主要英语国家概况(周宝娣编)--课文翻译

英美概况复习此为大学英语专业考试内容，下文含翻译。

USAI. Geography1. Geographic Features1.1 The Eastern HighlandsFormed by the Appalachian Range.?1. An average elevation of 800 meters above the sea level.?2. The highest peak:? Mount Mitchell (1856 m)：the highest peak of the Appalachian Range ?3. East: the narrow Atlantic Coast plain1.2 The Central Plains1. Vast plains between the Appalachian Mountains and the Rocky Mountains?2. Drained by the Mississippi River and its tributaries?3. Usually divided into two regions:?1) the Great Plains in the west: vast treeless prairies in the west and agricultural areas in the east?2) the Central Lowland in the east: from the five Great Lakes to central Texas1.3 The Western MountainsHigh plateaus and mountainous country?1. The Rocky Mountains: over 3,000 meters above the sea level?The continental divide of the United States ?2. West of the Rockies:? the Columbia Plateau in the north ?the Colorado Plateau in the southGrand Canyon,the Great Basin in between?The Pacific Mountain System consists of three regions: The Cascade Range, the Sierra-Nevada, and the Pacific Coast Range.?The Sierras contain Mount Whitney (4421m), the highest peak in the US outside Alaska.?Death Valley in eastern California, 85 meters below sea level2. ClimateThe United States has a large size and a wide range of geographic features. Every type of climate is represented in the country: The climate is temperate in most areas, tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida, polar in Alaska, semi-arid in the Great Plains west of the 100th meridian, desert in the Southwest, Mediterranean in Coastal California, arid in the Great Basin?Extreme weather is common: the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur within the continental United States, primarily in the Midwest.3. RiversThe Mississippi River (Great River, Big River in Indian language) is 3,770 km long: the second longest river in the United States. It originates from Minnesota and empties into the Gulf of Mexico.?The Missouri River is 4,090 km long. It is the longest river (longest branch of the Mississippi). It is a Mississippi tributary, flowing from the confluence of the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin and emptying into the Mississippi River.The length of the Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson combination is approximately 6,262 km?The Arkansas River (2,364 km) is the second longest tributary of the Mississippi River. The Ohio River is the largest Mississippi tributary measured by water volume.?The Yukon River is a major watercourse of northwestern North America. Rising in British Columbia, Canada, it runs 3,700 km long, emptying into the Bering Sea.5 great lakesII． American History1. Where did the first Americans come from and why did they migrate to America?Book P 4-52. American Civil warThe American Civil War (1861–1865), also known as the War Between the States, was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the Confederate States of America (the Confederacy). Led by Jefferson Davis, they fought against the U.S. federal government (the “Union”), which was supported by all the free states and the five border slave states.2.1 The CausesThe coexistence of a slave-owning South with an increasingly anti-slavery North made conflict likely. Lincoln did not propose federal laws against slavery where it already existed, but he had, in his 1858 House Divided Speech, expressed a desire to “arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction”. Much of the political battle in the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories. All of the organized territories were likely to become free-soil states, which increased the Southern movement toward secession. Both North and South assumed that if slavery could not expand it would wither and die.The coexistence of a slave-owning South with an increasingly anti-slaveryNorth made conflict likely. Lincoln did not propose federal laws against slavery where it already existed, but he had, in his 1858 House Divided Speech, expressed a desire to “arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction”. Much of the political battle in the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories. All of the organized territories were likely to become free-soil states, which increased the Southern movement toward secession. Both North and South assumed that if slavery could not expand it would wither and die. Southern fears of losing control of the federal government to antislavery forces, and Northern fears that the slave power already controlled the government, brought the crisis to a head in the late 1850s. Sectional disagreements over the morality of slavery, the scope of democracy and the economic merits of free labor vs. slave plantations caused the Whig and “Know-Nothing” parties to collapse, and new ones to arise (the Free Soil Party in 1848, the Republicans in 1854, the Constitutional Union in 1860). In 1860, the last remaining national political party, the Democratic Party, split along sectional lines.2.2 Factors Affecting the Process and ResultsWhat greatly affected the process as well as the result of the war were the differences between the South and the North in their strategies, geographical features, technology, and manpower and finance.2.2.1 StrategiesAs men poured into the armies, Northern and Southern leaders discussed strategies that would achieve victory.Northern armies would have to invade the Confederacy, destroy its capacity to wage war, and crush the will of the Southern people to resist. The Confederacy could win by prolonging the war to a point where the Northern people would consider the effort too costly in lives and money to persist.The South had a compelling example in the American Revolution of a seemingly weaker power defeating a much stronger one. If the North chose not to mount a military effort to coerce the seceded states back into the Union, the Confederacy would win independence by default.Lincoln and other Northern leaders, however, had no intention of letting the Southern states go without a fight. The most prominent American military figure in the spring of 1861 was Winfield Scott, the general-in-chief of the United States Army. With a brilliant mind, Scott conceived a long-range strategy to bring Northern victory. Scott’s plan sought to apply pressure on the Confederacy from all sides. A combined force of naval and army units would sweep down the Mississippi River, d ividing the Confederacy’s eastern and western states. At the same time, the Union navy would institute a blockade to deny the Confederacy access to European manufactured goods. Should the South continue to resist evenafter the loss of the Mississippi and the closing of its ports, Scott envisioned a major invasion into the heart of the Confederacy.2.2.2 GeographyGeography played a major role in how effectively the two sides were able to carry out their strategies.The sheer size of the Confederacy posed a daunting obstacle to Northern military forces. Totaling more than 1,940,000 km2 and without a well-developed network of roads, the Southern landscape challenged the North’s ability to supply armies that maneuvered at increasing distances from Union bases.It was also almost impossible to make the North’s blockade of Southern ports completely effective because the South’s coastline stretched 5600 km and contained nearly 200 harbors and mouths of navigable rivers.The Appalachian Mountains also hindered rapid movement of Northern forces between the eastern and western areas of the Confederacy while the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia offered a protected route through which Confederate armies could invade the North.The placement of Southern rivers, however, favored the North. The Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers provided excellent north-south avenues of advance for Union armies west of the Appalachians.2.2.3 TechnologyTechnological advances helped both sides deal with the great distances over which the armies fought. The Civil War was the first large conflict that featured railroads and the telegraph. Railroads rapidly moved hundreds of thousands of soldiers and vast quantities of supplies; the North contained almost twice as many miles of railroad lines as the South. Telegraphic communication permitted both governments to coordinate military movements on sprawling geographical fronts.The combatants also took advantage of numerous other recent advances in military technology. The most important was the rifle musket carried by most of the infantrymen on both sides. The rifle musket, with an effective range of 225 to 275 meters, allowed defenders to break up attacks long before they reached the defenders’ positions.Other new technologies included ironclad warships, which were used by both sides; the deployment of manned balloons for aerial reconnaissance on battlefields, used mainly by the North. The technology for all of these weapons had been present before the Civil War, but never before had armies applied the technology so widely.2.2.4 Manpower and FinanceAt the beginning of the war, state militias provided most of the troops for both Union and Confederate armies. Soon large numbers of civilianswere volunteering for military service. Throughout the war, the bulk of the forces consisted of volunteers.When the number of volunteers lagged behind the growing battle casualties, both the Northern and Southern governments resorted to drafting men into the armies. The Confederacy passed the first draft act in April 1862. The Union followed almost a year later.Although the draft itself did not produce a sufficient number of soldiers, the threat of being drafted led many to volunteer and collect a bounty, which was paid to volunteers. Some soldiers were unscrupulous enough to enlist, desert, and reenlist to collect the bounty more than once.The Civil War, like all wars, called for great sums of money to pay troops and supply them with equipment. At the outset of the war the Confederacy depended on loans, but this source of finance soon disappeared as Southerners began to be affected financially by the cost of the war and unable to buy bonds. Instead it relied on paper money, freely printed. The Confederacy suffered greatly from severe inflation and debt throughout the war. The Confederate rate of inflation was about 9200%.The Union financed its armies by loans and taxes to a much greater degree than the Confederacy, even resorting to an income tax. The people of the North were more prosperous than those of the South. A national banking system was established by Congress to stimulate sales of U.S. bonds. Northerners had savings with which they could buy the bonds and had earnings from which taxes could be taken.2.3 The Process2.6.1 Eastern Theater (1861-1863)2.6.3 Western Theater (1861-1863)2.6.4 Trans-Mississippi Theater (1861-1865)3. America in World War IWorld War I, military conflict, from August 1914 to November 1918, that involved many of the countries of Europe as well as the United States and other nations throughout the world.World War I was one of the most violent and destructive wars in European history.Of the 65 million men who were mobilized, more than 10 million were killed and more than 20 million wounded.The term World War I did not come into general use until a second worldwide conflict broke out in 1939. Before that year, the war was known as the Great War or the World War.1.1 Coalitions InvolvedThe war began as a clash between two coalitions of European countries.The first coalition, known as the Allied Powers, included the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Russian Empire.The Central Powers, which opposed them, consisted of the empires of Germany and Austria-Hungary.1.2 The Immediate CauseThe immediate cause of the war was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by a Serbian nationalist.The fundamental causes of the conflict, however, were rooted deeply in the European history of the previous century, particularly in the political and economic policies that prevailed in Europe after 1871, the year that Germany emerged as a major European power.2. The Great DepressionOn October 24, 1929, the American stock market crashed. Billions of dollars of paper profits were wiped out within a few hours. This led to a long economic depression.However, the post-war industrial boom and the prosperity were soon to vanish. The Great Depression in the United States, worst and longest economic collapse in the history of the modern industrial world, began from the end of 1929 until the early 1940s.2.1 The CausesThe depression was caused by a number of serious weaknesses in the economy.It is a common misconception that the stock market crash of October 1929 was the cause of the Great Depression. The two events were closely related, but both were the results of deep problems in the modern economy that were building up through the “prosperity decade” of the 1920s.As is typical of post-war periods, Americans in the Roaring Twenties turned inward, away from international issues and social concerns and toward greater individualism.The self-centered attitudes of the 1920s seemed to fit nicely with the needs of the economy. Modern industry had the capacity to produce vast quantities of consumer goods, but this created a fundamental problem: Prosperity could continue only if demand was made to grow as rapidly as supply. Accordingly, people had to be persuaded to abandon such traditional values as saving, postponing pleasures and purchases, and buying only what they needed. Advertising methods were used to persuade people to buy such relatively new products as automobiles and such completely new ones as radios and household appliances. The resulting mass consumption kept the economy going through most of the 1920s.But there was an underlying economic problem: Income was distributed very unevenly, and the portion going to the wealthiest Americans grew larger as the decade proceeded. This was due largely to two factors: While businesses showed remarkable gains in productivity during the 1920s, workers got a relatively small share of the wealth this produced. Between 1923 and 1929, manufacturing output per person-hour increased by 32 percent, but workers’ wages grew by only 8 percent. Corporate profits shot up by 65 percent in the same period.As a result of these trends, in 1929 the top 0.1 percent of American families had a total income equal to that of the bottom 42 percent. This meant that many people who were willing to purchase new products did not have enough money to do so. To get around this difficulty, the 1920s produced another innovation—“credit,” an attractive name for consumer debt. People were allowed to “buy now, pay later.”International problems also weakened the economy. After World War I the United States became the world’s chief creditor as European countries struggled to pay war debts and reparations. Many American bankers were not ready for this new role. They lent heavily and unwisely to borrowers in Europe, especially Germany, who would have difficulty repaying the loans, particularly if there was a serious economic downturn. These huge debts made the international banking structure extremely unstable by the late 1920s.In addition, the United States maintained high tariffs on goods imported from other countries, at the same time that it was making foreign loans and trying to export products. This combination could not be sustained: If other nations could not sell their goods in the United States, they could not make enough money to buy American products or repay American loans.The rising incomes of the wealthiest Americans fueled rapid growth in the stock market, especially between 1927 and 1929. Soon the prices of stocks were rising far beyond the worth of the shares of the companies they represented. People were willing to pay inflated prices because they believed the stock prices would continue to rise and they could soon sell their stocks at a profit.In 1928 the Dow Jones industrial average, an index that tracks the stock prices of key industrial companies, doubled in value in less than two years. But the stock boom could not last. The great bull market of the late 1920s was a classic example of a specul ative “bubble” scheme. In the fall of 1929 confidence that prices would keep rising faltered, then failed.Starting in late October the market plummeted as investors began selling stocks. On October 29, known as Black Tuesday, the worst day of the panic, stocks lost $10 billion to $15 billion in value. By mid-November almost all of the gains of the previous two years had been wiped out, withlosses estimated at $30 billion.The stock market crash announced the beginning of the Great Depression.2.3 R oosevelt’s New DealThe initial government response to the Great Depression was ineffective, as President Hoover insisted that the economy was sound and that prosperity would soon return.But business owners saw no reason to increase production while unsold goods clogged their shelves. By 1932 investment had dropped to less than 5 percent of its 1929 level. By the election year of 1932, the depression had made Hoover so unpopular that the election of the Democratic presidential candidate Franklin Delano Roosevelt was all but assured. Shortly after his inauguration in 1933, Roosevelt quickly lifted the nation’s spirits with the rapid and unprecedented actions of the New Deal.The New Deal produced a wide variety of programs to reduce unemployment, assist businesses and agriculture, regulate banking and the stock market, and provide security for the needy, elderly, and disabled. The basic idea of early New Deal programs was to lower the supply of goods to the current, depressed level of consumption. The government sought to raise farm prices by paying farmers not to grow surplus crops and to create codes for many industries that regulated competition while guaranteeing minimum wages and maximum hours for workers. The New Deal also tried to increase demand, pumping large amounts of money into the economy through public works programs and relief measures.Public works projects not only provided jobs but built schools, dams, and roads. The New Deal helped people to survive the depression. Unemployment was reduced, but remained high through the 1930s. Farm income rose from a low of $1.9 billion in 1932 to $4.2 billion in 1940. The demands of the depression led the United States to institute social-security programs and accept labor unions, measures that had been taken decades earlier in many European nations.3.2.1 US and Japanese ConflictIn the final result, however, the United States had little choice in the matter. When France had fallen to Germany, Japan had begun to move into French Indo-China, which had been France's source of rubber and was thought to be rich in oil. The United States government had no desire to see Japan in possession of its own stocks of these essential resources and so threatened to place an embargo on these goods. The Japanese responded in an unexpected way. On Sunday, 7 December 1941, Japanese naval aircraft attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at anchor at Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian islands. The Pearl Harbor Attack brought the United States into the war on December 8. Germany and Italy declared war on the United Stateson DecemberThe CongressThe United StatesCongress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election.As provided by the United States Constitution, each of the 435 members of the House of Representatives represents a district and serves a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population. The 100 Senators serve staggered six-year terms. Each state has two senators, regardless of population. Every two years, approximately one-third of the Senate is elected.checks and balances:The government is divided into three branches, the legislative, the executive and the judicial, each has part of the powers but not all the power. And each branch of government can check, or block, the actions of the other branches. The three branches are thus in balance. This called “checks and balances”.What is American General Education?见书English2.1 The Iberians1) They are the earliest settlers on the British Isles.2.2 The Celts1) From 700 B.C. Celts came in several successive waves from the Upper Rhineland and began to inhabit British Isles.2) The fair-haired Celts imposed themselves as an aristocracy on the conquered tribes of Iberians throughout Britain and Ireland.3) These people found refuge in the mountains to the north and west.4) At least two big waves of Celtic invasion can be distinguished: first the Gaels or Goidels, still found in Ireland and Scotland, came over as early as 600 B.C.; secondly the Cymric and Brythons, still found in Wales, come over before 300 B.C.3. Roman Britain3.1 Roman InvasionRoman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410.The Romans referred to their province as Britannia.Prior to the Roman invasion, Iron Age Britain already had cultural and economic links with Continental Europe, but the invaders introduced new developments in agriculture, urbanization, industry and architecture, leaving a legacy that is still apparent today.It is believed that the Celts were related with the ancient people in what is now France. They gave some help in the struggle to resist the Roman invasion of France. As a result, the Roman army, commanded by Julius Caesar, invaded England in 55 BC. He landed in Kent with several thousand Roman troops, but meeting resistance and bad weather, the Roman withdrew soon after. In the following year, Julius Caesar and the Romans went across the English Channel and invaded Britain for the second time. Julius Caesar and his soldiers did not stay long in England before they withdrew again. The invasion marked the beginning of English recorded history because Julius Caesar kept a diary and wrote down what he saw in England. The successful invasion of England by the Romans did not take place until nearly a century later, in 43 AD, headed by the Emperor Claudius I. The Romans did not meet with much resistance on the part of the natives and soon got possession of what is now England by driving many of the native Celts into mountainous Scotland and Wales. The Romans failed to conquer Scotland, they built two great walls, the Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall, along the northern border of England to prevent the Picts in Scotland from invading England.3.2 Influences of Roman InvasionThe 3d and 4th centuries witnessed the decline of the Roman Empire. In 410 Rome abandoned Britain.1. Roman urban civilization, baths and amphitheaters, as well Hadrian’s Wall. People who spoke Latin and wore togas. Numerous villas——vast estates worked by slaves and featuring sumptuous noble dwellings—were also established. Beyond these, the countryside remained Celtic.2. A network of roads, still in use for 1400 years;3. A number of towns. They introduced a system of organized government and built a network of towns, mostly walled. These town used names ending with “ster”, “cester”, or “shire” -- Leicester, Worcester and Yorkshire—deriving from castra, the Latin word for camp; the Roman capital was London.4. Christianity; the Romans brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain. This came at first by indirect means, probably brought by traders and soldiers, before the first Christian Emperor, Constantine, we proclaimed in 306 AD.5. Water and sewage systems.1.1 Anglo-SaxonSoon after the Romans left, a band of new invaders landed in the southern part of England, in what is now the country of Kent. They were known in history as the Jutes. Other Germanic tribes came trooping after them. This continued for many years. The Saxons came from northern Germany and established their kingdoms in Essex (East Saxow), Succes (South Saxon) and Wessex (West Saxon). In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, also from northern Germans, came and settled in the east part of England. After the newcomers had taken possession of all the land now known as England, the movement, know in history as the Anglo-Saxon Conquest, was complete. But we must bear in mind that theses Germanic tribes never obtained possession of what we now call Scotland, Wales and Ireland. The inhabitants of these countries were still Celts.The England was divided into seven principal kingdoms, known as Heptarchy in English history: Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain.The influence of Anglo-Saxon?The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. They divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law.?They devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century. In this system, the arable land around a village was divided into three hedgeless (open) big fields. These fields were divided into narrow strips which were shared out among the villagers. Good land was thus fairly distributed. One great field was left “fallow” each year so that its soil could recover its richness after two years’ cultivation.?They set up the basis of the English agrarian civilization and subsistence farming. There were wastelands, known as commons, which were used by villagers to graze livestock and get firewood. This system was the basis of the English agrarian civilization and subsistence farming. It helped to shape the English community life and the Anglo-Saxon concept of equality.?They created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen） to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.2. Viking Invasion (800–1066)In the 8th century, the Vikings from theScandinavian countries of northern Europe, Norway and Denmark, began to attack the English coast. In the process of resisting the Vikings, the 7 Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England gradually became united under Alfred the Great.Alfred was a king of Wessex. He was not only an able warrior but also adedicated scholar and a wise ruler. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system.After the death of Alfred, his successors were not as capable as he had been. Taking advantage of the situation, more Dane came and set about taking possession of the entire country. The Anglo-Saxon king didn’t care for fighting, but he dreamed of buying off the Danes. As a result, more invaders came. In 1016, the Witan chose Canute, the Danish leader, as king of England. Canute, who made England part of a Scandinavian empire which included Norway as well as Denmark.3. Norman Conquest3.1 Norman Conquest: CauseAfter the death of Canute’s son, the crown was passed to Edward the Confessor, the last Anglo-Saxon king.When Edward was on his death-bed, several men laid claim to the English throne, the king of Norway, the Duke of Normandy (Edward’s cousi n), and Harold Godwinson( a brother of Edward’s wife).William, the Duke of Normandy, claimed the Edward had promised the crown to him before his death. He became very angry when he heard that Harold had taken the crown. Harold knew that William would come to measure swords with him. he was prepared to fight, placing an army on the southern coast of England to watch for William’s coming. Several months passed by and William failed to appear. He was abiding his time. When the harvest time in England came, ma ny of Harold’s soliders went back home to gather in the crops/. The coast was thus left undefended.William seized the chance and landed his army in Southeastern England in Sep. 1066. Harold, who had been fighting in the north, hurried back with the exhausted troops. They fought at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October. It was a close battle at first, but in the final hours William’s superiority in cavalry and archers proved decisive. Harold was killed, along with his brothers Earl Gyrth and Earl Leofwine, and the English army fled.William became known as William the Conqueror, the first Anglo-Norman king of England.3.2 Control of EnglandAfter Willam became the king, he took a few measures to control England Soldiers rewarded: The Normans received from William lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion.All land was the king’s: William claimed ultimate possession of。

CHAPTER ONELAND AND PEOPLEDifferent Names for Britain and its PartsWhen people refer to Britain, they often use different names such as Britain, Great Britain, England, the British Isles, the United Kingdom or the U. K. Do they mean the same thing?当人们提及英国时,常用不同的名称,如不列颠、英格兰、不列颠群岛、联合王国,以及缩写的U.K…这些不同的称呼是不是指向相同的事物?Strictly speaking, the British Isles, Great Britain and England are all geographical names. They are not the official name of the country. The British Isles are made up of the two large islands—Great Britain and Ireland and hundreds of small ones. The two large islands are Great Britain and Ireland. Britain, or Great Britain, is the larger of the two islands. It forms the United Kingdom with Northern Ireland——the northern part of Ireland. So the official name of the United Kingdom is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. But it is too much of a mouthful to say such a long name for a country, so people just say Britain, the United Kingdom or simply U. K. This is one country on the British Isles and its capital is London. There is another country called the Republic of Ireland or Eire on the British Isles. It takes up the reminder of Ireland——the southern part of Ireland. It has been an independent republic since 1949 and its capital is Dublin.严格地说,不列颠群岛、大不列颠群岛和英格兰都是地理名称。

英语国家概况翻译Unit 1 A Brief Introduction to The United Kingdom 我们正在研究的这个国家的全称是大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

这也是一个复杂的名字，对于一个在许多方面都很复杂的国家。

大多数人都知道它，是因为它的庞大的海外帝国的称号使他在国家上扮演着重要的角色，但是在第二次世界大战之后的数年，这一切都结束了。

然而，人们知道的那些有关英国(他们可能称它为大不列颠)的事情，可能跟大多数真正的英国人是如果过自英国或者，错误的称为己的生活的事情没有多大的联系。

一方面，现在，帝国的时代已经过去很久了，只有老人们把帝国作为他们生活有一些意义的一件事留在记忆里。

英国不再是一个帝国，尽管其过去帝国的影响可能体现在各方各面;而不是仅仅体现在与曾经是这个帝国的一部分并且建立起一个松散(自愿)的称之为英联邦国家的组织保持联系的50或更多的国家之间的密切关系。

但是今天在英国国际关系中，更重要的是欧洲联盟。

自从1973年始，英国成为了它的成员。

考虑到当代的英国，强调它在欧盟中扮演的角色，比起英联邦的一部分，要有用得多了。

作为7国集团成员的大型发达经济体，它仍然是一个相对富裕的国家。

另外一个明显旧帝国的影响在于组成英国人口本身。

在20世纪50年代和60年代这段时间，受到鼓励来自这些英联邦国家的移民，导致了一个二十个人中就有一个非欧洲人的人口种族。

他们自己，其父母，或者祖父母，出生在印度或巴基斯坦，加勒比国家，仅举出这几个最有代表性的国家和地区。

这将引入什么是本章节关于英国的关键主题:因为是大多数，或所有的国家，是不可能用简单的话语来概括英国人民。

很多人想到了英国，就想到了英国的绅士。

但是，这仅仅是一种刻板印象，在当今，对于绝大多数英国人来说都是不适用的，而且并不具有正确性。

英国是一个国家，只有一种护照，和一个拥有主权的政府，但是像它的名字一样，它是由不同的元素组成的。

它包括一个单一民族国家内的四个部分:由大不列颠岛组成的英格兰，苏格兰，威尔士，和与大不列颠岛邻近的爱尔兰岛上的一个省，北爱尔兰，组成一个完整的国家。

第三章英国的形成Ⅰ.诺曼统治(1066--1381)1.威廉一世的统治(1066--1381年)在威廉统治下，英国的封建制度得到完全确立。

根据此制度，国王个人拥有全国所有土地。

威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族，条件是贵族保证服役和交租。

贵族的这些地产分散于各处，这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。

已成为国王土地承租人的贵族又把土地分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民，同样要他们交租和服役。

处在封建等级制底层的是农奴--和奴隶差不多的没有自由的人们。

英国封建制度独有的特点(这一特点限制了贵族权力的扩大)是：所有的土地拥有者，无论是土地承租人还是二佃户，都要为手中的土地不仅要宣誓效忠于直接领主，而且还要宣誓效忠国王。

威廉用大议会取代了盎格鲁撒克逊国玉的顾问团--贤人会议。

大评议会由他的土地承租人组成，一旦国王召集，他们就得到大评议会服务。

在南部城市温切斯特、威斯敏斯特和格洛斯特，大议会一年开会三次。

为了可靠地记录所有的土地、佃户和他们的财产并查明他们能交多少税，威廉派官员编了一本财产清册，称为《末日审判书》。

因为对英国人来说，这本土地清册无疑就是最后审判日那天众王之王所用的《末日书》。

此册完成于1086年，它记录了1085年作的英国全国总调查的结果。

此册陈述了土地的范围、价值、人口、耕种情况和所有权。

现在《末日审判书》保存在伦敦的公共档案馆里。

从此册可以看出，在1086年，农村约有一半的耕地掌握在10个承租人(贵族)手里，其中只有两个是英国贵族，约五分之一土地归国王本人所有。

其余大多数属于主教、修道院院长和其他修道院头领。

威廉对教会在英国的发展极有兴趣。

他对教会的政策是完全拉制，同时赞成它拥有权力。

他让意大利裔的贝克主教(诺曼人)兰佛兰克担任坎特伯雷大主教。

他鼓励兰佛兰克用诺曼特色的高效率来管理教会事务，并进一步密切英国教会与罗马的关系，但他又小心地维护自己的独立性。

没有他的授权，英国不承认教皇；没有他的批准，教皇诏书在英国就没有任何影响力；未经他的允许，主教不可以访问罗马，甚至不可以写信给教皇；没有他的明确同意，在他的广大王国内任何人都不能被逐出教会。

第八章英国法律与司法机构联合王国不实行完全统一的法律制度。

但是英格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰各自独立的法律制度却有大体的相似之处。

苏格兰的法律制度与英国其他地方的制度相异之处更多，但在许多方面有本质上的同一性。

联合王国所有法律制度的一个共同特点是没有一部完整的法典。

法律来源包括：(1)成文法(议会法案和经议会授权制订的补充法规)；(2)大量的"不成文"法或称习惯法，源于法院或其他的许多判决；(3)平衡法(对习惯法中没有包括到的那些案例的一种补充性法律手段)；(4)欧共体法，英国加入欧盟后要遵守的法律，主要局限于经济和社会问题。

另一共同特点是刑法和民法之间的区别(刑法处理的是针对整个社会的犯罪行为，而民法处理的是个人之间就权利、责任和义务而产生的纠纷，以及个人与群体，群体与群体之间的交往)Ⅰ.刑事诉讼程序在英格兰和威尔士，一旦警察指控某人犯有刑事罪，皇家检察总署就要接管此案，并独立地审核证据以决定是否起诉。

在苏格兰，检察总长，即皇家司法长官负责向高级法院、郡法院和地区法院起诉。

法律规定在全英国任何地方逮捕人，都必须尽快起诉并把其送到到法庭受审。

如果24小时内不能开庭，除非被控人的案情严重，否则皆可保释。

所有刑事审判都在法院公开进行。

因为刑法认为，在消除合理怀疑证明被告有罪之前，他是无辜的，并采取一切可能的步骤不使原告比被告处于有利地位。

审判时被告不必回答警察的问题，若被告的确发表陈述，除非已经以适当的措辞提醒过他，否则他的话不能用作审判他的证据。

不许强迫被告提供证据或在法庭上回答诉方的盘问。

每位被告都有权雇用律师为其辩护，如果他不能支付律师费，可用公共费用提供帮助。

如果他被指控谋杀，自己又无充足的财力，那就必须向他提供法律援助。

在由陪审团进行的刑事审判中，法官判刑(所有审判皆如此)，但陪审团决定是否定罪。

陪审团由法院召集，由普通的独立公民组成。

在英格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰陪审团为12人，苏格兰为15人。

主要英语国家概况第一章国土与人民Ⅰ英国的不同名称及区域人们说到英国时常常使用不同的名称：不列颠，大不列颠，英格兰，不列颠群岛，联合王国等。

这些名称一样吗？还是有所区别？严格地讲，不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰都是地理名称。

它们并不是这个国家的正式名称。

不列颠群岛是由两个大岛和几百个小岛组成。

两个大岛是不列颠岛和爱尔兰岛，其中不列颠岛较大，它与爱尔兰岛的北部---北爱尔兰---构成联合王国。

因此，联合王国的正式国名是大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

但是一口气说出这么长的国名太费事，因此，人们就说不列颠，联合王国或简单地说UK，这是不列颠岛上的一个国家，首都是伦敦。

另外还有一个国家，叫爱尔兰共和国或称爱尔兰，也位于不列颠岛上。

它占据了爱尔兰岛的其余部分，在岛的南部。

1949年开始爱尔兰独立，首都是都柏林。

大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰，苏格兰和威尔士。

英格兰面积最大，人口最多，一般说来也是最富裕。

因此人们常用英格兰指代英国，用英格兰人指代英国人。

这有时令苏格兰人和威尔士人不快，他们不认为自己是“英格兰人”，他们有自己的文化，甚至有自己的语言。

英国一直是世界上最重要的国家之一。

约一百年前，由于推行帝国主义扩张政策，英国成为一个帝国，这个帝国占有世界上四分之一的人口，四分之一的面积。

它不仅在北美，而且在亚洲、非洲、和澳洲都有殖民地。

但是两次世界大战大大削弱了英国，英国殖民地接二连三独立，大英帝国逐渐消失，1931年由英联邦所取代。

英联邦是一个自由联合体，由曾经是英国殖民地变为现已独立的国家构成。

成员国之间实行经济合作，有一定的贸易协议。

英联邦没有特别的权力，是否参加英联邦由各成员国自己决定。

目前（1991年），英联邦有50个国家。

Ⅱ英国的地方特征英国是个岛国，四周是海。

它位于欧洲北海岸附近的北大西洋中。

南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海把英国与欧洲的其他部分隔开。

英法之间的英吉利海峡很狭窄，最狭窄的地方叫多佛尔海峡，只有33公里宽。

英语国家概况美国篇中英翻译chapter 13 geography 地理位置美国的全称是美利坚合众国。

我们通常简称它为美国。

The full name of the United States is the United States of America ，Often we just call it the United States, the U. S. or simply America.1. 阿拉斯加和夏威夷是最近加入美国的两个新州(1959年)。

阿拉斯加在加拿大的西北部，夏威夷位邻中太平洋。

Alaska and Hawaii are the two newest states in American(1959年).Alaska lies in northwestern Canada，and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific.2.美国陆地面积为930万平方公里。

就面积而言，美国是世界第四大国，仅次于俄罗斯、加拿大和中国。

The U.S has a land area of 9.3 million square kilometres.It is the fourth largest country in the world in size after Russia，Canada and China.3.所有州中，阿拉斯加是面积最大的州，罗得岛最小，在美国大陆，最大的州是得克萨斯州。

Of all states of American，Alaska is the lagest in area and Rhode Island the smallest.But on the mainland Texas is the largest sate of the country.4. 落基山脉是北美大陆的脊梁，也被成为大陆分水岭。

The Rockies，the backbone of the North American Continent，is also known as the Continental Divide.5. 阿巴拉契亚山脉和落基山脉是美国的两座大山脉。

Unit ‎1 A‎Brie‎f Int‎r oduc‎t ion ‎t o T‎h e Un‎i ted ‎K ingd‎o m‎‎我们‎正在研究的‎这个国家的‎全称是大不‎列颠及北爱‎尔兰联合王‎国。

这也是‎一个复杂的‎名字，对于‎一个在许多‎方面都很复‎杂的国家。

‎大多数人都‎知道它，是‎因为它的庞‎大的海外帝‎国的称号使‎他在国家上‎扮演着重要‎的角色，但‎是在第二次‎世界大战之‎后的数年，‎这一切都结‎束了。

然而‎，人们知道‎的那些有关‎英国（他们‎可能称它为‎英国或者，‎错误的称为‎大不列颠）‎的事情，可‎能跟大多数‎真正的英国‎人是如果过‎自己的生活‎的事情没有‎多大的联系‎。

‎‎一方面，现‎在，帝国的‎时代已经过‎去很久了，‎只有老人们‎把帝国作为‎他们生活有‎一些意义的‎一件事留在‎记忆里。

英‎国不再是一‎个帝国，尽‎管其过去帝‎国的影响可‎能体现在各‎方各面;而‎不是仅仅体‎现在与曾经‎是这个帝国‎的一部分并‎且建立起一‎个松散（自‎愿）的称之‎为英联邦国‎家的组织保‎持联系的5‎0或更多的‎国家之间的‎密切关系。

‎但是今天在‎英国国际关‎系中，更重‎要的是欧洲‎联盟。

自从‎1973年‎始，英国成‎为了它的成‎员。

考虑到‎当代的英国‎，强调它在‎欧盟中扮演‎的角色，比‎起英联邦的‎一部分，要‎有用得多了‎。

作为7国‎集团成员的‎大型发达经‎济体，它仍‎然是一个相‎对富裕的国‎家。

‎‎另外‎一个明显旧‎帝国的影响‎在于组成英‎国人口本身‎。

在20世‎纪50年代‎和60年代‎这段时间，‎受到鼓励来‎自这些英联‎邦国家的移‎民，导致‎了一个二十‎个人中就有‎一个非欧洲‎人的人口种‎族。

他们自‎己，其父母‎，或者祖父‎母，出生在‎印度或巴基‎斯坦，加勒‎比国家，仅‎举出这几个‎最有代表性‎的国家和地‎区。

‎‎这将‎引入什么是‎本章节关于‎英国的关键‎主题：因为‎是大多数，‎或所有的国‎家，是不可‎能用简单的‎话语来概括‎英国人民。

第二十三章加拿大地理和历史Ⅰ.地理特点1.面积与所处位置加拿大是世界上仅次于俄国的第二大国家。

它的陆地面积大约为一千万平方公里(精确数字为9，976，186平方公里)。

它覆盖了近2/5的北美大陆。

从北到南，加拿大的辽阔领土几乎从北极绵延至北纬45°，约3200公里。

从东到西，它从大西洋延伸到太平洋，约6400公里。

加拿大位于美国以北。

但有一部分位于美国缅因州以东，还有一部分位于从布法罗到底特律的最近直线上，这部分的加拿大区域比布法罗和底特律还要靠南。

北纬45°线标出了加拿大同美国北部的佛蒙特和纽约的分界线。

然而，加拿大的大部分地区位于北纬49°以北。

加拿大和美国共有一条6738公里的边界线，这条边界线一百多年来从不设防，每天有成千的旅游者从这里通过。

加拿大拥有如此辽阔的领土，它的人口却只有二千九百万(1994)。

加拿大的大部分地区人口稀疏。

近89%的国土没有常住人口。

北部的许多地区杳无人烟，遍布森林或长年冰冻的北极荒地。

大约80%的加拿大人住在临近美国边界的大城市中，其中60%的人口集中在魁北克域和安大略湖的西端之间。

多伦多是加拿大最大的城市，有三百四十多万人。

蒙特利尔是第二大城市，人口为二百九十多万，第三大城市是温哥华，它有一百二十多万人。

大多数加拿大的城市都比这三个城市小得多。

加拿大有四大人口密集区：(1)大西洋沿岸的农业、矿业和渔业城市；(2)坐落在魁北克省和安大略省南部以制造业为主的大城市；(3)平原地区以小麦、养牛和采油业为主的城市；(4)不列颠哥伦比亚省的太平洋沿岸。

北纬55°以北的大部分地区主要居住着捕猎者、捕鱼者和采矿者。

著名的加拿大骑警是这些孤立的地区的法律和秩序的象征。

2.地形加拿大有着多种多样的地形。

在东部，那些多山的沿海省份在圣劳伦斯湾和大西洋有着一条不规则的海岸线。

圣劳伦斯平原和内陆平原是主要的耕作区。

它们被一个森林密布的高原分隔开，这一高原始于苏必利尔湖和休伦湖。