, words are ofte n borrowed from oneIan guage to ano ther. It is also called load words.6. back formati on: New words may be coined from already exist ing words by subtract ing anaffix mistake nly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formatio n.7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.8. acrony ms: Acronyms are words derived from the in itials of several words.9. protola nguage: The orig inal form of a Ian guage family, which has ceased to exist.10. Lang uage family: A group of historically related Ian guages that have developed from acom mon an cestral la nguage.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.72. con text: The gen eral kno wledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. uttera nee meaning: The meaning that a speaker con veys by using a particular uttera neein a particular con text. (03)5. uttera nee: expressi on produced in a particular con text with a particular inten ti on.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by Joh n Austi n and deepe ned by Searle, whichbelieves that we are perform ing acti ons whe n we are speak ing. (05)7. con statives: Con statives are stateme nts that either state or describe, and are thusverifiable. (06F)8. performatives: Performatives are sentences that don' t state a fact or describe a state,and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: __ The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syn tax, lexic on andphono logy.10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker' s intention and performed in saying someth ing. (06F)11. perlocuti onary act: ___ The act result ing from say ing somethi ng and the con seque nee or thecha nge brought about by the uttera nee.12. represe ntatives: Stati ng or describ ing, say ing what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Tryi ng to get the hearer to do somethi ng.14. commisives: Committi ng the speaker himself to some future course of actio n.15. expressives: Express ing feeli ngs or attitude towards an exist ing state.16. declarati on: Bring about immediate cha nges by say ing someth ing.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willingto cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. con versatio nal implicature: ____ The use of con versati onal maxims to imply meaning duri ngcon versati on.19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to expressthe same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, con sultative, cold, and froze n. (06F)Chapter 5: Sema ntics1. sema ntics: Sema ntics can be simply defi ned as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle : It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaningof a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world,but through the mediatio n of con cept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the in here nt meaning of the lin guistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Referenee means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic worldof experie nee.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synony ms.6. dialectal synony ms: synonyms that are used in differe nt regi onal dialects.7. stylistic synony ms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, ., in the words theygo together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(05/03)10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings havethe same form, ., differe nt words are ide ntical in sound or spelli ng, or in both. (04)11. homopho nes: When two words are ide ntical in sound, they are homoph on es.12. homographs: When two words are ide ntical in spelli ng, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are ide ntical in both sound and spelli ng, they are complete homony ms.14. hyp onymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relati on betwee n a more gen eral, more in clusiveword and a more specific word.15. superord in ate: The word which is more gen eral in meaning is called the superord in ate.16. co-hyp ony ms: Hyponyms of the same superord in ate are co-hyp ony ms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for opposite ness of meaning.18. gradable antony ms: Somea ntonyms are gradable because there are ofte n in termediate forms between the two members of a pair. , antonyms old and young, between them there existmiddle-aged, mature, elderly.19. compleme ntary antony ms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pairimplies the asserti on of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relati onal opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relati on ship betwee n the two items are called relati onal opposites. For example, husba nd---wife, father---s on,buy---sell, let---re nt, above---below.21. en tailme nt: the relati on ship betwee n two sentences where the truth of one is in ferredfrom the truth of the other. . Cindy killed the dog en tails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage alreadyknows. . Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea .923. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult].24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning.25. predicati on: In the framework of predicati on an alysis, the basic un its is calledpredicatio n, which is the abstracti on of the meaning of a sentence.26. predicate: A predicate is someth ing said about an argume nt or it states the logicalrelati on linking the argume nts in a sentence.27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical withthe nominal eleme nt(s) in a senten ce.28. selecti onal restrictio n: Whether a sentence is sema ntically meanin gful is gover ned bythe rules called select ional restrict ion s, . con stra ints on what lexical items can go withwhat others.29. sema ntic features: The smallest un its of meaning in a word, which may be described asa comb in ati on of sema ntic comp onen ts. For example, woman has the sema ntic features [+huma n] [-male] [+adult]. (04)30. preseque nee: The specific tur n that has the function of prefiguri ng the coming acti on.(05)Chapter 4: Sy ntax1. syn tax: A branch of lin guistics that studies how words are comb ined to form sentencesand the rules that gover n the formati on of senten ces.2. category: It refers to a group of lin guistic items which fulfill the same or similarfun cti ons in a particular Ian guage such as a senten ce, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syn tactic categories: ____ W ords can be grouped together into a relatively small nu mber ofclasses, called syn tactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, in cludi ng N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase,the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed,n amely, NP, VP, PP, AP.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to fun ctio n as specifiers.10. compleme nt: The words on the right side of the heads are compleme nts.11. phrase structure rule: _____ T he special type of grammatical mecha nism that regulates thearran geme nt of eleme nts that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of thehead while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarizedas an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. theory: A theoretical con cept i n tran sformatio nal grammar which restricts the formof con text-free phrases structure rules.14. coord in atio n: Some structures are formed by joining two or more eleme nts of the sametype with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phe nomenon is known ascoord in ati on.15. subcategorization: The information about a word ' s complement is included in the headand termed suncategorization. (07C)16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. compleme nt phrase: the eleme nts, in cludi ng a compleme ntizer and a compleme nt clause is called a compleme nt phrase.19. matrix clause: the con trusct ion in which the compleme nt phrase is embedded is calledmatrix clause.20. modifier: the eleme nt, which specifies opti on ally expressible properties of heads iscalled modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position toano ther.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Inflpositi on to a positi on to the left of the subject, is called in vers ion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt In fl, i nterrogative do is in serted in to an empty Infl posit on to make tran sformatio n work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessarysyn tactic moveme nt, ., tran sformatio n, to the deep structure. (05)26. Wh questi on : In En glish, the kind of questi ons beg inning with a wh- word are calledwh questi on.27. Wh movement : The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a positi on at the beg inning of the sentence. This tran sformati on is called wh moveme nt.。

1.Semantics: the study of meaning2.Synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning.3.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning4.Homonymy: the phenomenon thea words having different meanings have same form, i.e.,different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both5.Hyponymy: the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word6.Antonymy: words that are opposite in meaning7.Pragmatics: it is the study of how speakers of a language ues sentences to effect successful communication8.Speech act theory: it is a philosopher explanation of the nature of linguistic communicatin. It is aim to answer the question “what do we do when suing lanfuage?”9.Constatives: either state or discribe, and were thus verifiable10. Performatives: did not state a face or describe a state, and were not verifiable11.Locutionary act: It is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.12.Illocutionary act: It is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.13.Perlocutionary act: It is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something14.cooperative principle: in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to coopreate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk15.historical linguistics:it is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.16.blending: a way of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words17.semantic broadening:the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning18.protolanguage: the original form of a language family which has ceased to existnguage family: a group of historically relate laguages that have developed from a common ancestral language20.socilinguistics: the subdiscipling of linguistics thet studies language variation and language ues in social contexts21.speech community: a group of people who form a community andshare at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms22.lingua franca: a variety of language that serves as a sommon speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languages or dialects23.pidign:a marginal contact language with a limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures, used by native speakers of other languages as a means of business communication24.diglossia: a sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieries of languag co-exist in a speech community, each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation25.euphemism:a word or expression that is thought to be mild, indirect, or less offensive and used as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression26.psycholinguistics: the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processes of language production, comprehension and acquisition27.cerebral cortex: the outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory oragns and where human cognitive abilities reside28.brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain29.linguistic lateralization: hemispheric specialization or dominance forlanguage30.the critieal period: an early period of one’s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain lateralization for language functions31.caretaker speech: simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, etc.when they talk to young children who are acquiring their native languagenguage transfer:the effect of one’s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language33.interlanguage:the aproximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language34.acculturation: a process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language communnity。

(1) linguistics: （语言学）the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language: （语言）a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: （任意性）the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign andwhat it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.(4) duality:（双重性）the way meaningless elements of language at one level (soundsand letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence:（语言能力）knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formalabstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use, i.e. performance.(6) performance:（语言运用）Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct from theknowledge that underlies it, or competence.(11) synchronic linguistics: （共时语言学）the study of language and speech as they are used ata given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: （历时语言学）the study of linguistic change over time in contrastto looking at language as it is used at a given moment.(6) phoneme:（音位）the abstract element of a sound, identified as being distinctive in aparticular language.(7) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they areproduced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8)phonology: （音位学）the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.(1) morphology:（形态学）the study of the structure of words.(2) morpheme:（词素）the smallest unit of language that carries meaning or serves agrammatical function.(3) free morpheme: （自由词素）a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: （黏着词素）a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph:（语素变体）the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the levelof parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized, e.g. -s, -es, and en are allallomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentencestructure.（句法学）(5) IC analysis:（Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法）the approach to divide thesentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining itsultimate constituents.(11) ideational function（概念功能）: the use of language as a means of giving structure to ourexperience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function（人际功能）: the use of language for maintaining social roles andinteracting with others.(13) textual function（语篇功能）: to create written or spoken texts which cohere withinthemselves and which fit the particular situation in which they are used.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.语义学(14) synonymy:(同义) the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexicalitems, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonymy:(反义关系) the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy:（上下义关系）the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy,where a more particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (thesuperordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant.(17) meronym:（整体部分关系）the sense relation between body and its parts which are notonly sections of the body but defined in terms of specific functions. For example, thehead is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(1) pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis:（指示）the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations withrespect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(1) sociolinguistics: the study of the relationship between language and society, that is, howsocial factors influence the structure and use of language.（社会语言学）(8) diglossia:（双语） a situation when two distinct varieties of the same languageare used, side by side, for two different sets of functions.(9) bilingualism:（双语现象）the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by agroup of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.(11) taboo:（禁忌）a word or expression that is prohibited by the polite society from generaluse.(12) euphemism:（委婉语）a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoidreference to certain acts or subjects, e. g. “powder room” for “toilet”.(1) cognitive linguistics: a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to thisapproach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.（认知语言学）。

现代语言学一绪论1 Linguisitics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be f ound.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme;therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest}三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to forma word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words. {$isbest}四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy :Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act:A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.{$isbest}七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning ofa word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes. {$isbest}八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established asa native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 tabo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.{$isbest}九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to pub erty during which the humanbrain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”.of linguistic relativism.{$isbest}十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also calledholophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Inte grative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。

语言学名词解释arbitrariness：the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic singals and the entities to which they refer.articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds，or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.allophone:variants of the same phoneme.Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound,a term often used synonymously with”coarticulation” .affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).allomorph:a morpheme, like a phoneme, is a linguistic abstraction, which must be realized as certain phonetic forms or variants in different phonetic environments. acronym:is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.assimilation: the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically c alled. ”contact” or ” contiguous” assimilation.agreement: (or CONCORD) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another, shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).Eg,—Whose is this pen?—Oh, it’s the one I lost.bound morphem e: refers to those which cannot occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the firstword and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.backformation: refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.competence：unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. consonant:are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. cardinal vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined,fixed and unchanging,intended to provide a frame of reference for the descriotion of the actual vowels of existing languages.coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations,as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. compound: refers to the words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate words to produce a single from.closed-class: a word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.co-occurrenc: it means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set of or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. construction: It refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.constituent: is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.coordination:a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or.category:The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, eg. noun, verb, subject, predicate, verb phrases, etc.More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case, and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc. communicative competence:is a sociolinguistic rule put forward by Dell Hymes in contrast with the “competence”vs.”performance”dichotomy in theoretic linguistics constative：In contrast to performative, sentences like “I pour some liquid into the tube”is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement.cooperative principle：This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads“Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occur, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which yo u are engaged”.There are four categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relation maxim, and manner maxims.conversational implicature：This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.design features：the disdinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from language of animals.diachronic：said of the study of development of language ang languages over time. descriptive：to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.duality：the structural organization of language into two abstract levels meaningful units and meaningless segments.displacement：the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.distinctive features:a means of working out a set of phonological contrast or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds,first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.derivation: is the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words.dissimilation: refers to the influence of one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different..elsewhere condition: the more specific rule applied first.It is applied when two or more rules are involved in derving the surface form from the enderlying form. endocentric: is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. exocentric: It refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Center” or “Head” inside the group.embedding: Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in thesentence (main clause) in syntactic subordination.eg,I saw the man who had visisted you last year. entailment：This is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows form the truth of the first, while the falasity of the first follows from the falsity of the second.function：the role language plays in communication or in particular social situations.free morpheme: refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themslives.grammatical word: refers to those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text.holophrastic stage：Holophrastic stage is the first phase of language acquisition. The main linguistic accomplishments during this stage are control of the speech musculature and se nsitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in the parents’ language.international phonetic alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the from of a chart,designed by the international phonetic association since 1888.It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice.the latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 2005 ,sep.28. intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns,each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meaning,either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. inflection:the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.illocutionary act：The illocutionary act is the act performed in the performing of a locutionary act.When we speak we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them ,they way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say.langue：the language system shared by a “speech community”.lexeme:in order to reduce the ambiguity of the term word, lexeme is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which appears in d ifferent grammatical contexts.lexical word: refers to those which mainly work for referring to substance, action andquality.lexicon: refers to the whole vocabulary of a language as against grammar of a language. loanword: the borrowing of a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.loanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.loss: the loss of sound refers to the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.language acquisition：Language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Acquiring a first language is something every child dose successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons. Four phases areidentified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition：holophrastic stage , two-word stage, three-word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage.linguistic Determinism:is a theory which believes that our language will influence or decide our way of looking at the world.In a loose sense,linguistic determinism,linguistic relativity,and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be regarded as synonyms.linguistic relativity:is a view which “was first expounded by the German ethnologist,Wilhelm von Humboldt ”.In a loose sense,this term has the same meaning with linguistic determinism and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.linguistic Sexism:is a term used to refer to sex-biased phenomena in language use.More specifically,it aims to reveal and deal with linguistic issues related to male chauvinism. locutionary act：The locutionary act is the ordinary act we perform when we speak, i.e. we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.metalanguage：a language used for talking about language.macrolinguage： a broad conception of linguistic enquiry,including psychological,cultural.manner of articulation: ways in which articulation of consonants can beaccomplished.maximal onset principle: a principle for dividing the Syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels,which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant,it is put into the onset rather than the coda.morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms ofrelationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.metaphor：Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It’s often described in terms of a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.metonymy：Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing that of another.open-class: is one whose membershio is in principle infinite or unlimited. ontological metaphors：Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences withphysical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities,emotions,ideas,etc.,as entities and substances.prescriptive：to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.phatic communion：said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact. performance：the language actually used by people in speaking or writing parole：the concrete utterances of a speaker.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived. phonolog y: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast.psycholinguistics：Psycholinguistics is the study ofpsychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use oflanguage.As an interdisciplinary academic field based on psychology and linguistics, psycholinguistics investigates the six following subjects：language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, language disorders, language and thought, and cognitive architecture of language, The most important research subjects are acquisition , comprehension and production.performative：A performative is a sentence like“I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth”,which dose not desc ribe things and cannot be said to be ture or false. The uttering of a performative sentence is,or is a part of, the doing of an action. Verbs like “name”are known as performative verbs.perlocutionary act：The perlocutionary act concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.root: refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. recursiveness：it mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent.speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech,also known as “vocal organs”.semi-vowels: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels. synchronic：said of n approach that studies language at a theoretical “point”in time. syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals.A syllable must have a nucleus or peak,which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant,and often involves an optional set ofconsonants before or after the nucleus.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable.stem:is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.s ubordination: refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.syntax:the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language ,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.structural metaphors：Structural metaphors play the most important role becausethey allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.speech Community:ref ers to group of people who “share not only the same rules of speaking,but at least one linguistic variety as well.”sociilinguistics of language:examines issues related to the subject from a more linguistic perspective and,hence,is complementary with the Sociilinguistics of Society in terms of its coverage and concerns.sapir-whorf hypothesis:is a theoretic assumption which suggests that our langusgehelps mould our way of thinking and,consequently,different languages may probably express speaker’s unique w ays of understanding the world.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings ofindividual words.two-word stage：Two-word stage is the second phase of language acquisition. Around 18 months, the child beings to learn words at a rate of one every two waking hours, and keeps learning that rate or faster through adolescence. The primitive syntax begins with two-word strings. Children announce when objects appear, disappear, and move about, point out their properties and owners, comment on people doing things and seeing things, reject and request objects and activities, and ask about who ,what, and where.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds.vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality,including diphthongs,when a single movement of the tongue is made,and triphthongs,where a double movement is perceived.。

Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.3. brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptive functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cognitive function.5. right ear advantage: The phenomenon that the right ear shows an advantage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cognition are called as split brain studies.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.8. non-fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is callednon-fluent aphasia.9. fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.11. phonological dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unable to recognize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called frequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of letters is a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect. (06F)19. bottom-up processing: an approach that makes use principally of information which is already present in the data.20. top-down processing: an approach that makes use of previous knowledge and experience of the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received.21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.22. slip of the tongue: mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.9. positive transfer: It refers to the transfer that occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form, thus making learning easier. (06F)10. negative transfer:the mistaken transfer of features of one’s native language into a second language.11. error analysis: the study and analysis of errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors or common difficulties in language learning.12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms andself-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary for the learner to understand input language which contains linguisticitems that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. (06F)24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation:motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc. (06C)27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes. (06F)29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.30. learning strategies:learning strategies are learners’ conscious goal-oriented andproblem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)32. metacognitive strategies:the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition:It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language. (03)3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.(05)5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly. (07C/ 06F/ 04)6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech:Children’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc. (07C)12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 9: Language And Culture1. culture : The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community.2. discourse community : It refers to the common ways that members of some social group use language to meet their needs.3. acculturation : A process in which changes on the language, culture and system of values of a group happen through interaction with another group with a different language, culture and a system of values.4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : The interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language-----又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)6. linguistic determinism: It refers to the idea that the language we use, to some extent, determines the way in which we view and think about the world around us. (06C)7. denotative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dictionary.8. connotative meaning: The association of a word, apart from its primary meaning.9. iconic meaning: The image of a word invoked to people.10. metaphors: A figure of speech, in which no function words like like, as are used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared.11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects, e.g. powder room for toilet.12. cultural overlap:The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being13. cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion. (05/03)14. cultural imperialism: The situation of increasing cultural diffusion all over the world.(06C)15. linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language. (06C)16. linguistic nationalism: In order to protect the purity of their language, some countries have adopted special language policy. It is called linguistic nationalism.17. intercultural communication: It is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols are distinct enough to alter the communication event.18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. (05)3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect : A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist ina speech community, each having a definite role to play.19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse. (04)1. historical linguistics:A subfield of linguistics that study language change.2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose. (03)3. blending: A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.4. clipping: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.5. borrowing: When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words.6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation.7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage:The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family:A group of historically related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context. (03)5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. (06F)8. performatives:Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act:The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and performed in saying something. (06F)11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.14. commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.15. expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.16. declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to express the same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, cold, and frozen. (06F)Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(05/03)10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell,let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.23. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult].24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning.25. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.26. predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. (04)30. presequence: The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action. (05)Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.15. subcategorization:The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.。

Chapter 1: Introduction1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.ngue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.9.parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.petence : The ideal user’ s knowledge of the rules of his language.11.performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication.nguage : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.13.design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14.arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to no logical connection between meaningand sound.15.productivity: Users can understand and produce sentencesthat they have neverheard before.16.duality: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound,which is meaningless, and the higher lever of meaning.17.displacement: Language can be used to refer to the contexts removed from theimmediate situation of the speaker no matter how far away from the topic ofconversation in time or space.18.cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It is taught andlearned from one generation to the next, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2: Phonology1.phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.2.phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned withall sounds in the world ’ s languages.3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’ s point of view, i.e. ha speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’ s pointtheof view, i.e. how sounds are perceived by the hearer.5.acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one personto another.6.voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds orsounds sequences in written form.9.narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics toshow sounds in written form.10.diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists ofletters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12.aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13.manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14.place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15.consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16.vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17.monophthong : the individual vowel.18.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions asa single one.19.phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language.20.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21.allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.22.phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.23.phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.plementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’ t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. 26.sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27.assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28.deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29.suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence.30.tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31.intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Chapter 3: Morphology1.morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2.open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items,and new words can be added to it.3.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4.morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes themeaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usuallychanges the part of speech of a word.7.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usuallychanges the meaning of a word to its opposite.8.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combinedwit others. E.g. –ment.9.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10.derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem toform a new word.11.inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to makegrammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.12.morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.pound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as asingle words14.inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammaticalmodification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for pasttense.Chapter 4: Syntax1.syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to formsentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similarfunctions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.6.phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are calledphrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which thephrase is built.8.head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9.specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.plement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11.phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulatesthe arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.14.coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of thesame type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon isknown as coordination.15. subcategorization: The information about a word ’ s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.plementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.plement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.plement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and acomplement clause is called a complement phrase.19.matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded iscalled matrix clause.20.modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties ofheads is called modifier.21.transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another22.inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23.Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24.deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25.surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26.universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.3.sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4.reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5.synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6.dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7.stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8.collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9.polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.10.homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.11.homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12.homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.plete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14.hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.15.superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16.co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17.antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationshipbetween the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife,father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21.entailment: the relationship between two sentenceswhere the truth of one isinferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22.presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take somemore tea.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1.pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2.context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.3.sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4.utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particularutterance in a particular context.5.utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6.Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle,which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking.7.constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and arethus verifiable.8. performatives: Performatives are sentences that don’ t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9.locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax,lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker ntention and performed’si insaying something.11.perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and theconsequence or the change brought about by the utterance.12.representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13.directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all bewilling to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible tocarry on the talk.18.conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation.Chapter 7: Language Change8.acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9.protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.nguage family: A group of historically related languages that havedeveloped from a common ancestral language.Chapter 8: Language And Society1.sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation andlanguage use in social contexts.2.speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at leastone speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.3.speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by aspeaker or a group of speakers.4.regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the samegeographical region.5.sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular socialclass.6.registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type ofsituation.7.idiolect : A person ’dialects of an individual speaker that combines elements,regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.8.linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by anindividual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.9.register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believedthat three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenorof discourse and mode of discourse.10.field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11.tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question:who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship theystand to each other.12.mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concernedwith how communication is carried out.13.standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14.formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflectsthe relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15.Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language ofpeople, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on aregular basis.16.Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a groupof speakers used in this daily life.17.bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having adifferent role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)18.diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties oflanguage co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.19.Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communicationamong groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20.code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages ordialects within the same sentence or discourse.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition: It refers to the child’ s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normalhuman child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language.3.Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4.motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫 child directed speech，caretaker talk.5.Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly.6.under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8.telegraphic speech: Children’ s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9.content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which havelexical meaning used alone.10.function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11.taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc.12.atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed butfollow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1.second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2.target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3.second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4.foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5.interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6.fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.14.overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations,in which they are unacceptable.15.cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16.error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of thattarget language.17.mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviantforms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18.input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or shecan learn.19.intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20.Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in secondlanguage learning, it ’ s necessaryorthelearnerf to understand input language whichcontains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner ’present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturallywithout being taught directly.21.acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their firstlanguage. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules.Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language tocommunicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.prehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that areslightly beyond the learner sent’linguisticpre competence.nguage aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not includingintelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation: motivation is defined as the learner’ s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26.instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign languagefor instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc.27.integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language becauseof the wish to identify with the target culture.28.resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language forexternal purposes.29.intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language forenjoyment or pleasure from learning.Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1.neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. Itincludes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, howand in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brainaffects the ability to use language.2.psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with theprocesses of language acqisition, comprehension and production.7.aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebrallesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.13.spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words isreversed, for example, Let’ s have chish and fips instend of Let’ s have fish and ch 14.priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether thestring of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15.frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently usedwords than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is calledfrequency effect.16.lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.18.priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented,response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect.。

1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。

语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussureb. hallidayd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicingc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。

Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.3. brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptive functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cognitive function.5. right ear advantage: The phenomenon that the right ear shows an advantage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cognition are called as split brain studies.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.8. non-fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is called non-fluent aphasia.9. fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.11. phonological dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unable to recognize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called frequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of letters is a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect. (06F) 19. bottom-up processing: an approach that makes use principally of information which is already present in the data.20. top-down processing: an approach that makes use of previous knowledge and experience of the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received.21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.22. slip of the tongue: mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.9. positive transfer: It refers to the transfer that occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form, thus making learning easier. (06F)10. negative transfer:the mistaken transfer of features of one’s native language into a second language.11. error analysis: the study and analysis of errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors or common difficulties in language learning.12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary for the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said t o emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. (06F)24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation:motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc. (06C)27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes. (06F)29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.30. learning strategies:learning strategies are learners’ conscious goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)32. metacognitive strategies:the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition:It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language. (03)3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.(05)5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly. (07C/ 06F/ 04)6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech:Children’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc. (07C)12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 9: Language And Culture1. culture : The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community.2. discourse community : It refers to the common ways that members of some social group use language to meet their needs.3. acculturation : A process in which changes on the language, culture and system of values of a group happen through interaction with another group with a different language, culture and a system of values.4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : The interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language-----又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)6. linguistic determinism: It refers to the idea that the language we use, to some extent, determines the way in which we view and think about the world around us. (06C)7. denotative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dictionary.8. connotative meaning: The association of a word, apart from its primary meaning.9. iconic meaning: The image of a word invoked to people.10. metaphors: A figure of speech, in which no function words like like, as are used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared.11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects, e.g. powder room for toilet.12. cultural overlap:The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being13. cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion. (05/03)14. cultural imperialism: The situation of increasing cultural diffusion all over the world.(06C)15. linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language. (06C)16. linguistic nationalism: In order to protect the purity of their language, some countries have adopted special language policy. It is called linguistic nationalism.17. intercultural communication: It is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols are distinct enough to alter the communication event.18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. (05)3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect : A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse. (04)1. historical linguistics: A subfield of linguistics that study language change.2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose. (03)3. blending: A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.4. clipping: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.5. borrowing: When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words.6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation.7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context. (03)5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. (06F)8. performatives:Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act:The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and performed in saying something. (06F)11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.14. commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.15. expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.16. declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to express the same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, cold, and frozen. (06F)Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(05/03)10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.23. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult].24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning.25. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.26. predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. (04) 30. presequence: The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action. (05)Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.15. subcategorization:The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement,i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα:a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense. (04)Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.。

一、Term Definition:Language: is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Phonetics: the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.Semantics: the study of meaningPragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Syntax: in linguistics, what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.Morphology: the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of studySynonym: words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Sense: concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.Dialect: a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect), or by people belonging to a particular social class (social dialect or sociolect), which is different in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.Accent: a particular way of speaking which tells the listener something about the speaker's background.Conversational maxim: an unwritten rule about conversation which people know and which influences the form of conversational exchanges.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.Locutionary act: the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning. It is the act performed in saying something. Hyponymy: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Speech community: the social group that is singled out for any special study. Transcription: the use of symbols to show sounds or sound sequences in written form. Bound morpheme: a morpheme that must be attached to another one is called bound morpheme.Minimal Pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for onesound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.Stress: the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.Compounding: a word formation process in which words are formed by putting two or more words together.Affixation: is the process of forming words by adding derivational affixes to stems. Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Complementary Distribution: Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.Conversion: refers to the derivational process whereby an item comes to belong to a new word class without the addition of suffix.Deep Structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization propertiesSurface Structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.Saussure: the distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the 20 century.Vowel: The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.Consonant: The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.Linguistics: the scientific study of language.General Linguistics: the study of language as a whole.Inflectional Affix: The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. Derivational Affix: The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.Open Class: in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs which are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words.Closed Class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, which are in small number and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words.Sociolinguistics: the study of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Speech Variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.Pidgin: a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Creole: when a pidgin become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquitted by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.二、单项选择题：1、语音学中元音和辅音的发音特征和分类。

语言学名词解释1、Descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.2、Arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.3、Duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units(e.g. words) and meaningless segments(e.g. sounds, letters).4、Displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker's immediate situation.5、Phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.6、Langue: the language system shared by a "speech community".7、allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.8、morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.9、inflection: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.10、endocentric: Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group.11、recursiveness: it mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within(i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language.12、cohesion: cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it asa text. The cohesion devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on.13、conceptual meaning: this is the first type of meaning recognized by Leech, which he defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference. But Leech also used "sense" as a briefer term for this conceptual meaning. As a result, Leech's conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.14、reference: reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.15、complementary antonymy: complementary antonomy is the sense relation between two antonyms which are complementary to each other,. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic field completely. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other. Not only he is alive means "He is not dead", he is not alive also means "He is dead".16、hyponymy: hyponymy, the technical name for inclusiveness sense relation, is a matter of class membership. For example, the meaning of desk is included in that of furniture, and the meaning of rose is included in that of flower.17、Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: is a theoretic assumption which suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world. In a loose sense, this term can be interchangeable used with linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.18、illocutionary act: The illocutionary act is the act performed in the performing of a locutionary act. When we speak we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say. In the example of "Morning!" we can say it has the force of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting.19、cooperative principle: this is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads "Make your conversational contribution such as it required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged". There are four categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relation maxims, and manner maxims.20、conversational implicature: this is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conversational meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are bothconcerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意in Chinese.。

Chapter 1: Introduction1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.11.performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13.design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to no logical connection between meaning and sound.15. productivity: Users can understand and produce sentences that they have never heard before.16. duality: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and the higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to the contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker no matter how far away from the topic of conversation in time or space.18. cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It is taught and learned from one generation to the next, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in t he world’s languages.3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. howa speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language. 12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one.19. phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language.20. phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.23. phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Chapter 3: Morphology1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes themeaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to forma new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. 14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded iscalled matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationshipbetween the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context.5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking.7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.8. performatives: Pe rformatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker’s i ntention and performed in saying something.11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.Chapter 7: Language Change8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at leastone speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect : A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C) 18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acqui sition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normalhuman child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language.3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly.6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech: Childre n’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc.12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language ina country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of thattarget language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary f or the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s pre sent linguistic competence.24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation: motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc.27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture.28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes.29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is calledfrequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect.。

英语语言学名词解释 ---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ 英语语言学名词解释 Acronyms AffixationAcronyms is a word coined by putting together the initial letters of a A word formation approach that attaches morpheme –an affix to a base，group of words. which is a word with 1 or more affixes in it. Anaphoric reference 前照应 A demonstrative determiner with anaphoric reference is more likely to go with a non-restrictive relative clause Cataphoric reference 后照应 A demonstrative determiner with cataphoric reference， which goes with a restrictive relative clause Collective nouns These are generally countable nouns，but even in the singular they refer to groups of people， animals or things. Compound A compound， the product of composition，and it is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. Conversion The derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix. Coordination 并列词 Realized by coordinators （ also termed coordinating conjunctions） which join units at the same level. Countable nouns Nouns that can take plural. Dangling participle:When the subject of participle is not expressed, it is normally to be the subject of the clause. It 1/ 20 is usually poor grammar, and sometimes absurd, if this rule is broken: Trying to be quiet, the floor board creaked. But the rule is often broken when the subject is vaguely understood to be “one”, “we”, “you”, people in general. Determiner Words used in the premodification of noun phrase and put before any adjectives that premodify the head word of noun. Dynamic adjectives Many adjectives can also be used in the dynamic sense （be being a.） in predicative position to show subjective measurement or suggest a temporary state，implying the qualities can be controlled or restricted. （e.g. he is being rude） end-focus 尾部焦点 under neutral conditions，the nucleus falls on the last element of the sequence as it is common that we process the information in a message to achieve a linear presentation form low to high information value. We refer to this as the principle of end-focus. ellipsis：省略 leaves out the redundant/wordy part and do not provide a substitute. Exclamation Express our impression ，especially our surprise ， excitement ， ---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ amazement，etc. It doesn?t take S-V inversion. exophoric reference 语言外照应 Nonlinguistic or situational context. Finite verb phrase Its head word is a finite verb， which is restricted by tense and keeps concord with the subject. Foreign pluralsWords that are borrowed from other languages often have foreign plurals. Fronting: Fronting is a term which refers to the removal of an item from its unmarked position to the marked presubject position. Infinitive The infinitive occurs as a verb in the base form which may go with or without to. Inherent adjectives Mass nouns Inherent adjectives denote inherent qualities characterize the referent of the noun. （e.g a big house） Nouns that can?t take plural.a Its first element is a non-finite verb free from the restrict of Non-inherent adjectives identify qualities in an indirect Non-finite Verb Phrase Non-inherent adjectives way. （e.g. a big eater）Non-predictive （non-epistemic）Non-predictive meanings of modal auxiliaries are very heterogeneous in nature，this category covers a variety of meanings，except “prediction”。 Non-restrictive adjectives 非限定性形容词Non-restrictive adjectives provide additional information not essential for the identification of the noun. Adjective 3/ 20 modifying proper noun are normally non-restrictive. （e.g. my fat wife） Predictive meaning （epistemic）The predictive meaning， rather homogeneous in nature， is concerned with the speaker?s assumption or assessment of probability and indicates the speaker?s confidence in the truth of his statement. Proper Nouns Proper nouns denote individual persons， places， etc， normally begins with a capital letter，has no plural form and can?t occur after an article. Pseudo-passive A pseudo-passive sentence is passive in form but active in meaning. Its ed-participle is adjectivalized； it can occur in a comparative construction，with a variety of prepositional phrases other than by-phrase， and with other link verbs besides be and get. Putative Should Putative should is not very meaningful in its own right； in many cases， its function is to fill in a structural slot. This use of should is commonly foundtense and concord of subject. ---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ in the that-clause after an adjective or a noun denoting a feeling or an opinion.e.g. It?s strange that she should wear her evening dress for such an informal party. Unit nouns Unit nouns are used to specify the quantities of the modified noun. Restrictive adjectives help identify the noun by describing its