w1-7figrative language

英语语言学概论The RestorationThe bourgeois dictatorship was established, and Cromwell became the Protector of the English Commonwealth After the death of Cromwell, the Parliament recalled Charles II to England in 1660.Only when Charles II threatened to restore the old absolute monarchy that bourgeoisie expelled him and invite William, Prince of Orange, from Holland, to be King of England in 1688: Glorious Revolution(光荣革命)——Glorious because it was bloodless and there was no revival of the revolutionary demands.Paradise LostIt is a long epic（史诗）in 12 books，written in blank verse.Plot：Although defeated by God，Satan is not discouraged, he chooses the Garden of Eden for the battlefield ，where live the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, who are allowed by God to enjoy the supreme beauties of Paradise, if they do not eat the fruit that grows on the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. Satan desires to tear them away from the influence of God and make them tools in his struggle against God’s authority.Satan assumes the shape of a serpent and appears before Eve, He persuades her to break God’s command. Eve eats an apple from the forbidden tree and plucks（摘）another for Adam. God sees all this, and Adam and Eve are both deprived of immortality, exiled（逐出）from Paradise and doomed to an earthly life full of hardship and sufferings.Paradise Lost is Milton’s masterpiece. The story were taken form the Old Testament: the creatio n, the rebellion in Heaven of Satan and his fellow-angels; their defeat and expulsion fromHeaven; the creation of the earth and of Adam and Eve; the fallen angels in hell plotting against God; Satan’s temptation of Eve; the departure of Adam and Eve from EdenThemeThe poem, as we are told at the outset, was “to justify the ways of God to man,” to advocate submission to the Almighty. But after reading it one gets the impression that the main idea of the poem is a revolt against God’s authority.characterizationGod: a selfish, cruel, and unjust despot.In the poem God is no better than a selfish despot, seated upon a throne with a chorus of angels about him eternally singing his praises. His long speeches are never pleasing. He is cruel and unjust in his struggle against Satan. His Archangel is a bore. His angels are silly. The Angles never think of expressing any opinions of their own, resembles the court of an absolute monarch.Adam and Eve: embody Milton’s belief in the powers of man. Their craving fo r knowledge is highly praised. Satan: real hero, brave, strong-minded, represent the spirit questioning the authority of God.The rebel Satan who rose against God and , though defeated, still sought for revenge, is the most striking character in the poem. Satan is the real hero of the poem. Like a conquered and banished giant, he remains obeyed and admired by those who follow him down to hell. He is firmer than the rest of the angels. It is always from him that deep counsels, unlooked-for resources and courageous deeds proceed. Satan and his followers freely discuss all the issues in council, bear close resemblance to a republican Parliament. It is he who, passing the guarded gatesand boundless chaos, amid so many dangers, and across so many obstacles, makes man revolt against God. Though defeated, he prevails, since he has won from God the third part of his angels, and almost all the sons of Adam. Though wounded, he triumphs for the thunder which hit upon his left his heart invincible.Samson AgonistesSamson Agonistes is a poetical drama modeled on the Greek tragedies. It deals with the story from the “Book of Judges”(士师记)in the Old Testament. Samson was an athlete of the Israelites. He stood as their champion fighting for the freedom of his country. But he was betrayed by his wife Dalilah and blinded by his enemies the Philistines. Led into the temple “to make them sport” he wreaked his vengeance upon enemies by pulling down the temple upon then and upon himself in a common ruin.There is much in common between Samson and Milton. Like Samson, Milton has also been embittered by an unwise marriage, persecuted by his enemies, has suffered from blindness and yet is unconquerable. Samson’smiserable blind servitude among his enemies, his agonizing longing for sight and freedom, and the last triumph all strongly suggests Milton’s passionate longing that he too could bring destruction down upon the enemy at the cost of his own life, Samson is Milton.John Bunyan约翰.班扬（1628—1688）Life Experience1628 born in a poor family whose father is a tinker (make and mend kettles and pot)"My descent was of a low and inconsiderable generation, my father's house being of that rank that is meanest and most despised of all the families of the land".1635 receiving educatio n at his father’s house and later with other country boys at local school.1640 choosing a job like his father by adopting the trade of tinker1644 joining the parlimentary army during the revolution time and become a preacher1661 tried by the local magistrate for not attending the parish church and for holding unlawful meeting ,later was sentenced for 12 years.While he was in jail, he was starting his most famous work pilgrim’s progress1672 released and licensed as a teacher1678 Pilgrim’s Progress was published1688 died of a chillJohn Bu nyan’s masterpiece The Pilgrim’ Progress was probably written in prison, but for some reason he did not publish till 1678 long after his release. The Pilgrim’ Progress is a religious allegory.The first partChristian the Pilgrim, setting out in his search for salvation(救赎）, is accompanied by Pliable, Mr. Evangelist, Faithful and then Hopeful.On the way he meets with many pitfalls like the Slough of Despond（绝望的深渊）, V anity Fair , Doubting castle and so on On the way he meets with many hindrances like Mr. Worldly Wiseman, Apollyon（恶魔) and Judge Hategood, and Giant Despair.After many narrow escapes and numerous tests of his steadfastness（坚定不移）he finally arrives at Celestial city（天国）.The second partThe great popul arity of the book led the author to write a sequel. The second part of The Pilgrim’s Progress, dealing with similar adventures of Christian’s wife Christiana and her children in their pilgrimage to the celestial city, is much inferior to the first part.The Story of the First PartThe story starts with a dream in which the author seesChristian the Pilgrim, with a heavy burden on his back,reading the Bible. When he learns from the book that the city in which he and his family live shall be burnt down in a fire, Christian tries to convince his family and his neighbors ofthe oncoming disaster and asks them to go with him insearch of salvation, but most of them simply ignore him. So he starts off with a friend, Pliable. Pliable turns back afterthey stumble into a pit, the Slough of Despond. Christianstruggles on by himself. Then he is misled by Mr. WorldlyWiseman and is brought back onto the right road by Mr.Evangelist. There he joins Faithful, a neighbor who has setout later but has made better progress.The two go on together through many adventures, including the great struggle with Apollyon, who claims them to be his subjects and refuses to accept their allegiance to God. After many other adventures they come to the V anity Fair where both are arrested as alien agitators. They are tried and Faithful' is condemned to death.Christian, however, manages to escape and goes on his way, assisted by a new friend, Hopeful. Tired of the hard journey, they are tempted to take a pleasant path and are then captured by Giant Despair. Finally they get away and reach the Celestial City,where they enjoy eternal life in the fellowship of the blessed.V anity Fair（名利场）The vivid picture of Vanity Fair, where all things are bought and sold（including honors, titles, wisdoms, lusts pleasures and lives）and where cheating and roguery（坏事）and murders and adulteries（通奸）are normal, everyday occurrences, is a biting satire on the English society with which the writer was familiar."The V anity Fair," An Excerpt from Part 1 of The Pilgrim's ProgressThen I saw in my dream, that when they were got out of the wilderness, theyPresently saw a town before them, and the name of that town is V anity; and atthe town there is a fair kept, called V anity Fair; it is kept all the year long; ithearth(1) the name of V anity Fair because the town where it is kept is lighterthan vanity; and also because all that is there sold, or that cometh thither, isvanity. As is the saying of the wise, "All that cometh is vanity".Almost five thousand years ago, there were pilgrims walking tothe Celestial City, as these two honest persons are; and Beelzebub,Apollyon, and Legion, with their companions, perceiving by thepath that the pilgrims made, that their way to the city lay throughthis town of V anity, they contrived to set up a fair; a fair whereinshould be sold all sorts of vanity, and that it should last all the yearlong. Therefore at this fair are all such merchandise sold, as houses,lands, trades, places, honors, preferment, titles, countries, kingdoms,lusts, pleasures, and delights of all sorts, as whores, bawds, wives,husbands, children, masters, servants, lives, blood, bodies, souls,silver, gold, pearls, precious stones, and what not.And, moreover, at this fair there is at all times to be seen juggling,cheats, games, plays, fools, apes, knaves, and rogues, and that ofevery kind. Here are to be seen, too, and that for nothing, thefts,murders, adulteries, false swearers, and that of a blood-red color.Theme1. Describes the spiritual suffera nce of the poor people at a time of great changes, and their aspiration for “the land that flow with milk and honey” .”There you will not see such things as sorrow, sickness, affliction, and death”.2. Pilgrim’s Progress is a biting satire on the Englishsociety with which the writer was familiar. It is not onlyabout something spiritual but also bears much relevance to the time. The objects that Christian meets are homely and commonplace, and the scenes presented are typicalEnglish ones, but throughout the allegory a spiritualsignificance is added to the commonplace details. Here the strange is combined with the familiar and the trivial joined to the divine.3. It reveals Bunyan’s Puritan ideal.Reading comprehensionNow, as I said, the way to the Celestial City lies just through this town where this lusty fair is kept; and he that will go to the city, and yet not go through this town, must needs "go out of the world". The Prince of princes himself, when here, went through this town to his own country, and that upon a fair-day, too, yea, and as I think, it was Beelzebub, the chief lord of this fair, that invited him to buy of his vanities; yea, would have made him lord of the fair, would he but have done him reverence as he went through the town. Y ea, because he was such aman of honor, Beelzebub had him from street to street, and showed him all the kingdoms of the world in a little time, that he might, if possible, allure the Blessed One to cheapen and buy some of his vanities; but he had no mind to the merchandise, and therefore left the town, without laying so much as one farthing upon these vanities. This fair, therefore, is an ancient thing, of long standing, and a very great fair.Where is this passage chosen form?John Bunyan: The Pilgrim’s Progress.Jesus Christ.John Bunyan is talking about vanity, one of the evils of human life. The idea that everybody is potentially vain and vanity is something that the “world” encourages, and that is takes courage and effort to get rid of one of vanity. Even Jesus Christ(the Prince of Princes) was troubled by vanity, but he stood the test and conquered it. Thus Christians should do like Christ ifthey wish to reach the kingdom of God.What is the theme of John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress?John Donne，the founder of the Metaphysical school of poetry.Main works: Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions (shows the intense interest Donne took in the spectacle of mortality under the shadow of death, a vision that haunted him perpetually, and inspired the highest of his eloquence. )The Songs and Sonnets, by which Donne is probably best known, contains most of his early lyrics. Love is the basic theme. Donne holds that the nature of love is the union of soul and body. Donne's interest lies in dramatizing and illustrating the state of being inlove.Donne's chief power as a religious poet is shown in the Holy Sonnets and the last hymns.Death, Be Not ProudDeath, be not proud, though some have called theeMighty and dreadful, for thou art not so;For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrowDie not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me.From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be,Much pleasure; then from thee much more must flow,And soonest our best men with thee do go,Rest of their bones, and soul's delivery.Thou art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men,And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell,And poppy or charms can make us sleep as wellAnd better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then?One short sleep past, we wake eternallyAnd death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die.Reading comprehensionOne short sleep past, we wake eternallyAnd death shall be no more; thou shalt dieQuestions:1.Identify the poet and the poem.2.What does the phrase “one short sleep” mean?3.What idea does these two lines express?Answers:1.It is taken from John Donne’s Death, Be Not Proud.2.It means death.3.It means that shortly after we die we will wake up (as from sleep) and live eternally. It reveals the poet’s beli ef in life after death: death is but momentary while happiness after death is eternal.Other MetaphysicalsGeorge Herbert, “the saint of the Metaphysical school.” was a devout Anglican clergyman who believed that a poet should sing the glory of God. He describes his joys, fears and doubts in a symbolic way. Many of his poems overloaded with far-fetched conceits, too obscure to be appreciated. (The Altar) Andrew Marvell, another Metaphysical poet, was a puritan who served as Milton’s assistant in the Commonwealth. He wrote poems on nature. (To His Coy Mistress)To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time by Robert HerrickGather ye rosebuds while ye may,Old Time is still a-flying:And this same flower that smiles to-dayTo-morrow will be dying.The glorious lamp of heaven, the sun,The higher he's a-getting,The sooner will his race be run,And nearer he's to setting.That age is best which is the first,When youth and blood are warmer;But being spent, the worse, and worstTimes still succeed the former.Then be not coy, but use your time,And while ye may, go marry:For having lost but once your prime,Y ou may for ever tarry.Some Prose-WritersThe seventeenth century was a period of revolution and restoration. Much of the prose was devoted to political and religious controversies. Nevertheless, besides Milton and other militant pamphleteers, there are still some other prose writers who reflected their age from different angles and whose works carry quite different message with them.Robert BurtonHis masterpiec e “The Anatomy of Melancholy” . Nominally, it claims to offer the definition, symptoms, causes, properties and cure of melancholy, that is, human disorder, especially love melancholy and religious melancholy.But in reality the book is an enormous collection of detached essays on the whole life and thought of man, and on man’s dissatisfaction with the world and the ways to mitigate it, illustrated with the best stories in the world. Other Prose-Writers Thomas BrowneReligio Medici (a collection of opinions on a vast number of opinions on a vast number of subjects more and less connectedwith religion, expressed from a distinctly personal viewpoint ) Jeremy TaylorHe is famous for his Holy Living and Holy dying, Both written to help the Anglican royalists during the reign of the Commonwealth.Holy Living offers rules of conduct for the Royalists under the difficulties of the age. Holy Dying warns that human life is short and it is necessary to begin preparing for death while still healthy.Thomas Browne and Jeremy Taylor have been called two representative baroque prose writers in English literature for their elaborate and magnificent style.Baroque literature: It is the transition from Renaissanceto classicism.It began in Italy, Spain and flourished in France and thenEngland. It has direct influence on 19th romanticistliterature.It is called in 18th-century as “Rococo Style”, the style of painting, writing and decoration characterized by lightness, delicacy, and elaborate ornamentation.Exercise One I. Name the Writers by the given passages. (10%) ( ) 1. What man art thou,quoth he, That lookest as thou wouldst find a hare; For ever on the ground I see thee stare.( ) 2. Here where nothing is private, the common affairs be earnestly looked upon...?There where all things be common to every man, It is not to be doubted that any an shall lack anything necessary for his private use, so ?that ?the ?common ?storehouses bars be sufficiently stored ( ) 3. ...What though the field be lost? All is not lost; the unconquerable will And study of revenge, immortal hate, And courage never to submit or yield...( ) 5. It sucked me first, and now sucks thee, And in this flea, our two bloods mingled be; This flea is you & I,& this Our marriage-bed, marriage temple is.II.True & False statement. (20%)( ) 1. Chancer's contribution to English poetry lies chiefly in the fact he introduced from France the rhymed stanza in Iambic meter to English poetry.( ) 2. Hamlet,the great tragedy of Shakespear, with perfect artistry, studys the big question "to be or no to be.“( ) 3. Bacon was the founder of modern science & also famous for his "essays."( ) 4. Milton's Areopagistica is a pamphlet about religious abuse.( ) 5. University wits contribute a lot in prose writing as well as drama writing.( ) 6. Romance is a typical kind of noble literature & has nothing to do with common people.( ) 7. Sperser's "Faerie Queene", Sidney's "Astrophel & Stella "& Shakespeare's?"Sonnets" are the most famous sonnet sequences of Elizabethan Age.( ) 8.Blank verse is the most popular literary form in 11th-14th century.( ) 9. Marlowe was the greatest pioneer of English drama & it was Marlowe ?who ?first made blank verse the principal instrument of English drama.( ) 10.The eighteenth century is an enlightenment century that most of the writers show great interest on reasoning, rationality & classicism (Neo-classicism)Representatives of the Restoration1. Sir George Etherege乔治·埃恩里奇爵士The man of Mode《时髦男子》2. William Wycherley 威廉·威彻利Love in a Wood《林中之爱》The Country Wife《乡村妇女》The Plain Dealer《坦率的人》Representatives of the Restoration3.Sir John Vanbrugh约翰·范布勒爵士The Relapse, or Virtue in Danger 《故态复萌》The Provoked Wife《恼怒的妻子》4. William Congreve威廉·康格里夫The Double Dealer《两面派》Love for Love 《以爱还爱》The Way of the World 《如此世道》Representatives of the Restoration5. Jeremy Collier杰雷米·科利尔, a non-conformist(非国教的) clergymanA Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage《略论英国舞台上的不道德和亵渎》现代语言学一绪论1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology" : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemesare arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and "ish"---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,"John like linguistics."6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried." The seal could not be found,The king became worried." Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, "I do" The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don't.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent aphoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest}三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed bytransformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called M ove а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation betweena more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed b y structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consistsof the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning。

Figurative LanguageFigurative language uses "figures of speech" - a way of saying something other than the literal meaning of the words. For example, "All the world's a stage" Frost often referred to them simply as "figures." Frost said, "Every poem I write is figurative in two senses. It will have figures in it, of course; but it's also a figure in itself - a figure for something, and it's made so that you can get more than one figure out of it." Cook Voices p235Metaphor A figure of speech in which a comparison is made between two things essentially unalike. To Frost, metaphor is really what poetry is all about. He is notably a poet of metaphors more than anything else. This is so important, we should hear directly from the poet. Frost said," Poetry begins in trivial metaphors, pretty metaphors, 'grace metaphors,' and goes on to the profoundest thinking that we have. Poetry provides the one permissible way of saying one thing and meaning another. People say, 'Why don't you say what you mean?' We never do that, do we, being all of us too much poets. We like to talk in parables and in hints and in indirections - whether from diffidence or from some other instinct". ... Excerpt from an essay entitled "Education by Poetry" by Robert Frost.Examples:The Silken Tent. A woman is admired for her strength and beauty, like a silken tent. Note the strength of the silk and cedar.Putting in the Seed. The planting of seed in the garden, in springtime is like making love.Devotion. The passive but ever-changing shore and the persistent energetic ocean are like a devoted couple.To Earthward. The stages of love are like stepping stones to death.All Revelation. A view of a geode crystal is like the mind probing the universe. Simile A figure of speech in which a comparison is expressed by the specific use of a word or phrase such as: like, as, than, seems or Frost's favorite "as if,"Examples:Mending Wall: like an old-stone savage armedStars: like some snow-white/ Minerva's snow-white marble eyesGoing for Water: We ran as if to meet the moon ---- we paused / like gnomes Birches: Like girls on hands and knees that throw their hairHyla Brook: Like ghost of sleigh bellsSymbol A thing (could be an object, person, situation or action) which stands for something else more abstract. For example our flag is the symbol of our country. The use of symbols in Frost's poetry is less obvious. Frost was not known as a Symbolist. Actually, the Symbolists were a late 19th century movement reacting against realism. Frost rebelled against this movement and preferred to use metaphors. There are certain signature images that become symbols when we look at Frost's complete work.Flowers, stars, dark woods and spring (the water kind) are consistent symbols in Frost's poetry and should be noted here. As with many other poetic devices, Frost had his own way of keeping the rule and breaking the rule.Frost said, "If my poetry has to have a name, I'd prefer to call it Emblemism," not "Symbolism," which is all too likely to clog up and kill a poem." Burnshaw p283 Examples:The Road Not Taken: the forked road represents choices in life. The road in this poem is a text book example of a symbol.Rose Pogonias: Early in Frost's poetry, flowers become a symbol for the beloved, his wife Elinor.Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening: even though there is no one overt symbol in the poem, the entire journey can represent life's journey. "Dark woods" also become a powerful recurring symbol in Frost.The Pasture and Directive. Spring (as in water spring) is very meaningful in Frost's poetry. Spring represents origin or source, almost in a Proustian sense. Other variations include "brook" Hyla Brook and West-Running Brook. Water often deals with an emotional state.Come In: "But no, I was out for stars." The star is one of the chief symbolic images in Frost's poetry.Personification A type of metaphor in which distinct human qualities, e.g., honesty, emotion, volition, etc., are attributed to an animal, object or idea.Examples:My November Guest: the guest is Sorrow, personified as a woman dearly loved who walks with him.Mowing: the scythe whispersRange-Finding: the spider sullenly withdrawsTree at my Window: the tree watches him sleep; it has tongues talking aloudStorm Fear: the wind works and whispers, the cold creeps, the whole storm is personified (Table)Apostrophe 【修辞学】顿呼法〔叙述中忽然对不在场的第三者所发出的直接呼语；或对无生命物发出呼唤A figure of speech in which someone absent or dead OR something nonhuman is addressed as if it were alive and present.Examples:Take Something Like a Star: the poem begins, "O Star," He addresses the star throughout the poem.Tree at my Window: He addresses the tree throughout: "Tree at my window, window tree."Mending Wall: speaking to the stones that make up the barrier, he says, "Stay where you are until our backs are turned!"Synecdoche 提喻法；举隅法〔以局部代表全部和以全部喻指部分，例如用roof表示整个house, 用the army表示某一个soldier〕。

figurative language 分类：
Figurative language 可以分为以下几类：
1.隐喻（Metaphor）：隐喻是一种比较直接的比喻方式，它使用一个事物来描述另一
个事物，通常是为了表达比喻对象的某些特征或品质。

例如，“人生如戏”就是一个隐喻。

2.拟人（Personification）：拟人是指将非人类的事物赋予人类的特点或行为，使它们
看起来更加生动和富有情感。

例如，“阳光在微笑”就是一个拟人句。

3.夸张（Hyperbole）：夸张是指使用言过其实的词语来强调某种效果，使得描述更加
强烈、突出。

例如，“他兴奋得几乎要跳到天上去了。

”
4.反讽（Irony）：反讽是指使用与实际意思相反的词语来表达意思，通常是为了讽刺
或强调某件事情。

例如，“这房间真是太漂亮了，简直就是人间仙境。

”
5.明喻（Simile）：明喻是指使用“像”、“如同”等词语来比较两个不同的事物，以强调
它们的相似之处。

例如，“她的笑容像阳光一样温暖。

”
6.象征（Symbolism）：象征是指使用某个事物来代表另一个事物，通常是为了表达某
种抽象的概念或情感。

例如，“鸽子象征和平。

”。

figurative language的举例
“figurative language”是指用来传递比喻、比较、意象等非字面意义的语言形式。

以下是一些常见的figurative language的举例：
1. 比喻（Metaphor）：
- 她是我的太阳。

(意思是她对我来说像太阳一样重要)
- 他的笑容是一朵盛开的玫瑰。

(意思是他的笑容如同美丽的玫瑰花)
2. 暗示（Irony）：
- 这个好笑的事情发生在一个笑话家身上。

(意思是一个专业制造笑声的人却碰到了令人哭笑不得的事情)
3. 象征（Symbolism）：
- 那片麦田象征着自由。

(意思是麦田代表着人们寻求自由的愿望)
4. 比喻（Simile）：
- 他跑得像一只被追的兔子。

(意思是他跑得非常快，就像被追赶时的兔子一样)
5. 拟人（Personification）：
- 夜晚低声私语。

(意思是夜晚让人感觉像是在说话一样)
6. 排比（Parallelism）：
- 我闻到了花香、听到了鸟鸣、感受到了和煦阳光。

(意思是三个动作被并列用于描述对自然环境的感知)
7. 暗示（Sarcasm）：
- 哦，你真是个天才！(语言的字面意思是赞扬，但实际上是讽刺或嘲笑)
这些例子展示了figurative language在修辞手法中的不同应用方式，通过比喻、象征、暗示等手法，使语言更具有表达力和形象感。

作文修辞点评的万能句子摘抄英文回答：Figurative Language Analysis.Figurative language is a powerful tool that writers use to create vivid images, evoke emotions, and convey complex ideas. When analyzing figurative language, consider the following:Identify the type of figurative language. Is it a simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole, or another device?Determine the meaning behind the figurative language. What does the comparison or exaggeration reveal about the subject?Analyze the effect of the figurative language. How does it contribute to the overall tone, mood, or theme ofthe piece?Consider the context of the figurative language. How does it relate to the surrounding text and the author's purpose?Evaluate the effectiveness of the figurative language. Does it enhance the reader's understanding and appreciation of the text?中文回答：作文修辞点评万能句摘抄。

2025届上海市徐汇区上海中学高三第一次调研测试英语试卷注意事项:1．答题前，考生先将自己的姓名、准考证号码填写清楚，将条形码准确粘贴在条形码区域内。

2．答题时请按要求用笔。

3．请按照题号顺序在答题卡各题目的答题区域内作答，超出答题区域书写的答案无效；在草稿纸、试卷上答题无效。

4．作图可先使用铅笔画出，确定后必须用黑色字迹的签字笔描黑。

5．保持卡面清洁，不要折暴、不要弄破、弄皱，不准使用涂改液、修正带、刮纸刀。

第一部分（共20小题，每小题1.5分，满分30分）1．With the nuc lear crisis worsening in Iran, the world’s attention is fixed again on ________is called the Middle East. A．which B．what C．that D．it2．Though lacking the necessary working experience, my cousin got the job ______ her confidence and flexibility.A．in terms of B．in response toC．by virtue of D．with respect to3．What is your main reason for choosing one restaurant another?A．over B．ofC．from D．for4．Wild animals in nature reserves need to develop their survival skills and their wild nature.A．display B．possessC．maintain D．monitor5．—Ted has never been so rude!—He ______something he shouldn’t have, but I guess he didn’t mean that.A．has said B．had saidC．said D．was saying6．---Hi, Johnson, any idea where Susan is?---It is class time, so she __________ in the classroom now.A．can be B．must have beenC．might have been D．should be7．As you can see, the number of cars on our roads ________ rising these days.A．was keeping B．keepC．keeps D．were keeping8．I ____ about w hat you’ve said and I’ve decided to take your advice.A．thought B．have been thinkingC．was thinking D．had thought9．一Which T—shirt do you like best?一．They are both out of fashion and expensive．A．None B．Neither C．Any D．Both10．—Only those who have a lot in common can get along well.—_________. Opposites sometimes do attract.A．I hope not B．I think soC．I appreciate that D．I beg to differ11．The Japanese people keep up cheerful spirits ________ the world that they can get over the crisis caused by the terrible tsunami（海啸）.A．being convinced B．convinced C．to convince D．having convinced12．I’m not quite sure how to get there, ---------- I’d better _____ a map.A．watch B．look up C．consult D．read13．Little about her own safety, though she was in great danger herself.A．did Rose care B．Rose did careC．Rose does care D．does Rose care14．Nature is understandable in the sense ______ she will answer truly and reward with discoveries when we ask her questions via observation.A．that B．whereC．how D．what15．Mary seems ________ the bad news, for she looks nice and happy.A．not to have learned B．not to be hearingC．not having learned D．not to be heard16．---How did she lose so much weight as expected？----_____________ eating less，she jogged for several miles every day.A．In addition to B．In spite ofC．Instead of D．Thanks to17．I think that this is the best mobile phone available in the world. No other one can ________it.A．compare B．match C．produce D．win18．They carry out ________ checks on milk products to make sure that they are of high quality.A．common B．naturalC．ordinary D．regular19．______ you are supposed to do ______ you don't like a thing is ______ it. Don'tcomplain.A．That; what; change B．When; that; to changeC．What; when; change D．What; that; changing20．We came to the station ________ all the way, only ________ the train had just left.A．running, told B．to run, tellingC．to run, to be told D．running, to be told第二部分阅读理解（满分40分）阅读下列短文，从每题所给的A、B、C、D四个选项中，选出最佳选项。

figurative language的举例Figurative language is a literary technique used to enhance and add depth to writing. It involves using words and phrases in a non-literal sense to create vivid imagery, evoke strong emotions, and convey complex ideas. This helps to engage readers and make the text more memorable. Below are examples of various types of figurative language:1. Simile: A simile compares two things using "like" or "as."- The moon shone as bright as a diamond in the night sky.- Her smile was like a ray of sunshine on a cloudy day.2. Metaphor: A metaphor compares two things by stating that one thing is another.- The world is a stage.- His heart was a stone, cold and unfeeling.3. Personification: Personification gives human traits to inanimate objects or abstract ideas.- The wind whispered secrets through the trees.- The waves danced on the shore, beckoning us to join.4. Hyperbole: Hyperbole uses exaggeration for emphasis or dramatic effect.- I've told you a million times to clean your room!- My backpack weighs a ton!5. Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.- Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.- The furious flame flickered fiercely.6. Onomatopoeia: Onomatopoeia is when words imitate the sounds they describe.- The buzzing bees flew around the blooming flowers.- The sizzling bacon filled the kitchen with its tantalizing aroma.7. Symbolism: Symbolism uses objects, characters, or actions to represent deeper meanings.- The rose symbolizes love and romance.- A dove is often seen as a symbol of peace.8. Irony: Irony is the use of words to express the opposite of their literal meaning or an outcome contrary to what is expected.- The fire station burned down.- The traffic cop got a speeding ticket.9. Oxymoron: Oxymoron combines two contradictory terms for a unique effect.- Jumbo shrimp- Bittersweet10. Imagery: Imagery uses vivid language to create mental pictures and stimulate the senses.- The golden rays of the setting sun bathed the field in a warm glow.- The pungent smell of fresh coffee filled the air, awakening my senses.11. Allusion: Allusion refers to a well-known person, place, event, or literary work to add depth and meaning.- He was a real Romeo with the ladies.- Don't be a Scrooge; share your blessings.12. Repetition: Repetition repeats certain words or phrases for emphasis or to create a specific rhythm.- I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up... I have a dream.- Let it snow, let it snow, let it snow!13. Euphemism: Euphemism uses milder, more positive words to replace harsh or negative ones.- He passed away instead of saying he died.- She's in a better place instead of saying she's dead.14. Synecdoche: Synecdoche uses a part of something to represent the whole or vice versa.- The word "bread" can be used to represent food in general.- The phrase "all hands on deck" refers to all the crew members, not just their hands.15. Idiom: An idiom is a phrase that has a different meaning from its literal interpretation.- It's raining cats and dogs.- Break a leg!Figurative language allows writers to breathe life into their words and helps readers connect with the text on a deeper level. By using these examples, writers can create more engaging and impactful stories, poetry, and overall literature.。

英语语言学常见名词解释英语语言学常见名词解释1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like ―book‖) and the object it refers to. This e_plains and is e_plained by the fact that different languages have different ―books‖: ―book‖ inEnglish, ―livre‖ in French, ―shu‖ in Chi nese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than w ritten. The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2. What are design features of language?“Design features‖ here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability3. What is arbitrariness?By ―arbitrariness‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association,if we think of echo words, like ―bang‖, ―crash‖, ―roar‖, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. ―Type‖ and ―write‖ are opaque or unmotivated words, while ―type-writer‖ is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we cansay ―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.4. What is duality?Linguists refer ―duality‖ (of struct ure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality.5. What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‘s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon‖, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the languag e, thus also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (by N.Chomsky).6.What is displacement?“Displacement‖, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for e_ample, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that e_ists now and there. It couldn‘t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee‘s system, nonetheless, has a small shareof ―displacement‖, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‘s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf ‘s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He lear ned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.8. What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer anda receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is se_ differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are) ―speaking‖ and which listening.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has si_ ―design features‖ which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice a nd Alan Gardner. She was taught ―American sign Language‖, and learned a little that made the teachers happy butdid mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so.10. What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, e_pressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool bywhich people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K. Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizesthree ―Macro-Functions‖: ideational, interpersonal and te_tual.11. What is the phatic function?The ―phatic function‖ refers to languag e being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than fore_changing information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic lan guage (e.g. ―How are you?‖ ―Fine, thanks.‖) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don’tsay ―Hello‖ to a friend you meet, or if you don‘t answer his ―Hi‖, you ruin your friendship.12. What is the directive function?The ―directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., ―Tell me the result when you finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle‘s ―Indirect speech act theory‖ at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖ 13. What is the informative function?Language ser ves an ―informational function‖ when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P. Grice‘s ―Cooperative Principle‖, one ought not to violate the ―Ma_im o f Quality‖, when he is informing at all.14. What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an ―interrogative fun ction‖. This includes all questio ns that e_pect replies, statements,imperatives etc., according to the ―indirect speech act theory‖, may have this function as well, e.g., ―I‘d like to know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an e_ception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader ‘s/listener‘s answer.15. What is the e_pressive function?The ―e_pressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations ar e good e_amples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good e_amples too,though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the e_pressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‘s own attitudes.16. What is the evocative function?The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for e_ample, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the e_pressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may e_press, for e_ample, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‘s also the case with the other way round.17. What is the performative function?This means people speak to ―do things‖ or perform act ions. On certainoccasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge‘s imprisonment sentence, the president‘s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives.18. What is linguistics?“Linguistics‖ is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.19. What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: e_haustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. E_haustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate e_planation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no li nguistic ―stone‖ unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it ispossible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective,matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.20. What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, synta_, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled ―On the Use of THE‖, for e_ample, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.22. What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it e_isted long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carriedthrough space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional, while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.23. What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is ―descriptive‖ if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and ―prescriptive‖ if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguisti c studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars w ere based on ―high‖ (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be e_plained also.24. What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussur e refers ―langue‖ to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers ―parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitablefor systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The。